Detection and genotyping of zoonotic microsporidia in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus)

Microsporidia is a diverse group of obligate, intracellular, and spore-forming parasites that infect a wide range of animals. Among them, Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon spp. are the most frequently reported species in humans. Limited information is available about the presence and molecular diversity of microsporidian species in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). Presence of Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon spp. was investigated by molecular methods in wild and captive Iberian lynxes from Spain. Overall, E. bieneusi was detected in 3.2% (8/251) of the animals examined. None of the samples tested were positive for Encephalitozoon spp. Four known (D, EbfelA, PigEBITS7, and Type IV) and a novel (named as LynxSpEb1) E. bieneusi genotypes were identified. All the genotypes found belonged to the zoonotic Group 1 of E. bieneusi. This study provides the first genotyping data of E. bieneusi in Iberian lynx in Spain. Our result indicate that the Iberian lynx does not seem to play a relevant role in the epidemiology of Encephalitozoon spp., and that this endangered felid is likely acting as spillover host rather than a true reservoir of E. bieneusi. Additional studies should be conducted to assess the impact of this parasite in the health status of the endangered Iberian lynx.

Exposure to Coxiella burnetii in Wild Lagomorphs in Spanish Mediterranean Ecosystems

Coxiella burnetii is an important zoonotic pathogen of worldwide distribution that can infect a wide range of wild and domestic species. The European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) can play a role as a reservoir for this bacterium in certain epidemiological scenarios, but, to date, a very limited numbers of large-scale serosurveys have been conducted for this species worldwide. Although exposure in hare species has also been described, C. burnetii in Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis) has never been assessed. Here, we aimed to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors associated with C. burnetii exposure in wild lagomorphs in the Mediterranean ecosystems of southern Spain. Between the 2018/2019 and 2021/2022 hunting seasons, blood samples from 638 wild lagomorphs, including 471 wild rabbits and 167 Iberian hares, were collected from 112 hunting grounds distributed across all eight provinces of Andalusia (southern Spain). The overall apparent individual seroprevalence was 8.9% (57/638; 95% CI: 6.8-11.4). Antibodies against C. burnetii were found in 11.3% (53/471; 95% CI: 8.4-14.1) of the wild rabbits and 2.4% (4/167; 95% CI: 0.1-4.7) of the Iberian hares. Seropositive animals were detected for 16 (14.3%; 95% CI: 7.8-20.8) of the 112 hunting grounds tested and in all the hunting seasons sampled. A generalized estimating equations model showed that the geographical area (western Andalusia) and presence of sheep were risk factors potentially associated with C. burnetii exposure in wild lagomorphs. A statistically significant spatial cluster (p < 0.001) was identified in the south-west of Andalusia. Our results provide evidence of moderate, endemic and heterogeneous circulation of C. burnetii in wild lagomorph populations in Spanish Mediterranean ecosystems. Risk-based strategies for integrative surveillance programs should be implemented in these species to reduce the risk of transmission of the bacterium to sympatric species, including humans.

Detection and Molecular Diversity of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in the Endangered Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus), Spain

Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis are the main non-viral causes of diarrhoea in humans and domestic animals globally. Comparatively, much less information is currently available in free-ranging carnivore species in general and in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) in particular. Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis were investigated with molecular (PCR and Sanger sequencing) methods in individual faecal DNA samples of free-ranging and captive Iberian lynxes from the main population nuclei in Spain. Overall, Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis were detected in 2.4% (6/251) and 27.9% (70/251) of the animals examined, respectively. Positive animals to at least one of them were detected in each of the analysed population nuclei. The analysis of partial ssu rRNA gene sequences revealed the presence of rodent-adapted C. alticolis (n = 1) and C. occultus (n = 1), leporid-adapted C. cuniculus (n = 2), and zoonotic C. parvum (n = 2) within Cryptosporidium, and zoonotic assemblages A (n = 5) and B (n = 3) within G. duodenalis. Subgenotyping analyses allowed for the identification of genotype VaA19 in C. cuniculus (gp60 locus) and sub-assemblages AI and BIII/BIV in G. duodenalis (gdh, bg, and tpi loci). This study represents the first molecular description of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis in the Iberian lynx in Spain. The presence of rodent/leporid-adapted Cryptosporidium species in the surveyed animals suggests spurious infections associated to the Iberian lynx's diet. The Iberian lynx seems a suitable host for zoonotic genetic variants of Cryptosporidium (C. parvum) and G. duodenalis (assemblages A and B), although the potential risk of human transmission is regarded as limited due to light parasite burdens and suspected low excretion of infective (oo)cysts to the environment by infected animals. More research should be conducted to ascertain the true impact of these protozoan parasites in the health status of the endangered Iberian lynx.

Correlation of hepatitis E and rat hepatitis E viruses urban wastewater monitoring and clinical cases

BACKGROUND

Wastewater pathogen monitoring is useful for surveillance of enteric pathogens. Information about the presence of Paslahepevirus balayani (HEV) and emergent Rocahepevirus ratti (RHEV) in untreated water and their correlation with clinical cases is scarce. Aim To longitudinally monitor HEV and RHEV in wastewater and to evaluate their possible correlation with human cases.

METHODS

This study was carried out in the city of Cordoba (southern Spain) from March 2021 to March 2023. HEV and RHEV occurrence were evaluated by PCR in three sample types: i) sera from patients with acute hepatitis attended at the reference hospital, ii) liver and faeces from urban rodents, and iii) grab sewage samples collected weekly from the municipal wastewater treatment plant.

RESULTS

We analysed 106 untreated wastewater samples, 304 individuals with acute hepatitis, and 20 rodents. HEV and RHEV were detected in only one (0.9 %) and almost all samples (94.3 %) of wastewater samples, respectively. A total of 22 cases of acute HEV infection (7.2 %) and two cases of RHEV (0.7 %) were detected from all acute hepatitis cases observed. Only RHEV was found in rodents, with a positive frequency of 55 %. The presence of HEV in wastewater coincided with the detection of one case in which the same HEV genotype was isolated. A concentration of HEV clinical cases between June and July of 2022 was observed but not detected in water. Both RHEV clinical cases were detected in summer 2022, but no correlation was found with wastewater detection.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study shows that there is no correlation between clinical cases and wastewater detection of HEV or RHEV.

