Zoos and public health: A partnership on the One Health frontier

Zoos as Sentinels? A Meta-Analysis of Seroprevalence of Terrestrial Mammalian Viruses in Zoos

The One Health framework links animal, human, and environmental health, and focuses on emerging zoonotic pathogens. Understanding the interface between wildlife and human activity is critical due to the unpredictable nature of spillover of zoonotic pathogens from animals to humans. Zoos are important partners in One Health because of their contributions to education, conservation, and animal health monitoring. In addition, the housing of wildlife in captive and semi-natural settings makes zoos, especially relevant for detecting animal-related pathogens. A first step to determine the utility of zoos in contributing to pathogen surveillance is to survey the peer-reviewed literature. We, therefore, retrieved data from the previous 20 years and performed a meta-analysis to determine global patterns of viral seroprevalence in mammals housed in zoo collections from peer-reviewed literature. We analysed 50 articles, representing a total of 11,300 terrestrial mammals. Increased prevalence was found in viruses strictly targeting specific host taxonomy, especially in viruses transmitted through direct contact. Potentially complex patterns with geography were also identified, despite uneven sampling. This research highlights the role zoos could play in public health and encourages future standardized epidemiological surveillance of zoological collections.

Bovine tuberculosis in India: The need for One Health approach and the way forward

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is a chronic granulomatous infectious illness in cattle. The etiological agent of bTB is Mycobacterium bovis. However, other members belonging to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, like M. tuberculosis, M. africanum, M. caprae, M. orygis, and M. microti are known to cause bTB in cattle. There are 303.76 million bovines in India, and it is the largest producer of milk and the second largest producer of meat worldwide. The prevalence of bTB among farm and dairy cattle in India is estimated to be around 7.3%, which makes it a country with one of the largest infected herds in the world. While bTB control programs have had considerable success in reducing the prevalence of the disease in many developed countries, they have yet to be formulated or implemented in India. Bovine TB also has a zoonotic and reverse component, which means that the disease can spread from cattle to human and from human to cattle. In a country like India, which contributes to nearly one-fourth of the global TB burden, the zoonotic aspect must be addressed so that the disease can be curbed. While cattle are the primary reservoir host to bTB, animals like goats, deer, bison, pigs, dogs, badgers, possums, and primates are also susceptible to the disease. This review talks about the burden of bTB in India and the necessity of One Health approach to combat the disease.

Monitoring of hepatitis E virus in zoo animals from Spain, 2007-2021

Hepatitis E virus (HEV, family Hepeviridae) is an important emerging and zoonotic pathogen. In recent decades, the number of human cases of zoonotic hepatitis E has increased considerably in industrialized countries and HEV has been detected in an expanding range of mammal species. Although domestic pigs and wild boar are considered the main reservoirs of zoonotic HEV genotypes, the role of other susceptible animals in the epidemiology of the virus is still poorly understood. A large-scale, long-term study was carried out (1) to assess HEV exposure in captive zoo animals in Spain and (2) to determine the dynamics of seropositivity in individuals that were sampled longitudinally during the study period. Between 2007 and 2021, serum samples from 425 zoo animals belonging to 109 animal species (including artiodactyls, carnivores, perissodactyls, proboscideans and rodents) were collected from 11 different zoological parks in Spain. Forty-six of these animals at seven of these zoos were also longitudinally sampled. Anti-HEV antibodies were detected in 36 (8.5%; 95% CI: 5.8-11.1) of 425 sampled zoo animals. Specific antibodies against HEV-3 and HEV-C1 antigens were confirmed in ELISA-positive animals using western blot assay. Two of 46 longitudinally surveyed animals seroconverted during the study period. Seropositivity was significantly higher in carnivores and perissodactyls than in artiodactyls, and also during the period 2012-2016 compared with 2007-2011. HEV RNA was not detected in any of the 262 animals that could be tested by RT-PCR. To the best of the author's knowledge, this is the first large-scale, long-term surveillance on HEV in different orders of zoo mammals. Our results indicate exposure to HEV-3 and HEV-C1 in zoo animals in Spain and confirm a widespread but not homogeneous spatiotemporal circulation of HEV in captive species in this country. Further studies are required to determine the role of zoo species, particularly carnivores and perissodactyls, in the epidemiology of HEV and to clarify the origins of infection in zoological parks.

