Anti-proliferative effect of ginseng saponins on human prostate cancer cell line

Investigation on the mechanisms by which the herbal remedies induce anti-prostate cancer activity: uncovering the most practical natural compound

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most reported cancers among men worldwide. Targeting the essential proteins associated with PCa could be a promising method for cancer treatment. Traditional and herbal remedies (HRs) are the most practical approaches for PCa treatment. Here, the proteins and enzymes associated with PCa were determined based on the information obtained from the DisGeNET database. The proteins with a gene-disease association (GDA) score greater than 0.7 and the genes that have a disease specificity index (DSI) = 1 were selected as the target proteins. 28 HRs with anti-PCa activity as a traditional treatment for PCa were chosen as potential bioactive compounds. More than 500 compound-protein complexes were screened to find the top-ranked bioactives. The results were further evaluated using the molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and binding free energy calculations. The outcomes revealed that procyanidin B2 3,3'-di-O-gallate (B2G2), the most active ingredient of grape seed extract (GSE), can act as an agonist for PTEN. PTEN has a key role in suppressing PCa cells by applying phosphatase activity and inhibiting cell proliferation. B2G2 exhibited a considerable binding affinity to PTEN (11.643 kcal/mol). The MD results indicated that B2G2 could stabilize the key residues of the phosphatase domain of PTEN and increase its activity. Based on the obtained results, the active ingredient of GSE, B2G2, could play an agonist role and effectively increase the phosphatase activity of PTEN. The grape seed extract is a useful nutrition that can be used in men's diets to inhibit PCa in their bodies.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Recent advances in dietary androgen receptor inhibitors

As a nuclear transcription factor, the androgen receptor (AR) plays a crucial role not only in normal male sexual differentiation and growth of the prostate, but also in benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostatitis, and prostate cancer. Multiple population-based epidemiological studies demonstrated that prostate cancer risk was inversely associated with increased dietary intakes of green tea, soy products, tomato, and so forth. Therefore, this review aimed to summarize the structure and function of AR, and further illustrate the structural basis for antagonistic mechanisms of the currently clinically available antiandrogens. Due to the limitations of these antiandrogens, a series of natural AR inhibitors have been identified from edible plants such as fruits and vegetables, as well as folk medicines, health foods, and nutritional supplements. Hence, this review mainly focused on recent experimental, epidemiological, and clinical studies about natural AR inhibitors, particularly the association between dietary intake of natural antiandrogens and reduced risk of prostatic diseases. Since natural products offer multiple advantages over synthetic antiandrogens, this review may provide a comprehensive and updated overview of dietary-derived AR inhibitors, as well as their potential for the nutritional intervention against prostatic disorders.

Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of Rh2 and aPPD ginsenosides in prostate cancer: a drug interaction perspective

Ginsenoside Rh2 and its aglycon (aPPD) are one of the major metabolites from Panax ginseng. Preclinical studies suggest that Rh2 and aPPD have antitumor effects in prostate cancer (PCa). Our aims in this review are (1) to describe the pharmacokinetic (PK) properties of Rh2 and aPPD ginsenosides; 2) to provide an overview of the preclinical findings on the use of Rh2 and aPPD in the treatment of PCa; and (3) to highlight the mechanisms of its PK and pharmacodynamic (PD) drug interactions. Increasing evidence points to the potential efficacy of Rh2 or aPPD for PCa treatment. Based on the laboratory studies, Rh2 or aPPD combinations revealed an additive or synergistic interaction or enhanced sensitivity of anticancer drugs toward PCa. This review reveals that enhanced anticancer activities were demonstrated in preclinical studies through interactions of Rh2 and/or aPPD with the proteins related to PK (e.g., cytochrome P450 enzymes, transporters) or PD of the other anticancer drugs or PCa signaling pathways. In conclusion, combining Rh2 or aPPD with anti-prostate cancer drugs leads to PK or PD interactions which could facilitate either therapeutically beneficial or toxic effects.