Epidemiological survey and risk factors associated with Paslahepevirus balayani in equines in Europe

Paslahepevirus balayani (HEV) is an important emerging zoonotic virus in Europe. Although domestic pigs and wild boar are the main reservoirs of this pathogen, susceptibility to this virus has been confirmed in a growing number of animal species, including equines. However, their role in the epidemiology of this virus remains poorly understood. Our aim was to assess HEV circulation and identify potential risk factors associated with exposure in equid species in different European countries. A total of 596 equines, including 496 horses, 63 donkeys and 37 mules/hinnies bred in four European countries (Spain, Italy, United Kingdom and Ireland) were sampled. Thirty-three animals (5.5%; 95%CI: 3.7-7.4) had anti-HEV antibodies. Seropositivity was found in 4.6% of horses, 11.1% of donkeys and 8.1% of mules/hinnies tested. By country, 6.3%, 5.4%, 5.0% and 4.0% of the equines sampled in Spain, Italy, United Kingdom and Ireland, respectively, were seropositive, respectively. Statistical analysis showed that "species" and "drinking water from ponds and streams" were potential risk factors associated with HEV seropositivity in equines in Europe. HEV RNA was not detected in any (0.0%; 95%CI: 0.0-1.8) of the 202 equines tested. Our results provide evidence of a low, spatially homogeneous and widespread viral circulation that is not equal across species in equid populations in the European countries analyzed and indicate that these species appear to play a limited role in the epidemiology of this virus. Further studies are required to elucidate the differences in seroprevalence between donkeys, mules/hinnies and horses and to determine the risk of zoonotic transmission of this pathogen from equid species.

Lack of associations of microRNAs with severe NAFLD in people living with HIV: discovery case-control study

Background & objective

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is highly prevalent in people living with HIV (PLWH) and the expression of some microRNAs could be useful as biomarkers for the diagnosis of NAFLD. The aim of this study was to identify patterns of differential expression of microRNAs in PLWH and assess their diagnostic value for NALFD.

Methods

A discovery case-control study with PLWH was carried out. The expression of miRNAs was determined using HTG EdgeSeq technology. Cases were defined as patients with severe NAFLD and controls as patients without NAFLD, characterized using the controlled attenuation parameter (CAP). Cases and controls were matched 1:1 for age, sex, BMI, CD4+ lymphocyte count, active HCV infection, and ART regimen.

Results

Serum 2,083 simultaneous microRNA transcripts were analyzed using HTG technology and compared between cases and controls. Forty-five patients, 23 cases, and 22 controls were included in the study. In the analysis of the expression pattern of the 2,083 microRNAs, no differential expression patterns were found between both groups of patients included in the study.

Conclusion

Analysis of the microRNA transcriptome profile of nonobese PLWH with severe NAFLD did not appear to differ from that of patients without NAFLD. Thus, microRNA might not serve as a proper biomarker for predicting severe NALFD in this population.

Monitoring the epidemic of West Nile virus in equids in Spain, 2020-2021

The largest epidemic of West Nile virus (WNV) reported ever in Spain in both humans and equines occurred in 2020, affecting 77 humans and 139 equine herds. Here, we aimed to monitor the outbreaks detected in equid herds in Andalusia (southern Spain), the Spanish region where 89.9% of the outbreaks were reported, and to evaluate the virus circulation and risk factor associated with WNV exposure in the affected herds. The first WNV case was detected in mid-July 2020, the number of outbreaks peaked in mid-August and the last one was confirmed on 26th October 2020. WNV lineage 1 was detected in 12 clinically affected horses using real time RT-PCR. Molecular analysis evidenced high nucleotide identity with WNV sequences obtained from humans, birds and mosquitoes from Spain and Italy between 2020 and 2022. Between five and eight months after the WNV epidemic, a total of 724 equids (including 485 unvaccinated and 239 vaccinated animals) from 113 of the 125 affected herds in Andalusia were sampled. IgM and IgG antibodies against WNV were detected in 1.6% (8/485; 95%IC: 0.0-2.5) and 61.9% (300/485; 95%IC: 58.3-65.5) of the unvaccinated individuals, respectively. The seropositivity in vaccinated horses was 86.6% (207/239). The main risk factors associated with WNV exposure in unvaccinated equids were the breed (crossbreed), the location of animals in spring-summer (outside), and the presence of natural water ponds close to the surveyed herds. The high individual seroprevalence obtained in the affected herds indicates that WNV circulation was more widespread than the reported by passive surveillance during the WNV epidemic in 2020. The re-emergence of WNV in 2020 in southern Spain evidenced the needed to improve integrated surveillance systems, minimizing the impact of future cases in equids and humans in high-risk areas.

Presence of hepatitis E virus in testis of naturally infected wild boars

The hepatitis E virus (HEV) is the main cause of viral acute hepatitis in the world, affecting more than 20 million people annually. During the acute phase of infection, HEV can be detected in various body fluids, which has a significant impact in terms of transmission, diagnosis or extrahepatic manifestations. Several studies have isolated HEV in the genitourinary tract of humans and animals, which could have important clinical and epidemiological implications. So, our main objective was to evaluate the presence of HEV in testis of naturally infected wild boars (Sus scrofa). For it, blood, liver, hepatic lymph node and testicle samples were collected from 191 male wild boars. The presence of HEV was evaluated in serum by PCR, as well as in tissues by PCR and immunohistochemistry. Four animals (2.09%; 95%CI: 0.82-5.26) showed detectable HEV RNA in serum, being confirmed the presence of HEV-3f genotype in three of them by phylogenetic analysis. HEV was also detected in liver and/or hepatic lymph nodes of the four animals by RT-PCR, as well as by immunohistochemistry analysis. Only one of these wild boars also showed detectable viral load in testis, observing HEV-specific labelling in a small number of fibroblasts and some Sertoli cells. Our results confirm the presence of HEV genotype 3 in naturally infected wild boar testis, although no associated tissue damage was evidenced. This study does not allow us to discard semen as a possible source of HEV transmission in suids. Future experimental studies are necessary to evaluate the impact of HEV genotype 3 on fertility and the possibility of transmission through sexual contact in this specie.

Monitoring of hepatitis E virus in zoo animals from Spain, 2007-2021

Hepatitis E virus (HEV, family Hepeviridae) is an important emerging and zoonotic pathogen. In recent decades, the number of human cases of zoonotic hepatitis E has increased considerably in industrialized countries and HEV has been detected in an expanding range of mammal species. Although domestic pigs and wild boar are considered the main reservoirs of zoonotic HEV genotypes, the role of other susceptible animals in the epidemiology of the virus is still poorly understood. A large-scale, long-term study was carried out (1) to assess HEV exposure in captive zoo animals in Spain and (2) to determine the dynamics of seropositivity in individuals that were sampled longitudinally during the study period. Between 2007 and 2021, serum samples from 425 zoo animals belonging to 109 animal species (including artiodactyls, carnivores, perissodactyls, proboscideans and rodents) were collected from 11 different zoological parks in Spain. Forty-six of these animals at seven of these zoos were also longitudinally sampled. Anti-HEV antibodies were detected in 36 (8.5%; 95% CI: 5.8-11.1) of 425 sampled zoo animals. Specific antibodies against HEV-3 and HEV-C1 antigens were confirmed in ELISA-positive animals using western blot assay. Two of 46 longitudinally surveyed animals seroconverted during the study period. Seropositivity was significantly higher in carnivores and perissodactyls than in artiodactyls, and also during the period 2012-2016 compared with 2007-2011. HEV RNA was not detected in any of the 262 animals that could be tested by RT-PCR. To the best of the author's knowledge, this is the first large-scale, long-term surveillance on HEV in different orders of zoo mammals. Our results indicate exposure to HEV-3 and HEV-C1 in zoo animals in Spain and confirm a widespread but not homogeneous spatiotemporal circulation of HEV in captive species in this country. Further studies are required to determine the role of zoo species, particularly carnivores and perissodactyls, in the epidemiology of HEV and to clarify the origins of infection in zoological parks.