Expanding the role of the future zoo: Wellbeing should become the fifth aim for modern zoos

Zoos and aquariums have an enormous global reach and hence an ability to craft meaningful conservation action for threatened species, implement educational strategies to encourage human engagement, development and behavior change, and conduct scientific research to enhance the husbandry, roles and impacts of the living collection. The recreational role of the zoo is also vast- people enjoy visiting the zoo and this is often a shared experience amongst family and friends. Evaluating how the zoo influences this "captive audience" and extending its reach to include a compassionate approach to animals and people can further enhance the mission, value, and relevance of their work. The modern zoo's current aims-Conservation, Education, Research and Recreation-provide useful foundations for the activities that zoos conduct at a local and national level. However, to improve sustainability of their actions and outcomes, we feel that Wellbeing should become the fifth aim of the modern zoo for the future- both from an animal perspective (ensuring that populations are managed according to prevailing behavioral needs) and from a human perspective (enhancing access to nature, promoting planetary friendly behavior changes and ways of living, and advancing the wellbeing of the zoo's workforce). This paper provides discussion and review of how Wellbeing is already a substantial part of what zoos work on as well as posing the idea of altering the Recreation aim of the zoo to one of Engagement, which potentially is more measurable and therefore can allow zoo researchers and managers further options for the collection of evidence on the local and global reach of their zoo's aims. Education, Engagement, Conservation, Research and Wellbeing provide a more complete picture of the roles of the modern zoo for the animals (both in situ and ex situ), human visitors and workforce, and to society more widely.

Evaluation of safety and anti-obesity effects of DWP16001 in naturally obese dogs

Background

The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-obesity effects of DWP16001, a sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2 inhibitor), in naturally obese dogs. A total of 20 dogs were divided into four equal groups: one obese control (OC group), and three treated groups; DWP0.2 group, DWP0.5 group, and DWP1 group. OC group fed with food for maintenance and treated groups were fed with food for maintenance with 0.2 mg/kg DWP16001, 0.5 mg/kg DWP16001 and 1 mg/kg DWP16001, respectively. The food for maintenance was provided to dogs as 2 RER (Resting energy requirement) in kcal and DWP16001-supplemented food was administered once a day for 8 weeks.

Results

Body condition score, body weight, and fat thickness were significantly reduced (P < 0.05) in the DWP0.2 group compared with the OC group, respectively without affecting the food consumption. At the 10^th week the food consumption rate was 101.35 ± 2.56, 166.59 ± 4.72, 98.47 ± 1.44 and 123.15 ± 2.45% compared with initial food consumption rate. Body fat percentage, chest and waist circumference, blood glucose, and insulin were reduced compared to OC group but not significantly different from those of the OC group during experimental period. Serum alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, creatine phosphokinase, and creatinine were significantly reduced in DWP0.2 group on 8 weeks. Serum cholesterol and triglycerides were reduced but not significantly. No specific adverse effects were observed throughout the experiment, and hematological parameters were unchanged. The results indicate that DWP16001 was not harmful to the dogs in our study and might have anti-obesity effects in naturally obese dogs.

Conclusions

The above results and discussion suggest that DWP16001 is safe and might have anti-obesity effects in naturally obese dogs.