Bioactive Compound-Loaded Nanocarriers for Hair Growth Promotion: Current Status and Future Perspectives

Hair loss (alopecia) has a multitude of causes, and the problem is still poorly defined. For curing alopecia, therapies are available in both natural and synthetic forms; however, natural remedies are gaining popularity due to the multiple effects of complex phytoconstituents on the scalp with fewer side effects. Evidence-based hair growth promotion by some plants has been reported for both traditional and advanced treatment approaches. Nanoarchitectonics may have the ability to evolve in the field of hair- and scalp-altering products and treatments, giving new qualities to hair that can be an effective protective layer or a technique to recover lost hair. This review will provide insights into several plant and herbal formulations that have been reported for the prevention of hair loss and stimulation of new hair growth. This review also focuses on the molecular mechanisms of hair growth/loss, several isolated phytoconstituents with hair growth-promoting properties, patents, in vivo evaluation of hair growth-promoting activity, and recent nanoarchitectonic technologies that have been explored for hair growth.

Polymer-Based Wound Dressings Loaded with Ginsenoside Rg3

The skin, the largest organ in the human body, mainly plays a protective role. Once damaged, it can lead to acute or chronic wounds. Wound healing involves a series of complex physiological processes that require ideal wound dressings to promote it. The current wound dressings have characteristics such as high porosity and moderate water vapor permeability, but they are limited in antibacterial properties and cannot protect wounds from microbial infections, which can delay wound healing. In addition, several dressings contain antibiotics, which may have bad impacts on patients. Natural active substances have good biocompatibility; for example, ginsenoside Rg3 has anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antioxidant, and other biological activities, which can effectively promote wound healing. Some researchers have developed various polymer wound dressings loaded with ginsenoside Rg3 that have good biocompatibility and can effectively promote wound healing and reduce scar formation. This article will focus on the application and mechanism of ginsenoside Rg3-loaded dressings in wounds.

Phytochemicals and Cancer Treatment: Cell-Derived and Biomimetic Vesicles as Promising Carriers

The majority of anticancer agents currently used derive from natural sources: plants, frequently the ones employed in traditional medicines, are an abundant source of mono- and diterpenes, polyphenols, and alkaloids that exert antitumor activity through diverse mechanisms. Unfortunately, many of these molecules are affected by poor pharmacokinetics and limited specificity, shortcomings that may be overcome by incorporating them into nanovehicles. Cell-derived nanovesicles have recently risen to prominence, due to their biocompatibility, low immunogenicity and, above all, targeting properties. However, due to difficult scalability, the industrial production of biologically-derived vesicles and consequent application in clinics is difficult. As an efficient alternative, bioinspired vesicles deriving from the hybridization of cell-derived and artificial membranes have been conceived, revealing high flexibility and appropriate drug delivery ability. In this review, the most recent advances in the application of these vesicles to the targeted delivery of anticancer actives obtained from plants are presented, with specific focus on vehicle manufacture and characterization, and effectiveness evaluation performed through in vitro and in vivo assays. The emerging overall outlook appears promising in terms of efficient drug loading and selective targeting of tumor cells, suggesting further engrossing developments in the future.

Role of Bioactive Constituents of Panax notoginseng in the Modulation of Tumorigenesis: A Potential Review for the Treatment of Cancer

Cancer is a leading cause of death, affecting people in both developed and developing countries. It is a challenging disease due to its complicated pathophysiological mechanism. Many anti-cancer drugs are used to treat cancer and reduce mortality rates, but their toxicity limits their administration. Drugs made from natural products, which act as multi-targeted therapy, have the ability to target critical signaling proteins in different pathways. Natural compounds possess pharmacological activities such as anti-cancer activity, low toxicity, and minimum side effects. Panax notoginseng is a medicinal plant whose extracts and phytochemicals are used to treat cancer, cardiovascular disorders, blood stasis, easing inflammation, edema, and pain. P. notoginseng's secondary metabolites target cancer's dysregulated pathways, causing cancer cell death. In this review, we focused on several ginsenosides extracted from P. notoginseng that have been evaluated against various cancer cell lines, with the aim of cancer treatment. Furthermore, an in vivo investigation of these ginsenosides should be conducted to gain insight into the dysregulation of several pathways, followed by clinical trials for the potential and effective treatment of cancer.