Spatiotemporal monitoring of myxomatosis in European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Spanish Mediterranean ecosystems

A long-term active epidemiological surveillance programme was conducted to determine seroprevalence to myxoma virus (MYXV), infection prevalence and spatiotemporal patterns and factors associated with MYXV circulation in wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Spanish Mediterranean ecosystems. A total of 2376 animals were sampled over four study periods: 2009-2012 (P1), 2012-2015 (P2), 2015-2018 (P3) and 2018-2021 (P4). Antibodies against MYXV were detected by a commercial indirect ELISA in 59.9% (1424/2376; 95% CI: 58.0-61.9) of wild rabbits. At least one seropositive animal was detected on 131 (96.3%) of 136 game estates sampled. MYXV infection was confirmed by PCR in 94 of 1063 (8.8%; 95% CI: 7.3-10.7) wild rabbits. Circulation of the novel recombinant MYXV (ha-MYXV) was not found in wild rabbits analysed during P4. Five statistically significant spatiotemporal clusters of high MYXV seroprevalence were identified using a Bernoulli model: one in P2 and four in P3. A generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) analysis identified sampling season (autumn), age (adult and juvenile), outbreaks of myxomatosis in the month prior to sampling, mean annual temperature, humidity and seropositivity to rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus as factors potentially linked with MYXV seropositivity. GLMM analysis identified outbreaks of myxomatosis in the month prior to sampling, MYXV seropositivity and presence of lesions compatible with myxomatosis as factors associated with MYXV infection. The results indicate high exposure, widespread but non-homogeneous distribution, and endemic circulation of MYXV in wild rabbit populations in southern Spain during the last decade. Prevalence of antibodies against MYXV showed fluctuations both within the year and over the study periods, revealing variations in the immunity of wild rabbit populations in Mediterranean ecosystems that could increase the risk of MYXV re-emergence in immunologically naïve populations. The present study highlights the importance of long-term surveillance to better understand the epidemiology of MYXV in wild lagomorphs.

Epidemiological survey and risk factors associated with hepatitis E virus in small ruminants in southern Spain

Autochthonous cases of hepatitis E (HE) associated with zoonotic genotypes HEV-3 and HEV-4 have significantly increased in industrialized countries over the last decade. Suidae are generally recognized as the main reservoirs of these genotypes. Susceptibility to HE virus (HEV) infection and zoonotic potential have also been confirmed in other species, including sheep and goat. However, the information about their role in the epidemiology of HEV remains very scarce. The objective of this study was to assess the prevalence, spatial distribution and risk factors associated with HEV exposure in sheep and goats in southern Spain, the country with the highest census of small domestic ruminants in the European Union. Blood samples from 240 sheep and 240 goats were collected between 2015 and 2017. Sera were analysed in parallel using a commercial double-antigen ELISA and real-time PCR. A total of 38 (7.9%; 95%CI: 5.5-10.3) out of 480 sampled animals showed anti-HEV antibodies. By species, the seroprevalences found in sheep and goats were 2.1% (5/240; 95%CI: 0.3-3.9) and 13.8% (33/240; 95%CI: 9.4-18.1) respectively. Anti-HEV antibodies were found on 19 (59.4%; 95%CI: 42.4-76.4) of the 32 sampled farms. The GEE model showed that species (goat) and number of small ruminants in the farm (≤348 animals and ≥538 animals) were risk factors potentially associated with HEV exposure in small ruminants in the study area. HEV RNA was not detected in any of the 480 (0.0%; 95%CI: 0.0-0.8) tested animals. Our results confirm that sheep and goats are naturally, but not equally exposed to HEV and indicate the widespread spatial distribution of HEV among small ruminant populations in southern Spain. Further studies are required to elucidate the role of sheep and goat in the epidemiology of HEV and their potential implications for public health.

Serological and molecular survey of hepatitis E virus in cats and dogs in Spain

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging zoonotic pathogen that is currently recognized as one of the major causes of acute human hepatitis worldwide. In Europe, the increasing number of hepatitis E cases is mainly associated with the consumption of animal food products or contact with infected animals. Dogs and cats have been suggested as a zoonotic source of HEV infection. The aim of this study was to assess Orthohepevirus circulation, including HEV-A, HEV-B and HEV-C species, in sympatric urban cats and dogs in southern Spain. Between 2017 and 2020, blood samples were collected from 144 stray cats and 152 dogs, both strays and pets. The presence of antibodies against HEV were tested using a double-antigen sandwich ELISA and seropositive samples were further analyzed by western blot. A RT-PCR was performed to detect RNA of Orthohepevirus species (HEV-A, HEV-B and HEV-C). A total of 19 (6.4%; 95%CI: 3.6-9.2) of the 296 animals tested showed anti-HEV antibodies by ELISA. Seropositivity was significantly higher in dogs (9.9%; 15/152; 95%CI: 5.1-14.6) than in cats (2.8%; 4/144; 95%CI: 0.1-5.5). Ten out of the 18 ELISA-positive animals that could be further analyzed by western blot, reacted against HEV-3 and/or HEV-C1 antigens, which suggest circulation of both genotypes in urban cats and dogs in the study area. However, HEV-A, HEV-B and HEV-C RNA was not detected in any of the tested sera. This is the first study to assess HEV circulation in both stray cats and dogs in Europe. Our results provide evidence of HEV exposure in sympatric urban cat and dog populations in southern Spain. Further studies are needed to determine the role of these species in the epidemiology of HEV. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Diarrhoea-causing enteric protist species in intensively and extensively raised pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) in Southern Spain. Part II: Association with Hepatitis E virus susceptibility