Staff perceptions of COVID-19 impacts on wildlife conservation at a zoological institution

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has impacted virtually all aspects of a global society. By using a transdisciplinary team and methodology, our study highlights the importance of utilizing a One Health approach to address global health and conservation challenges in tandem. We examined how conservation conducted by an accredited zoological institution was altered by the pandemic. In July 2020, we surveyed a select subset of Saint Louis Zoo employees to understand how these staff members perceived their conservation work to be affected during this time. Additionally, in November and December 2020, seven survey respondents were interviewed virtually for qualitative data. Our hypothesis was that lack of funding, reduced ability to travel, and shifting priorities among conservation professionals, as well as their respective institutions, would be significant barriers to conservation efforts. Our survey results revealed that the top three perceived challenges to conservation projects at the Saint Louis Zoo due to the COVID-19 pandemic were lack of funding (83.9%), reductions in Zoo visitors (56.3%), and inability/lack of ability to access field sites and laboratories (55.2%). Respondents also indicated that the top three most important Zoo conservation activities before the COVID-19 pandemic were (1) local/national/global wildlife management and recovery programs, (tie 2) caring for animals in the Zoo's collection, and (tie 2) genetic breeding programs. At least half of respondents indicated that the pandemic had significantly or slightly decreased the ability of staff to perform all three activities. Results supported our hypothesis that reduced funding, limited travel, and shifting priorities were challenges to zoological conservation at this institution. Although travel restrictions will likely persist, continual funding will be critical for maintaining conservation. Our results also indicate that reductions in Zoo visitors were another perceived barrier to conservation and that staff needed to find novel ways to connect with the public. Results from this study may help zoos and aquariums better understand the unique pandemic-associated challenges that threaten conservation at their institutions and may be helpful in designing programs and projects in a post-pandemic world.

Zooscape ecology: a conceptual analysis of zoos and landscape ecology

CONTEXT

Zoos are a unique landscape with fascinating connections to the principles of landscape ecology. These 'zooscapes' have a focus on managing wild species.

OBJECTIVES

This article examines the multiple scales of zoos as urban green spaces, exhibit landscapes, and resources for resilience. I identify that landscape ecology can inform zoo evolution and note how zoos may provide a novel research site for landscape ecology.

METHODS

I provide a brief history of American zoos and insight into lingering questions within zoos, including their representations of animals and humans. Additionally, I note conceptual overlap between zoo design/function and landscape ecology literature.

RESULTS

Zoos provide habitat for native species and valued cultural ecosystem services. Zoo exhibits developed a landscape focus as modern landscape ecology emerged in the 1980s. Patches, corridors, and matrices exist within a zoo, and these facilities have value for the genetic support of fragmented populations. Zoos' strategies for disease management are increasingly relevant for global health. Simultaneously, zoos must exhibit sustainable landscapes, not just ecological simulacrums for threatened species.

CONCLUSIONS

Zoos must promote humanity's continued coexistence with other species. A landscape view is essential to achieving this goal. Zoos need to model sustainable landscapes of our present and future.

Zoonotic Risk of Encephalitozoon cuniculi in Animal-Assisted Interventions: Laboratory Strategies for the Diagnosis of Infections in Humans and Animals

The involvement of animals for therapeutic purposes has very ancient roots. To date, it is clear that animal-assisted interventions (AAIs), in addition to ensuring the replacement of missing or deficient affects, improves psychophysiological parameters connected to human health. However, AAI could potentially present risks related to the transmission of infectious agents from animals to humans. Among these microorganisms, E. cuniculi is a microspore which induces pathological effects (fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, breathlessness, respiratory symptoms, and weakness) in both humans and animals. Consequently, an accurate and fast diagnosis of E. cuniculi infection, as well as the identification of new diagnostic approaches, is of fundamental importance. This literature review was carried out to provide an extensive and comprehensive analysis of the most recent diagnostic techniques to prevent and care for E. cuniculi-associated risks in the AAI field.