Ginsenosides emerging as both bifunctional drugs and nanocarriers for enhanced antitumor therapies

Ginsenosides, the main components isolated from Panax ginseng, can play a therapeutic role by inducing tumor cell apoptosis and reducing proliferation, invasion, metastasis; by enhancing immune regulation; and by reversing tumor cell multidrug resistance. However, clinical applications have been limited because of ginsenosides' physical and chemical properties such as low solubility and poor stability, as well as their short half-life, easy elimination, degradation, and other pharmacokinetic properties in vivo. In recent years, developing a ginsenoside delivery system for bifunctional drugs or carriers has attracted much attention from researchers. To create a precise treatment strategy for cancer, a variety of nano delivery systems and preparation technologies based on ginsenosides have been conducted (e.g., polymer nanoparticles [NPs], liposomes, micelles, microemulsions, protein NPs, metals and inorganic NPs, biomimetic NPs). It is desirable to design a targeted delivery system to achieve antitumor efficacy that can not only cross various barriers but also can enhance immune regulation, eventually converting to a clinical application. Therefore, this review focused on the latest research about delivery systems encapsulated or modified with ginsenosides, and unification of medicines and excipients based on ginsenosides for improving drug bioavailability and targeting ability. In addition, challenges and new treatment methods were discussed to support the development of these new tumor therapeutic agents for use in clinical treatment.

Synthesis and characterization of glycol chitosan coated selenium nanoparticles acts synergistically to alleviate oxidative stress and increase ginsenoside content in Panax ginseng

The objective of the present study is synthesis of glycol chitosan coated selenium nanoparticles (GC-Se NPs) and evaluation of oxidative stress and ginsenoside accumulation in P. ginseng C. A. Meyer. We synthesized (Se NPs and GC-Se NPs) and characterized using various spectroscopic analyses. The highest concentration (20 mg L^-1) of GC-Se NPs induced moderate ROS (O₂^- and H₂O₂) accumulation and upregulation of PgSOD and PgCAT showing good biocompatibility and less toxicity at the highest concentration. Furthermore, ginsenoside biosynthetic pathway genes (PgHMGR, PgSS, PgSE, PgDDS) also showed significant upregulation upon 20 mg L^-1 GC-Se NPs treatment. At 20 mg L^-1 GC-Se NPs treatment, ginsenoside accumulated upto 217.47 mg/mL and 169.86 mg/mL mainly due to the increased proportion of Rb1 and Re ginsenosides. Altogether, our results suggested that ecofriendly conjugation of GC with Se NPs could be used as a bio fortifier to enhance the ginsenoside profile and to increase the quality of ginseng roots.

1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 synergistically enhances anticancer effects of ginsenoside Rh2 in human prostate cancer cells

1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ (1,25(OH)₂D₃, commonly known as calcitriol), the most active metabolite of vitamin D₃, and ginsenoside Rh2 can regulate cellular differentiation and proliferation proteins. The purpose of the present study was to assess the effect of 1,25(OH)₂D₃ on the anticancer activities of Rh2 in human prostate cancer cells such as androgen-dependent LNCaP and androgen-independent C4-2 in vitro. The effects of treatment with 1,25(OH)₂D₃ or Rh2, either alone or in combination, on prostate cancer cells were evaluated through tetrazolium-based cell viability assay, BrdU cell proliferation rate estimation assay, and Western blot protein expression analyses of nuclear receptors (androgen receptor and vitamin D receptors) and apoptotic proteins (Bcl-2, Bax, and Caspase 3). The Combination Indices (CI) and Dose Reduction Indices (DRI) of 1,25(OH)₂D₃ and Rh2 were calculated to determine synergistic anticancer activity using Calcusyn software (Biosoft, Cambridge, UK). The cell viability assay data indicate that Rh2 treatment alone inhibited cell viability in a concentration-dependent manner and the addition of 10 nM 1,25(OH)₂D₃ to Rh2 significantly enhanced its ability to reduce cell viability up to 80 % in both the cell lines. Similarly, addition of 10 nM 1,25(OH)₂D₃ to Rh2 significantly lowered its IC₅₀ values for cell proliferation from the range of 32-65 μM to 14-8 μM in LNCaP and C4-2 cells. In addition, protein expression analyses indicated that the combined treatment with Rh2 and 1,25(OH)₂D₃ led to greater downregulation of androgen receptor expression compared to single agent exposure. Similarly, the presence of 1,25(OH)₂D₃ synergistically increased the pro-apoptotic actions of Rh2 in both the cell lines. Overall, 1,25(OH)₂D₃ augments the Rh2-mediated anticancer effects through stimulating apoptosis and reduced cell proliferation which suggests that synergism of this combination may lead to potential lower need of the active vitamin D₃ and limited toxicity from it.