Enteropathogenic parasites can infect a wide range of mammals, including humans, supposing an important zoonotic risk. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging foodborne pathogen of increasing public health relevance, affecting both humans and animal populations. Because both microorganisms share faecal-oral transmission route they may constitute an excellent model to evaluate the interplay between them. Thus, we aim to evaluate the viral-parasite interactions at the enteric interface in swine. We included pigs of two different breeds farming in South Spain under different production systems. We compared the HEV prevalence by the presence of Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium spp., Balantioides coli, Blastocystis sp. and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in faecal samples. The HEV prevalence was 13.1 (62 out 475, 95% CI: 10.2-16.4). Those pigs infected with Cryptosporidium spp. showed a higher prevalence of HEV (30.8 vs. 12%; p = .012). In the same way, animals bearing E. bieneusi seem to have a higher rate of HEV infection (24.2 vs. 12.2%; p = .06). According to their location in the gut, animals bearing intracellular enteroparasites showed a higher HEV prevalence than those uninfected (29.6 vs. 12.7%; p = .038), meanwhile those carrying extracellular enteroparasites had a lower likelihood to be infected by HEV than those uninfected (12.1 vs. 23.1%; p = .071). Those animals bearing both types of enteroparasites showed a similar prevalence of HEV infection than those exhibiting negative for both (20.8 vs. 26.1%; p = .763). Our study provides evidence that intracellular and extracellular enteroparasites modulate the susceptibility to HEV infection in pigs. Meanwhile, the presence of extracellular enteroparasites shows a protective effect on the risk of HEV acquisition in swine, whereas intracellular enteroparasites seems to have the opposite effect, favouring the HEV infection.

Diarrhoea-causing enteric protist species in intensively and extensively raised pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) in Southern Spain. Part I: Prevalence and genetic diversity

Numerous protist species are shared between humans and pigs. Among those, Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium spp. and Balantioides coli have a clear public and animal health significance. For others such as Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Blastocystis sp., their impact on animal health has not been fully established. Little information is currently available on the molecular diversity of these protists in swine populations. To fill this gap, we molecularly assessed G. duodenalis, Cryptosporidium spp., B. coli, Blastocystis sp. and E. bieneusi in faecal samples from Iberian and Large White pigs raised under different (intensive and/or extensive) management systems in southern Spain. A total of 151 extensively raised Iberian pigs, 140 intensively raised Iberian pigs, and 184 intensively raised Large White pigs were investigated. Blastocystis sp. was the agent most prevalently found (47.8%), followed by B. coli (45.5%), G. duodenalis (10.7%), E. bieneusi (6.9%), and Cryptosporidium spp. (5.5%). Blastocystis sp. was significantly less prevalent in intensively raised Iberian pigs (22.9%) than in their extensively raised counterparts (51.0%) or in intensively raised Large White pigs (64.1%). A significantly higher prevalence was found for G. duodenalis, Cryptosporidium spp., and E. bieneusi in Large White pigs than Iberian pigs. Balantioides coli was similarly distributed (40.0-51.1%) in all three investigated swine populations. Sequence analyses revealed the presence of G. duodenalis assemblage E, two Cryptosporidium species (Cryptosporidium scrofarum and Cryptosporidium suis), B. coli (genotypes A and B), Blastocystis sp. (ST1, ST3, and ST5), and E. bieneusi (EbpA, EbpC, EbpD, O, and a novel genotype named PigSpEb2). Novel genotype PigSpEb2 was found alone or in combination with EbpA. Data suggest a widespread exposure to protist enteroparasites in domestic pig populations irrespectively of breed and raising management system. Many of the species/genotypes identified have a zoonotic potential and might represent a public health concern.

Monitoring of bluetongue virus in zoo animals in Spain, 2007-2019

Bluetongue (BT) is an emerging and re-emerging communicable vector-borne disease of animal health concern. A serosurvey was performed to assess exposure to BT virus (BTV) in zoo animals in Spain and to determine the dynamics of seropositivity in longitudinally sampled individuals during the study period. Serum samples were collected from 241 zoo animals belonging to 71 different species in five urban zoos (A-E) in Spain between 2007 and 2019. Twenty-four of these animals were longitudinally surveyed at three of the sampled zoos (zoos B, C and E) during the study period. Anti-BTV antibodies were found in 46 (19.1%; 95% CI: 14.1-24.1) of the 241 captive animals analysed by commercial ELISA. A virus neutralization test confirmed specific antibodies against BTV-1 and BTV-4 in 25 (10.7%; 95% CI: 6.7-14.6) and five (3.0%; 95% CI: 0.3-4.0) animals, respectively. Two of the 24 longitudinally sampled individuals (one African elephant (Loxodanta africana) and one aoudad (Ammotragus lervia)) showed anti-BTV antibodies at all samplings, whereas seroconversions were detected in one mouflon (Ovis aries musimon) in 2016, and one Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in 2019. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first large-scale survey on BTV conducted in both artiodactyl and non-artiodactyl zoo species worldwide. The results confirm BTV exposure in urban zoo parks in Spain, which could be of animal health and conservation concern. Circulation of BTV was detected in yearling animals in years when there were no reports of BTV outbreaks in livestock. Surveillance in artiodactyl and non-artiodactyl zoo species could be a valuable tool for epidemiological monitoring of BTV.

Prevalence of selected tick-borne pathogens in wild ungulates and ticks in southern Spain

A survey study was carried out to assess the occurrence of selected tick-borne pathogens (TBP) in wild ungulates in Mediterranean ecosystems in southern Spain. Spleen samples were collected from 1,132 wild ungulates, including 578 red deer, 269 wild boar, 135 mouflon, 121 fallow deer and 29 roe deer, between 2009 and 2015. Eighty-nine ticks collected from TBP-positive animals were also analysed. Samples were tested by PCR and sequenced whenever possible. TBP DNA was detected in 127 of 863 wild ruminants (14.7%; 95% CI: 12.4-17.3) including the following: Anaplasma phagocytophilum (9.2%), Babesia divergens (2.9%), Theileria sp. OT3 (1.7%), Borrelia afzelii (0.7%) and Theileria capreoli (0.2%), but no positive samples were detected in wild boar (0/269). All the strains from mouflon were identified as Theileria sp. OT3, while B. divergens and T. capreoli were mainly found in red deer. Co-infection with A. phagocytophilum and B. divergens, and A. phagocytophilum and Theileria spp. was detected in red deer and mouflon, respectively. The risk factor analysis showed that the prevalences of A. phagocytophilum and piroplasms were species-related. Eighty-nine tick specimens collected from ungulates found to be infected with the selected TBP were identified as Hyalomma lusitanicum (95.5%) and Ixodes ricinus (4.5%). Thirty ticks were positive for Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp. (33.7%), 25 for Babesia/Theileria (28.1%) and two for B. burgdorferi s.l. (2.3%). Eleven specimens showed co-infections with Anaplasma/Ehrlichia and Babesia/Theileria (10.1%) or Anaplasma/Ehrlichia and B. burgdorferi s.l. (2.3%). The estimated prevalences obtained in the present study suggest the possible contribution of wild ruminants to the maintenance of some selected TBP in Mediterranean ecosystems in southern Spain, while the role of wild boar in the epidemiology of these pathogens seems to be limited in this region.