Monitoring of bluetongue virus in zoo animals in Spain, 2007-2019

Bluetongue (BT) is an emerging and re-emerging communicable vector-borne disease of animal health concern. A serosurvey was performed to assess exposure to BT virus (BTV) in zoo animals in Spain and to determine the dynamics of seropositivity in longitudinally sampled individuals during the study period. Serum samples were collected from 241 zoo animals belonging to 71 different species in five urban zoos (A-E) in Spain between 2007 and 2019. Twenty-four of these animals were longitudinally surveyed at three of the sampled zoos (zoos B, C and E) during the study period. Anti-BTV antibodies were found in 46 (19.1%; 95% CI: 14.1-24.1) of the 241 captive animals analysed by commercial ELISA. A virus neutralization test confirmed specific antibodies against BTV-1 and BTV-4 in 25 (10.7%; 95% CI: 6.7-14.6) and five (3.0%; 95% CI: 0.3-4.0) animals, respectively. Two of the 24 longitudinally sampled individuals (one African elephant (Loxodanta africana) and one aoudad (Ammotragus lervia)) showed anti-BTV antibodies at all samplings, whereas seroconversions were detected in one mouflon (Ovis aries musimon) in 2016, and one Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in 2019. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first large-scale survey on BTV conducted in both artiodactyl and non-artiodactyl zoo species worldwide. The results confirm BTV exposure in urban zoo parks in Spain, which could be of animal health and conservation concern. Circulation of BTV was detected in yearling animals in years when there were no reports of BTV outbreaks in livestock. Surveillance in artiodactyl and non-artiodactyl zoo species could be a valuable tool for epidemiological monitoring of BTV.

Insight into One Health Approach: Endoparasite Infections in Captive Wildlife in Bangladesh

Introduction: Endoparasites in captive wildlife might pose a threat to public health; however, very few studies have been conducted on this issue, and much remains to be learned, especially in limited-resource settings. This study aimed to investigate endoparasites of captive wildlife in Bangladesh. Perception and understanding of veterinarians regarding one health and zoonoses were also assessed. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted from October 2019 to August 2020. A total of 45 fecal samples from 18 different species of wild animals (i.e., 11 species of mammals: herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores, six birds, and a single reptile species) were collected randomly. Parasitological assessments were done by modified formalin ether sedimentation technique and rechecked by Sheather's sugar floatation technique. Molecular identification of Spirometra spp. was conducted by amplifying the cytochrome c oxidase 1 (cox1) gene. Questionnaire surveys among 15 veterinarians and an in-depth interview (IDI) with a zoo officer were conducted. Results: Helminths (Spirometra sp., Capillaria sp., Ascaridia/Heterakis, opisthorchiid, strongyles, acuariid, hookworms, roundworms, and unidentified nematode larvae) and protozoa (coccidian oocyst) were identified, and the overall prevalence was 48.9% (22/45). The cox1 sequences (341 bp) of the Bangladesh-origin Spirometra species from lion showed 99.3-99.7% similarity to the reference sequences of Spirometra decipiens (GenBank No: KJ599679.1; MT122766). The majority of study participants (86.6%) agreed about the importance of endoparasite control in zoo animals, and 73.3% expressed that the one health concept should be promoted in Bangladesh. Only 6.7% of veterinarians perceived confidence in diagnosing parasitic diseases and preventing antiparasiticidal resistance. Conclusions: In the present survey, we found a considerable prevalence of endoparasites in captive wildlife. For the first time, zoonotically important S. decipiens from lion was molecularly characterized in Bangladesh. Veterinarian training is required to improve parasite control knowledge and practice. This study highlights the need for routine parasitological assessment, promotion of one health, and improvement of the implementation of current parasite control strategies in zoo animals.