Efficacy of Panax ginseng extract combined with cephalexin as a dry cow therapy

Our objective was to evaluate the efficacy of intramammary administration, at drying-off, of a Panax ginseng extract (PGe) combined with cephalexin (Ceph) on the post-calving bacteriological cure rate of pre-existing intramammary infections (IMI) and on the occurrence of new IMI during the dry period. In addition, milk yield and somatic cell count (SCC) in the post-treatment lactation were evaluated. One hundred and eight late-lactation cows were randomly divided into two experimental groups and were treated at drying-off with Ceph alone or PGe combined with Ceph.Cure rates for IMI present at drying-off were similar for both treatments (OR = 0.95, 95% CI = 0.33-2.74). Cure rates for Staphylococcus aureus were lower (OR = 15.4, 95% CI = 1.66-142.52) in quarters treated with PGe + Ceph than in those treated with Ceph alone. Intramammary infusion of PGe + Ceph at drying-off had no effect on preventing new dry period IMI (OR = 0.75, 95% CI = 0.38-1.51), compared with infusion of Ceph alone. Milk production and SCC in the ensuing lactation were not affected by PGe + Ceph treatment. In conclusion, addition of PGe to dry cow therapy did not show any advantage over the use of dry cow therapy alone.

20(S)-Protopanaxadiol inhibits epithelial-mesenchymal transition by promoting retinoid X receptor alpha in human colorectal carcinoma cells

Colorectal carcinoma (CRC) recurrence is often accompanied by metastasis. Most metastasis undergo through epithelial‐mesenchymal transition (EMT). Studies showed that retinol X receptor alpha (RXRα) and 20(S)‐Protopanaxadiol (PPD) have anti‐tumour effects. However, the anti‐metastasis effect of 20(S)‐PPD and the effect of RXRα on EMT‐induced metastasis are few studies on. Therefore, the role of RXRα and 20(S)‐PPD in CRC cell metastasis remains to be fully elucidated. RXRα with clinicopathological characteristics and EMT‐related expression in clinical samples were examined. Then, RXRα and EMT level in SW480 and SW620 cells, overexpressed and silenced RXRα in SW620 cells and SW480 cells, respectively, were evaluated. Finally, 20(S)‐PPD effect on SW620 and SW480 cells was evaluated. The results showed that a lower RXRα expression in cancer tissues, and a moderate negative correlation between RXRα and N stage, and tended to higher level of EMT. SW480 and SW620 cells had the highest and lowest RXRα expression among four CRC cell lines. SW480 had lower EMT level than SW620. Furthermore, 20(S)‐PPD increased RXRα and inhibited EMT level in SW620 cell. Finally, 20(S)‐PPD cannot restore SW480 cells EMT level to normal when RXRα silencing. These findings suggest that 20(S)‐PPD may inhibit EMT process in CRC cells by regulating RXRα expression.

Enhanced exosome-mediated delivery of black bean phytochemicals (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) for cancer treatment applications

Exosomes are a subpopulation of membrane-derived cellular vesicles (30-150 nm) that play an important role in intercellular communication. Because of their natural function as nanocarriers, several applications have been developed for these nanovesicles, including drug delivery. Here we loaded saponins and flavonoids obtained from a black bean extract (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) with antiproliferative activity into exosomes extracted from different cell lines to induce an enhanced response in vitro. We demonstrated that exosomes can be loaded with at least three different phytochemicals in a one-step process to deliver these compounds to recipient cells. Moreover, we found that the bioactivity of the exosomal extract is greater than those observed in other formulations of the same extract. Our results suggest that exosomes are a promising alternative for improved delivery of complex mixtures of bioactive compounds, such as plant extracts. Therefore, future applications for these nanovesicles may include the development of new products for human use with enhanced nutraceutical properties.

Functional Regulation of Ginsenosides on Myeloid Immunosuppressive Cells in the Tumor Microenvironment

Ginsenosides, the key components isolated from ginseng, have been extensively studied in antitumor treatment. Numerous studies have shown that ginsenosides have direct function in tumor cells through the induction of cancer cell apoptosis and the inhibition of cancer cell growth and enhance the antitumor immunity through the activation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells. However, little is known about the function of ginsenosides on myeloid immunosuppressive cells including dendritic cells in tumor, tumor-associated macrophages, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells in the tumor microenvironments. Those myeloid immunosuppressive cells play important roles in promoting tumor angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. In the review, we summarize the regulatory functions of ginsenosides on myeloid immunosuppressive cells in tumor microenvironment, providing the novel therapeutic methods for clinical cancer treatment.