Isocotoin suppresses hepatitis E virus replication through inhibition of heat shock protein 90

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) causes 14 million infections and 60,000 deaths per year globally, with immunocompromised persons and pregnant women experiencing severe symptoms. Although ribavirin can be used to treat chronic hepatitis E, toxicity in pregnant patients and the emergence of resistant strains are major concerns. Therefore there is an imminent need for effective HEV antiviral agents. The aims of this study were to develop a drug screening platform and to discover novel approaches to targeting steps within the viral life cycle. We developed a screening platform for molecules inhibiting HEV replication and selected a candidate, isocotoin. Isocotoin inhibits HEV replication through interference with heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), a host factor not previously known to be involved in HEV replication. Additional work is required to understand the compound's translational potential, however this suggests that HSP90-modulating molecules, which are in clinical development as anti-cancer agents, may be promising therapies against HEV.

Zoonotic Microsporidia in Wild Lagomorphs in Southern Spain

Microsporidia are obligate intracellular protist-like fungal pathogens that infect a broad range of animal species, including humans. This study aimed to assess the presence of zoonotic microsporidia (Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Encephalitozoon intestinalis, Encephalitozoon hellem, and Encephalitozoon cuniculi) in organ meats of European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis) consumed by humans in Spain. Between July 2015 and December 2018, kidney samples from 383 wild rabbits and kidney and brain tissues from 79 Iberian hares in southern Spain were tested by species-specific PCR for the detection of microsporidia DNA. Enterocytozoon bieneusi infection was confirmed in three wild rabbits (0.8%; 95% CI: 0.0-1.7%) but not in hares (0.0%; 95% CI: 0.0-4.6%), whereas E. intestinalis DNA was found in one wild rabbit (0.3%; 95% CI: 0.0-0.8%) and three Iberian hares (3.8%; 95% CI: 0.0-8.0%). Neither E. hellem nor E. cuniculi infection were detected in the 462 (0.0%; 95% CI: 0.0-0.8%) lagomorphs analyzed. The absence of E. hellem and E. cuniculi infection suggests a low risk of zoonotic foodborne transmission from these wild lagomorph species in southern Spain. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of E. intestinalis infection in wild rabbits and Iberian hares. The presence of E. bieneusi and E. intestinalis in organ meats from wild lagomorphs can be of public health concern. Additional studies are required to determine the real prevalence of these parasites in European wild rabbit and Iberian hare.

Zoo animals as sentinels for Schmallenberg virus monitoring in Spain

Schmallenberg virus (SBV) is a newly emerged vector-borne pathogen that affects many domestic and wild animal species. A serosurvey was carried out to assess SBV exposure in zoo animals in Spain and to determine the dynamics of seropositivity in longitudinally sampled individuals. Between 2002 and 2019, sera from 278 animals belonging to 73 different species were collected from five zoos (A-E). Thirty-one of these animals were longitudinally sampled at three of these zoo parks during the study period. Seropositivity was detected in 28 (10.1 %) of 278 animals analyzed by blocking ELISA. Specific anti-SBV antibodies were confirmed in 20 (7.2 %; 95 %CI: 4.2-10.3) animals of six different species using virus neutralization test (VNT). The multiple logistic regression model showed that "order" (Artiodactyla) and "zoo provenance" (zoo B; southern Spain) were risk factors potentially associated with SBV exposure. Two (8.7 %) of the 31 longitudinally-sampled individuals showed specific antibodies against SBV at all samplings whereas seroconversion was detected in one mouflon (Ovis aries musimon) and one Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in 2016 and 2019, respectively. To the best of the author's knowledge, this is the first surveillance conducted on SBV in zoos in Spain. The results confirm SBV exposure in zoo animals in this country and indicate circulation of the virus before the first Schmallenberg disease outbreak was reported in Spain. Surveillance in zoological parks could be a complementary approach to monitoring SBV activity. Further studies are warranted to assess the impact of this virus on the health status of susceptible zoo animals.

Monitoring of emerging myxoma virus epidemics in Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis) in Spain, 2018-2020

Myxomatosis is an infectious disease caused by the myxoma virus (MYXV), which has very high mortality rates in European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). While sporadic cases of myxomatosis have also been reported in some hare species, these lagomorphs are considered to have a low susceptibility to MYXV infection. In the present study, we describe the spatiotemporal evolution and main epidemiological findings of novel hare MYXV (ha-MYXV or MYXV-Tol) epidemics in Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis) in Spain. In the period 2018-2020, a total of 487 hares from 372 affected areas were confirmed to be MYXV-infected by PCR. ha-MYXV outbreaks were detected in most of the Spanish regions where the Iberian hare is present. The spatial distribution was not homogeneous, with most outbreaks concentrated in the southern and central parts of Spain. Consecutive outbreaks reported in the last two years suggest endemic circulation in Spain of this emerging virus. A retrospective study carried out just after the first epidemic period (2018-2019) revealed that the virus could have been circulating since June 2018. The number of outbreaks started to rise in July, peaked during the first half of August and October and then decreased sharply until January 2019. The apparent mean mortality rate was 55.4% (median: 70%). The results indicated high susceptibility of the Iberian hare to ha-MYXV infection, but apparent resistance in the sympatric hare species present in Spain and less infectivity in European rabbits. The novel ha-MYXV has had significant consequences on the health status of Iberian hare populations in Spain, which is of animal health and conservation concern. The present study contributes to a better understanding of ha-MYXV emergence and will provide valuable information for the development of control strategies. Further research is warranted to assess the impact of this emerging virus on wild lagomorph populations and to elucidate its ecological implications for Iberian Mediterranean ecosystems.