Zoo animals as sentinels for Schmallenberg virus monitoring in Spain

Schmallenberg virus (SBV) is a newly emerged vector-borne pathogen that affects many domestic and wild animal species. A serosurvey was carried out to assess SBV exposure in zoo animals in Spain and to determine the dynamics of seropositivity in longitudinally sampled individuals. Between 2002 and 2019, sera from 278 animals belonging to 73 different species were collected from five zoos (A-E). Thirty-one of these animals were longitudinally sampled at three of these zoo parks during the study period. Seropositivity was detected in 28 (10.1 %) of 278 animals analyzed by blocking ELISA. Specific anti-SBV antibodies were confirmed in 20 (7.2 %; 95 %CI: 4.2-10.3) animals of six different species using virus neutralization test (VNT). The multiple logistic regression model showed that "order" (Artiodactyla) and "zoo provenance" (zoo B; southern Spain) were risk factors potentially associated with SBV exposure. Two (8.7 %) of the 31 longitudinally-sampled individuals showed specific antibodies against SBV at all samplings whereas seroconversion was detected in one mouflon (Ovis aries musimon) and one Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in 2016 and 2019, respectively. To the best of the author's knowledge, this is the first surveillance conducted on SBV in zoos in Spain. The results confirm SBV exposure in zoo animals in this country and indicate circulation of the virus before the first Schmallenberg disease outbreak was reported in Spain. Surveillance in zoological parks could be a complementary approach to monitoring SBV activity. Further studies are warranted to assess the impact of this virus on the health status of susceptible zoo animals.

Conservation medicine and One Health in zoos: Scope, obstacles, and unrecognized potential

Zoo veterinarians and allied professionals have been contributing to conservation medicine (CM) and One Health (OH) activities for more than two decades. Although the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) considers conservation a key part of its mission, little published material exists about the extent of AZA work in CM/OH or the challenges and opportunities associated with these endeavors. To better understand the current scope of CM/OH in zoos, we surveyed 53 AZA-accredited institutions from April through October of 2016. We obtained information on CM/OH infrastructure, support for expansion in this area, and strategies to overcome perceived obstacles hindering CM/OH from becoming a core AZA activity. Survey results revealed that while most zoos favor greater investment in CM/OH programs, awareness, and understanding of CM/OH across the broader zoo community and public is lacking. The majority of respondents stated that overcoming this challenge is paramount to attaining support for CM/OH initiatives. In spite of these obstacles, survey respondents highlighted many positive developments in CM/OH. We found that 84% of zoos surveyed are actively engaged in CM/OH activities, and 12% house formal CM/OH programs. Another 8% of respondents said their institutions were developing CM/OH programs. Perhaps most noteworthy, we found that zoo size did not have a significant bearing on the financial amount allocated toward an institution's CM/OH activities. This suggests that all zoos, regardless of size, can make meaningful contributions to the growing movement of CM/OH and help redefine the role of zoos within this movement.

Evidence of exposure to zoonotic flaviviruses in zoo mammals in Spain and their potential role as sentinel species

A serosurvey was carried out to assess emerging flavivirus exposure in zoo mammals in Spain and to determine the dynamics of seropositivity in species that were longitudinally sampled during the study period. Sera from 570 zoo animals belonging to 120 mammal species were collected at ten zoos (A-J) in Spain between 2002 and 2019. Twenty-one of these animals, belonging to ten different species, were sampled longitudinally at four of the zoos during the study period. Antigenically-related flavivirus antibodies were detected in 19 (3.3 %; 95 %CI: 2.0-5.2) of the 570 animals analyzed using bELISA. Seropositivity was observed in ten (8.3 %) of the 120 species tested. Five (23.8 %) of the 21 animals sampled more than once presented seropositivity in all samplings whereas seroconversion was only observed in one white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum). Flavivirus antibodies were found at six of the ten sampled zoos and in consecutive years between 2008 and 2018. Virus neutralization tests confirmed West Nile virus (WNV), Usutu virus (USUV) and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) infection in ten (1.8 %; 95 %CI: 0.7-2.8), five (0.9 %; 95 %CI: 0.1-1.6) and one (0.2 %; 95 %CI: 0.0-0.5) animal, respectively. Antibodies against Meaban virus (0 %; 95 %CI: 0.0-0.7 %) were not found in the tested sera. The results demonstrate WNV, USUV and TBEV exposure in zoo mammals, which may be of public health and conservation concern. Seropositivity to WNV and USUV was detected in regions where these viruses have not been reported previously. Anti-WNV antibodies found in zoo animals sampled in 2009 point to WNV circulation at least one year before the first outbreaks were reported in horses and humans in Spain. Our results indicate that zoo mammals could be useful sentinel species for monitoring emerging flavivirus activity in urban areas.