Ginseng and heme oxygenase-1: The link between an old herb and a new protective system

Ginseng is an ancient herb, belonging to Asian traditional medicine, that has been considered as a restorative to enhance vitality for centuries. It has been demonstrated that the antioxidant action of ginseng may be mediated through activation of different cellular signaling pathways involving the heme oxygenase (HO) system. Several compounds derived from ginseng have been studied for their potential role in brain, heart and liver protection, and the Nrf2 pathway seems to be the most affected by these natural molecules to exert this effect. Ginseng is also popularly used in cancer patients therapy for the demonstrated capability to defend tissues from chemotherapy-induced damage. Reported results suggest that the effect of ginseng is primarily associated with ROS scavenging, mainly exerted through the activation of Nrf2 pathway, and the consequent induction of HO-1 levels. This review aims to discuss the connection between the antioxidant properties of ginseng and the activation of the HO system, as well as to outline novel therapeutic applications of this medicinal plant to human health.

Factors influencing cultivated ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) bioactive compounds

We aimed to investigate the effects of genome, age, and soil factors on cultivated Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer (CPG) compounds under identical climate and agronomic practices. Eight populations of CPG from different years and rhizosphere soils were collected from garden and cropland in the city of Ji'an, China. Inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) primers were used to detect genetic diversity and identity, and soil microbial community diversity. Soil enzyme activities and nutrients were also measured. The contents of total ginsenosides (TG), Rg1, Re, Rf, Rd, and ginsenoside extractions of CPG were analyzed by spectrophotometry and HPLC. The relative importance of each factor was analyzed by mathematical methods such as correlation analysis, stepwise line regression, and path analysis. Regression equations of similarity values of HPLC fingerprint (SVHF), richness index of HPLC fingerprint (RIHF) and the TG, Rg1, Re, Rf, and Rd contents with their respective significant correlation factors were obtained. For SVHF, the relative importance is age>microbial community diversity>genetic diversity. For RIHF, the relative importance is age>genetic diversity>microbial community diversity. For TG, Rg1, and Rf contents, the relative importance is age>microbial community diversity. Ginseng age and genetic identity influenced Rd content, and age was more important. Total phosphorus was the only directly negative effect on Re. According to regression equations and path analysis, increasing age and decreasing Shannon (H') could improve the TG, Rg1, and Rf contents, with little effect on SVHF. Adding age, genetic diversity, and decreasing Shannon (H') increased RIHF. Adding age and genetic identity could also improve Rd content. Appropriate decreases in total phosphorus might increase Re content. These findings are significant for CPG scientific cultivation methods, through which CPG bioactive ingredients could be finely controlled via regulation of genotypes and cultural conditions.

Chemical Structures and Pharmacological Profiles of Ginseng Saponins

Ginseng is a group of cosmopolitan plants with more than a dozen species belonging to the genus Panax in the family Araliaceae that has a long history of use in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Among the bioactive constituents extracted from ginseng, ginseng saponins are a group of natural steroid glycosides and triterpene saponins found exclusively throughout the plant. Studies have shown that these ginseng saponins play a significant role in exerting multiple therapeutic effects. This review covers their chemical structure and classification, as well as their pharmacological activities, including their regulatory effects on immunomodulation, their anticancer effects, and their functions in the central nervous and cardiovascular systems. The general benefits of ginseng saponins for boosting physical vitality and improving quality of life are also discussed. The review concludes with fruitful directions for future research in the use of ginseng saponins as effective therapeutic agents.

Ginsenoside Rg3 Combined with Oxaliplatin Inhibits the Proliferation and Promotes Apoptosis of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells via Downregulating PCNA and Cyclin D1

The present study aims to investigate the effects of ginsenoside Rg3 combined with oxaliplatin on the proliferation and apoptosis of hepatocellular carcinoma cells and the related mechanism. In this study, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was applied to examine the proliferation rate of hepatocellular carcinoma cell SMMC-7721 with different treatment. Flow cytometry was performed to examine apoptosis rate of hepatocellular carcinoma cells with different treatment. Immunofluorescence and Western blot methods were used to evaluate the expressions of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and cyclin D1 in different groups. We found that ginsenoside Rg3, oxaliplatin or ginsenoside Rg3 + oxaliplatin significantly suppressed the proliferation and promoted the apoptosis of SMMC-7721. Meanwhile, ginsenoside Rg3, oxaliplatin or ginsenoside Rg3 + oxaliplatin also significantly inhibited the expressions of PCNA and cyclin D1. Moreover, compared with ginsenoside Rg3 group and oxaliplatin group, the effect of ginsenoside Rg3 + oxaliplatin was more remarkable. Taken together, cells treated with oxaliplatin+ ginsenoside enhanced the anti-tumor effect and may inhibit the proliferation and promoted apoptosis of hepatocellular carcinoma via regulating the expression of PCNA and cyclin D1.