Re-emergence of bluetongue virus serotype 4 in Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica) and sympatric livestock in Spain, 2018-2019

Between early October and mid-December 2018, mortalities were detected in Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica) populations in southern Spain. In the same region and period, bluetongue virus (BTV) circulation was also reported in sentinel and clinically affected domestic ruminant herds. Molecular analyses confirmed BTV serotype 4 (BTV-4) infection in eight Iberian ibexes from six hunting areas, and in 46 domestic ruminants from seven herds in close proximity to affected hunting estates. Histopathological analyses revealed vascular changes in several organs, pneumonia, lymphoid depletion, inflammatory mononuclear cell infiltrate and fibrosis as the most frequently observed lesions in the affected Iberian ibexes. Epidemiological and laboratory results indicate that BTV-4 was the main aetiological agent involved in outbreaks detected in Iberian ibex populations during the study period. Sequence analyses indicated that the BTV-4 strain detected in Iberian ibex had high homology (99.4%-100%) with strains isolated in livestock during the same period, and with previous isolates (≥98.9%) from Spain and Mediterranean Basin countries. Further studies are warranted to determine the impact of BTV-4 on the health status of Iberian ibex populations after the outbreaks. The inclusion of this species in the surveillance programme may be useful for early detection of BTV, especially in epidemiological scenarios at the wildlife-livestock interface.

Evidence of exposure to zoonotic flaviviruses in zoo mammals in Spain and their potential role as sentinel species

A serosurvey was carried out to assess emerging flavivirus exposure in zoo mammals in Spain and to determine the dynamics of seropositivity in species that were longitudinally sampled during the study period. Sera from 570 zoo animals belonging to 120 mammal species were collected at ten zoos (A-J) in Spain between 2002 and 2019. Twenty-one of these animals, belonging to ten different species, were sampled longitudinally at four of the zoos during the study period. Antigenically-related flavivirus antibodies were detected in 19 (3.3 %; 95 %CI: 2.0-5.2) of the 570 animals analyzed using bELISA. Seropositivity was observed in ten (8.3 %) of the 120 species tested. Five (23.8 %) of the 21 animals sampled more than once presented seropositivity in all samplings whereas seroconversion was only observed in one white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum). Flavivirus antibodies were found at six of the ten sampled zoos and in consecutive years between 2008 and 2018. Virus neutralization tests confirmed West Nile virus (WNV), Usutu virus (USUV) and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) infection in ten (1.8 %; 95 %CI: 0.7-2.8), five (0.9 %; 95 %CI: 0.1-1.6) and one (0.2 %; 95 %CI: 0.0-0.5) animal, respectively. Antibodies against Meaban virus (0 %; 95 %CI: 0.0-0.7 %) were not found in the tested sera. The results demonstrate WNV, USUV and TBEV exposure in zoo mammals, which may be of public health and conservation concern. Seropositivity to WNV and USUV was detected in regions where these viruses have not been reported previously. Anti-WNV antibodies found in zoo animals sampled in 2009 point to WNV circulation at least one year before the first outbreaks were reported in horses and humans in Spain. Our results indicate that zoo mammals could be useful sentinel species for monitoring emerging flavivirus activity in urban areas.

Evaluation of a non-invasive screening approach to determine hepatitis E virus status of pig farms

BACKGROUND

Identifying pig farms infected with hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a key aspect to implement surveillance programmes for this emerging zoonotic agent. Detection of HEV in blood has several drawbacks, including animal handling, economic costs and animal stress. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a non-invasive screening approach for determining the HEV status of pig farms under different management systems.

METHODS

Forty stool samples randomly collected from the pen floor of 17 intensive pig farms and the yard of nine extensive ones were tested for HEV RNA. The invasive method used to confirm the HEV status of the farm was HEV RNA analysis of serum samples randomly collected from 40 animals on each farm.

RESULTS

Twenty-one HEV-positive farms were detected by invasive and non-invasive methods. No positive serum or stool samples were detected on five intensive farms. A high intertest agreement (K=1; P<0.00001) was observed between both methodologies, showing the stool screening approach a 100 per cent of sensitivity and specificity with respect to the invasive method. Likewise, a significant negative relationship was observed between the HEV within-farm prevalence and the number of the first HEV-positive stool sample found (Spearman's rho=-0.64; P=0.0004). This negative relationship was higher in intensively managed farms.

CONCLUSION

This non-invasive screening approach could be reliably applied in a large-scale surveillance programme for determining the HEV status of pig farms under different management systems.

Enterocytozoon bieneusi (Microsporidia): Identification of novel genotypes and evidence of transmission between sympatric wild boars (Sus scrofa ferus) and Iberian pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) in Southern Spain

Microsporidia is a phylum of obligate emergent intracellular protist-like fungi pathogens that infect a broad range of hosts including vertebrates and invertebrates. Enterocytozoon bieneusi is the most common cause of microsporidiosis in humans, affecting primarily immunosuppressed patients but also reported in immunocompetent individuals. Epidemiological information on the presence and molecular diversity of E. bieneusi in livestock and wildlife in Spain is limited. Therefore, the occurrence of this microsporidia was investigated in sympatric extensively reared Iberian pigs (n = 186) and free ranging wild boars (n = 142) in the province of Córdoba, Southern Spain. Forty-two Iberian pigs (22.6%) and three wild boars (2.1%) were found E. bieneusi positive by PCR. In Iberian pigs, occurrence of E. bieneusi was significantly higher in sows than in fattening pigs (31.6% vs. 11.4%; p = .001). Five genotypes were identified in Iberian pigs, four previously reported (EbpA, PigEb4, O, Pig HN-II) and a novel genotype (named PigSpEb1), while only two genotypes were identified in wild boars, EbpA and novel genotype PigSpEb1. All five genotypes identified belong to Group 1 suggesting zoonotic potential. This study constitutes the first report on the occurrence and molecular characterization of E. bieneusi in Iberian pigs and wild boars. The identification of two genotypes with zoonotic potential in sympatric Iberian pigs and wild boars suggests that E. bieneusi can be potentially transmitted between those two hosts, but also implies that they may act as natural sources of microsporidia infection to other hosts including humans.

Serosurvey of Peste des Petits Ruminants in southern Spain

Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is a highly infectious disease caused by a virus member of the genus Morbillivirus, which mainly affects goats, sheep and wild ruminants. It is considered one of the most significant transboundary infectious diseases and represents an animal health concern in developing countries. Spain is considered a PPR-free country. Nevertheless, given its geographical proximity to countries in North Africa where PPR virus (PPRV) has been circulating in recent years, the south of Spain can be considered a risk area for the introduction of PPRV. The aim of the present study was to assess circulation of PPRV in domestic and wild ruminant species in this country. During the period 2015-2017, a total of 910 sera from domestic, wild and captive ruminants were analysed using a commercial blocking ELISA to detect antibodies against PPRV. None of the 910 (0.0%; 95% CI: 0.0-0.3) animals tested were positive for anti-PPRV antibodies. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first serosurvey study of PPR in Spain. The results indicate absence of circulating PPRV in the south of Spain during the study period. Due to the risk of PPRV introduction into European countries of the Mediterranean basin, epidemiological surveillance should be maintained and extended in this region.