Methodological and Terminological Issues in Animal-Assisted Interventions: An Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews

Simple Summary

Animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) include a wide range of activities aimed at improving the health and well-being of people with the help of pets. Although there have been many studies on the effects of these interventions on animal and human wellbeing and health, univocal data on the methodological aspects, regarding type and duration of intervention, operators, involved animal species, and so on, are still lacking. In this regard, several systematic reviews in the scientific literature have already explored and outlined some methodological aspects of animal-assisted interventions. Therefore, we developed an umbrella review (UR) which summarizes the data of a set of suitable systematic reviews (SRs), in order to clarify how these Interventions are carried out. From our results, it is shown that there is a widespread heterogeneity in the scientific literature concerning the study and implementation of these interventions. These results highlight the need for the development and, consequently, the diffusion of protocols (not only operational, but also research approaches) providing for a univocal use of globally recognized terminologies and facilitating comparison between the numerous experiences carried out and reported in the field.

Abstract

Recently, animal-assisted interventions (AAIs), which are defined as psychological, educational, and rehabilitation support activities, have become widespread in different contexts. For many years, they have been a subject of interest in the international scientific community and are at the center of an important discussion regarding their effectiveness and the most appropriate practices for their realization. We carried out an umbrella review (UR) of systematic reviews (SRs), created for the purpose of exploring the literature and aimed at deepening the terminological and methodological aspects of AAIs. It is created by exploring the online databases PubMed, Google Scholar, and Cochrane Library. The SRs present in the high-impact indexed search engines Web of Sciences and Scopus are selected. After screening, we selected 15 SRs that met the inclusion criteria. All papers complained of the poor quality of AAIs; some considered articles containing interventions that did not always correspond to the terminology they have explored and whose operating practices were not always comparable. This stresses the need for the development and consequent diffusion of not only operational protocols, but also research protocols which provide for the homogeneous use of universally recognized terminologies, thus facilitating the study, deepening, and comparison between the numerous experiences described.

Changes in human health parameters associated with an immersive exhibit experience at a zoological institution

Zoological institutions often use immersive, naturalistic exhibits to create an inclusive atmosphere that is inviting for visitors while providing for the welfare of animals in their collections. In this study, we investigated physiological changes in salivary cortisol and blood pressure, as well as psychological changes among visitors before and after a walk through the River’s Edge, an immersive, naturalistic exhibit at the Saint Louis Zoo. Study participants had a significant reduction in salivary cortisol and blood pressure after walking through the exhibit. Psychological assessments of mood found that most visitors felt happier, more energized, and less tense after the visit. Additionally, participants who spent more time in River’s Edge, had visited River’s Edge prior to the study, and had seen more exhibits at the Zoo prior to entering River’s Edge experienced greater psychological and/or physiological benefits. We conclude that immersive, naturalistic exhibits in zoos can elicit positive changes in physiological and psychological measures of health and well-being and argue for a greater scientific focus on the role of zoos and other green spaces in human health.

MOLECULAR CHARACTERIZATION OF FECAL ESCHERICHIA COLI ISOLATED FROM ZOO ANIMALS

Accredited zoos and animal parks play an important role in animal health research and conservation, providing important insights on matters of public health including zoonotic infectious diseases and antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The emergence and spread of AMR is a complex phenomenon that jeopardizes human and animal health and also threatens the long-term survival of endangered species. The presence of β-lactamases in clinical isolates is particularly significant as they can jeopardize the efficacy of critically important antimicrobials. Although the presence of β-lactamases and extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) producing Enterobacteriaceae in zoo animals has been reported, data are not available for northern European countries. In addition, few data are available on phylogenetic grouping of Escherichia coli isolated from zoo animals that can provide additional information on the host-bacterium relationship and on the pathogenicity of isolates. This study aimed to characterize fecal E. coli isolated from 33 healthy zoo animals from 22 species in Ireland, using conventional and molecular microbiological methods. All E. coli isolates were ampicillin resistant, but combined resistance to amoxicillin and clavulanic acid was not detected. Three E. coli isolates sampled from one Amur tiger, one Bornean orangutan, and one Southern white rhino were multidrug resistant, and blaTEM was detected in E. coli recovered from the Amur tiger and the Bornean orangutan. Other β-lactamases, including ESBLs and AmpCs and plasmid-mediated mcr-1 and mcr-2, were not detected. Overall, E. coli isolates investigated were susceptible to the majority of the antimicrobials tested, and only two animals shed E. coli carrying β-lactamase-encoding genes. The majority of isolates belonged to phylogenetic group B1. The screening of the AMR phenotype and genotype of zoo animal E. coli provides useful data that is relevant to antimicrobial stewardship in the zoo veterinary services and relevant to the bank of knowledge needed for tackling AMR.

One health collaboration for a resilient health system in India: Learnings from global initiatives

Inter-sectoral collaborations are now recognized as key importance for health system strengthening and health system integration, globally; however, its application in the domain of One Health remains unclear. Over time, as the complexity of the health system has increased within the domain of One Health approach, there is an urgent need for developing collaboration for successful implementation of the One Health. This review focuses on the global One Health collaboration strategies and discusses which type of collaboration might work for the health system of India. We conducted a review in the following three steps: identification of key One Health Collaboration strategies, documentation of the global initiatives and scoping into the initiatives of India in the domain of One Health.

We found three major types of collaborations discussed in the One Health literature: level-based collaboration (individual, population or research), solution-based collaboration, and third-party-based collaboration. Twenty-five key global and six Indian One Health initiatives or collaboration strategies are documented in the present review. Although, many initiatives are being undertaken globally for disease prevention and control from the viewpoint of One Health; however, in India, solution-based approaches during emergencies and outbreaks and some sort of level-based collaborations are in place. It is high time to develop a sustainable level-based collaboration integrated with third-party based collaboration within the larger domain of One Health for a resilient health system.

Member Perceptions of the One Health Initiative at a Zoological Institution

Zoological institutions play an important role in promoting the goals of the One Health movement. We launched the Institute for Conservation Medicine (ICM) at the Saint Louis Zoo in 2011 to advance the goals of One Health. In 2016, we distributed a survey to Zoo members to evaluate member awareness and understanding of One Health and to provide direction for future communication and actions from the ICM. We hypothesized that Zoo members would be aware of One Health and care about infectious disease issues. Survey results showed Zoo members primarily cared about chronic, non-infectious diseases and their associated economic costs, with participants ranking their top three health issues of concern for humans as nutrition/obesity/diet (49%), costs of health care (48%), and cancer (37%). Zoo members were interested in the roles of zoos in One Health and found them important, but were less aware of the Saint Louis Zoo's actions that did not directly relate to animal welfare. Only 6% of members had awareness of the term "One Health" and 16% were aware of the term "Conservation Medicine." These results suggest that zoos may do better to tailor One Health messaging to align with member interests. Messaging and programming from the Saint Louis Zoo will now include the direct benefits to human health that zoos offer, in addition to the ICM's more ecologically focused activities. This study offered valuable insight into how Zoo members view One Health and may serve as a template to help zoological institutions develop and promote One Health.