Exposure to Toxoplasma gondii in zoo animals in Spain

A serosurvey was performed to assess exposure to Toxoplasma gondii in zoo animals in Spain and to determine the dynamics of seropositivity in some zoo species over time. Sera from 393 zoo animals belonging to 91 species were collected in eight zoos in Spain between 2007 and 2019. Additionally, 39 of the 393 animals from five of the analyzed zoos were longitudinally sampled during the same study period. Antibodies to T. gondii were detected in 165 (42.0 %; CI95 %: 37.1-46.9) of 393 animals by the modified agglutination test (MAT, cut-off = 25). Antibody titers of 25, 50, 100 and ≥500 were found in 25 (15.2 %), 65 (39.4 %), 26 (15.8 %), and 49 (29.7 %) of the seropositive animals, respectively. Feeding habits (carnivorous species) was a risk factor (OR = 5.6; P < 0.001; CI95 %: 3.8-9.0) potentially associated with T. gondii exposure. Eighteen (46.2 %) of the 39 animals longitudinally sampled were always seropositive and five animals (12.8 %) (two spotted hyaena [Crocuta crocuta], one blesbok [Damaliscus pygargus], one white rhinoceros [Ceratotherium simum] and one mouflon [Ovis aries musimon]) seroconverted during the study period. Our results evince a wide circulation of T. gondii in zoos in Spain, including wild felids. Zoo animals can be useful sentinel species to monitor T. gondii circulation in epidemiological scenarios with a close human-wildlife interface. Control measures should be implemented in zoo parks to minimize the risk of exposure of zoo species to T. gondii.

Absence of Hepatitis E virus circulation in wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis) in Mediterranean ecosystems in Spain

In recent decades, cases of autochthonous hepatitis E (HE) have sharply increased in European countries where foodborne transmission is considered the main route of HE virus (HEV) transmission. Although rabbits are considered the main reservoir of the zoonotic HEV-3ra subtype, information on the role of wild lagomorphs in the epidemiology of HEV remains scarce. The aim of this study therefore was to assess the circulation of HEV in European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis), the most important lagomorph species in Spanish Mediterranean ecosystems. Liver samples from 372 wild rabbits and 78 Iberian hares were analysed using a broad-spectrum RT-PCR that detects HEV genotypes 1-8. None of the 450 lagomorphs tested were positive for HEV infection. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to assess HEV circulation in wild rabbits in Spain and the first to evaluate HEV infection in Iberian hares. Our results indicate absence of HEV circulation in wild rabbits and Iberian hares in southern Spain during the study period, which suggests that the risk of transmission of HEV from wild lagomorphs to other species, including humans, is low.

Ribavirin as a First Treatment Approach for Hepatitis E Virus Infection in Transplant Recipient Patients

The hepatitis E virus (HEV) is the major cause of acute hepatitis of viral origin worldwide. Despite its usual course as an asymptomatic self-limited hepatitis, there are highly susceptible populations, such as those with underlying immunosuppression, which could develop chronic hepatitis. In this situation, implementation of therapy is mandatory in the sense to facilitate viral clearance. Currently, there are no specific drugs approved for HEV infection, but ribavirin (RBV), the drug of choice, is used for off-label treatment. Here, we present two cases of chronic HEV infection in transplant patients, reviewing and discussing the therapeutic approach available in the literature. The use of RBV for the treatment of an HEV infection in organ transplant patients seems to be effective. The recommendation of 12 weeks of therapy is adequate in terms of efficacy. Nevertheless, there are important issues that urgently need to be assessed, such as optimal duration of therapy and drug dosage.

Mutations in the Progesterone Receptor (PROGINS) May Reduce the Symptoms of Acute Hepatitis E and Protect Against Infection

BACKGROUND

Mutations in the progesterone receptor (PR) gene, PROGINS, have been studied in relation to hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection. Patients with the PROGINS gene may develop a worse clinical course of hepatitis E. The aim of our study was to evaluate the influence of PROGINS on the susceptibility to and the clinical course of HEV infection in HIV patients.

METHODS

This study included patients with HIV who were evaluated in previous prospective studies for the prevalence and incidence of HEV. The following three groups of patients were studied: (i) never infected, (ii) past infections, and (iii) recently infected. We determined the PR genotype to evaluate the proportion of patients who were homozygous for PROGINS according to HEV infection. We also compared the proportion of PROGINS carriers with a recent HEV infection according to their symptomatology.

RESULTS

In this study, 311 patients infected with HIV were included. Of those patients, 198 were homozygous wild type (63.7%), 91 were heterozygous (29.3%), and 22 were homozygous PROGINS (7.1%). We found that the homozygous PROGINS genotype in women was associated with a lower HEV seroprevalence. In addition, in patients with a recent HEV infection, none of those homozygous for PROGINS presented symptoms.

CONCLUSION

The PROGINS mutation plays a protective role against HEV infection and is associated with subclinical infection in HIV-infected patients, particularly women.

First outbreak of myxomatosis in Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis)

Myxomatosis is an infectious disease caused by myxoma virus (MYXV; genus Leporipoxvirus), which affects the European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and sporadically brown hares (Lepus europaeus). Here, we describe the first outbreak of myxomatosis in Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis). Between mid-July and the end of September 2018, around 530 dead animals were detected in Iberian hare populations in southern Spain. The apparent mean mortality rate was 56.7%, and the estimated mean case fatality rate was 69.2%. Histopathological and molecular results confirmed MYXV infections in all hares analysed. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first myxomatosis outbreak causing a high mortality in hares and the first detailed characterization of a myxomatosis outbreak in the Iberian hare. The absence of cases in sympatric wild rabbits suggests differences in the susceptibility between both lagomorph species to the virus strain implicated in the outbreak. After the first case, the number of affected areas increased sharply affecting most of the Iberian Peninsula where the Iberian hare is present. Further studies are required to elucidate the origin of the implicated MYXV strain as well as to assess the impact of this outbreak on the Iberian hare populations.

Monitoring of the novel rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus type 2 (GI.2) epidemic in European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in southern Spain, 2013-2017

Rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD) is a highly infectious disease in European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), caused by a virus belonging to the genus Lagovirus (RHDV; family Caliciviridae). In 2010, a new genotype of RHDV (RHDV2 or RHDVb, currently designated GI.2) emerged in France, affecting both domestic rabbits, even those vaccinated for the classical RHDV genotypes (currently designated GI.1) and wild rabbits. GI.2 was subsequently identified in other European countries. The aim of the present study was to monitor the GI.2 epidemic in wild rabbits in Andalusia (southern Spain) during the period 2013-2017. At the beginning of summer 2013, high mortalities were detected in wild rabbit populations in southern Spain. A total of 96 affected hunting or protected areas were surveyed. The first outbreak was observed on June 2013. The number of outbreaks sharply increased in 2013 and 2014, with a decreasing trend being observed during the following years. The spatial distribution of GI.2 was not homogeneous, since most of the detected outbreaks were concentrated in the western part of Andalusia. The outbreaks peaked in winter and spring and have been detected in the last five consecutive years, which suggests endemic circulation of GI.2 in wild rabbit populations in Spain. A total of 190 dead rabbits from 87 of the 96 areas surveyed were collected during the study period. Mortality affected rabbits of different age classes, including kittens. RT-PCR confirmed the presence of GI.2 RNA in the livers of 185 of the 190 (97.4%) rabbits. Phylogenetic analysis performed on eleven samples collected in different provinces of Andalusia between 2013 and 2017, showed high nucleotide identity with GI.2 strains Spain, France and Portugal. The results constitute an important step in understanding of the emergence and spread of GI.2 in this country and will provide valuable information for the development of surveillance programs in Europe.

Description of the first Schmallenberg disease outbreak in Spain and subsequent virus spreading in domestic ruminants

Schmallenberg disease (SBD) is an emerging disease transmitted mainly among ruminant species by biting midges of the genus Culicoides. Since the Schmallenberg virus (SBV) was first identified in Germany in late 2011, it rapidly spread to other European countries. The aims of the present study were to describe the first SBD outbreak in Spain and to assess the spread and risk factors associated with SBV infection in domestic ruminants from nearby farms during the following year. In March 2012, one malformed stillborn lamb from a sheep farm located in Cordoba province (Southern Spain) was subjected to necropsy. Pathological compatible lesions and molecular analyses confirmed the first SBV infection in Spain. Afterwards, serum samples from 505 extensively reared domestic ruminants from 29 farms were analysed using both blocking ELISA and virus neutralization test against SBV. The overall seroprevalence was 54.4% (CI_95%: 50.0-58.7). Antibodies were detected in 70.6%, 46.0% and 34.8% of cattle, sheep and goats, respectively. A generalized estimating equation model indicated that the main risk factors associated with SBV infection were: species (cattle), age (adult), and absence of animal insecticide treatment. Pathological and molecular results confirmed the presence of SBV in Spain few months after it was firstly identified in Germany. The seroprevalence detected indicates a widespread circulation of SBV in nearby domestic ruminant farms one year after this first outbreak was reported in Spain. Further studies are warranted to determine the spatio-temporal trend of SBV in domestic ruminants in this country.

Emergent subtype of hepatitis E virus genotype 3 in wild boar in Spain

Wild boar (Sus scrofa) is considered as the main wildlife reservoir of zoonotic hepatitis E virus (HEV) genotypes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the circulation of HEV in free-ranging wild boar in the Doñana National Park (DNP), Spain. Blood samples were collected from 99 wild boar in the DNP during 2015. Sera were analysed in parallel using indirect ELISA and real-time RT-PCR. A total of 57 of the 99 tested animals (57.6%; 95%CI: 47.8%-67.3%) had anti-HEV antibodies, indicating that this virus is widespread in wild boar in the DNP. HEV RNA was detected in one animal and phylogenetic analysis showed that the sequence isolated belonged to subtype 3r. The results suggest a potential risk of zoonotic transmission of this novel HEV-3 subtype, which could be of public health concern. Further studies are required to assess the role of wild boar in the epidemiology of HEV-3r and to determine the infectivity of this emergent HEV subtype in other species, including humans.

Survey for Hepatitis E virus infection in non-human primates in zoos in Spain

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging zoonotic pathogen that has been detected in different animal species. A survey study was carried out to assess HEV infection in non-human primates (NHPs) housed in zoos in Spain. Anti-HEV antibodies were detected in eight of the 181 NHPs tested (4.4%; 95%CI: 1.4-7.4). At least one seropositive animal was detected in five of the 33 species sampled (15.2%). This is the first report of seropositivity in black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata), common chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), and Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus). Anti-HEV antibodies were found in six of the eight zoos included in the study (75.0%). Seroconversion was detected in one chimpanzee, which confirms HEV circulation in one zoo between 2015 and 2016. Seropositivity was significantly higher in hominids than in other NHP families. HEV RNA was not detected in any of the serum samples tested. The results indicate susceptibility of NHPs to HEV infection. Further studies are required to elucidate the role of these species in the epidemiology of HEV.

Hepatitis E virus infection in equines in Spain

Hepatitis E (HE) is an important emerging disease in European countries. To analyse the role of equids as potential reservoirs for HE virus (HEV), we determined the prevalence of HEV infection in 861 equines from 464 herds in Spain. HEV RNA in serum was detected in 0.4% (3/692) of horses, 1.2% (1/86) of donkeys and 3.6% (3/83) of mules. Phylogenetic analysis identified the zoonotic genotype 3 as being closely related to viral human and swine strains. In this first report on HEV in equids in Europe, we confirm the susceptibility of horses, donkeys and mules to HEV infection. The low prevalence detected indicates that equids may be considered spillover hosts rather than true reservoirs.

Malignant colonic adenomas. Therapeutic criteria. Long-term results of therapy in a series of 42 patients in our healthcare area

OBJECTIVE

a) to evaluate the appropriateness of histological criteria as proposed by Morson as indicators for surgery; and b) to compare the adequacy of Morson s criteria with Haggitt s levels as indicators for surgery in the case of malignant sessile lesions.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

we carried out a prospective, protocolized study of 42 patients with polyps with invasive carcinoma (IC) who underwent colonoscopic polypectomy from 1979 through 2008. We applied the histological criteria proposed by Morson to all the patients included in the series.

RESULTS

we treated 24 polyps with IC and favorable histological criteria (FC) and 18 polyps showing unfavorable histological criteria (UC). All polyps with FC were treated by means of colonoscopic polypectomy. None of the patients showed signs of disease after a mean follow-up period o f 9.67 yrs. Patients with polyps with UC were recommended to undergo surgery. The presence of unfavorable histological criteria in the polypectomy sample was clearly associated with an unfavorable patient outcome and showed a 100% sensitivity level, a negative prognostic value (NPV) of 100%, and a false negative (FN) percentage of 0% for the prognosis of the disease. We found 12 sessile polyps (Haggitt s level 4). Colonoscopic polypectomy was the treatment employed in 9 out of 12 cases. All patients are free from disease (mean follow-up 7.3 yrs). If Haggitt s level criteria had been applied, all 12 patients would have undergone surgery. This means 58% more patients than following Morson s criteria.

CONCLUSIONS

Morson s criteria are considered an adequate diagnostic tool for the indication of surgery in patients with malignant adenomas. Haggitt s invasion levels do not accurately discriminate the necessity for surgery in case of malignant sessile lesions.