Rg6, a rare ginsenoside, inhibits systemic inflammation through the induction of interleukin-10 and microRNA-146a

The immunobiological functions of Rg6, a rare ginsenoside from ginseng, have been largely unreported. In this paper, we demonstrate that Rg6 has a significant immunosuppressive function on Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4-induced systemic inflammatory responses. Rg6 was found to negatively regulate pro-inflammatory responses and severity in vivo, and thus induced recovery in mice with lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced septic shock and cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis. Rg6 treatment also facilitated recovery in mice with LPS-induced lung damage via reduced neutrophil infiltration and tumor necrosis factor-α expression in lung tissues. Rg6 injection also downregulated pro-inflammatory cytokines and increased the levels of interleukin (IL)-10 in the serum of septic mice. Mechanistically, Rg6 did not induce TLR negative regulators, such as A20 and IRAK-M, in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). Instead, addition of Rg6 to LPS-activated BMDMs augmented IL-10 expression, whereas it inhibited inflammatory signaling, such as by nuclear factor κB activation and mitogen-activated protein kinases. Furthermore, Rg6 significantly induced miR-146a, an operator miRNA for anti-inflammation, in BMDMs. Collectively, these data indicate that Rg6 inhibits inflammatory responses through the induction of IL-10 and miR-146a.

Targeted delivery of 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg3-based polypeptide nanoparticles to treat colon cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major malignancy characterized by a high metastasis rate. Systematic chemotherapy is important for patients with advanced CRC. However, many limitations (e.g., side effects to normal organs, shorter circulation time, and unsatisfactory tumor inhibition results) of traditional chemotherapy restrict its further application. Thus, it is necessary to find a method to overcome these challenges and improve the efficacy of CRC treatment. In this study, 20(S)-ginsenoside (Rg3) co-loaded poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(L-glutamic acid-co-L-phenylalanine) (mPEG-b-P(Glu-co-Phe)) nanoparticles (Rg3-NPs) were prepared. mPEG-b-P(Glu-co-Phe)-based drug delivery systems are pH sensitive that can target cancer cells and circulate for longer in blood. Rg3 could be released rapidly from the nanoparticles within tumor cells. A subcutaneous colon cancer mouse model was developed to evaluate the anticancer efficiency of the Rg3-NPs. The in vivo study indicated that the Rg3-NPs could significantly inhibit tumor proliferation by decreasing the expressions of proliferating cell nuclear antigen, resulting in tumor apoptosis through the increased expressions of caspase-3. Our study demonstrated the marked potential of the Rg3-NPs to treat CRC.

Saponins as modulators of nuclear receptors

As plant-derived natural products, saponins have been widely applied for the dietary modification of metabolic syndrome. However, the underlying mechanisms of their preventive and therapeutic effects are still largely unclear. Nuclear receptors have been identified as potential pharmaceutical targets for treating various types of metabolic disorders. With similar structure to endogenous hormones, several saponins may serve as selective ligands for nuclear receptors. Recently, a series of saponins are proved to exert their physiological activities through binding to nuclear receptors. This review summarizes the biological and pharmacological activities of typical saponins mediated by some of the most well described nuclear receptors, including the classical steroid hormone receptors (ER, GR, MR, and AR) and the adopted orphan receptors (PPAR, LXR, FXR, and PXR).

Ginsenoside Rg3 suppresses the proliferation of prostate cancer cell line PC3 through ROS-induced cell cycle arrest

To investigate the potential antitumor effects of ginsenoside Rg3 in prostate cancer cells, the androgen-insensitive prostate cancer cell line PC3 was cultured and incubated with ginsenoside Rg3 in vitro. Cell number counts, cell proliferation assays and senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) staining were performed to evaluate cell proliferation. The results demonstrated that ginsenoside Rg3 led to cell proliferation arrest; ginsenoside Rg3 decreased the number of cells and increased the positive SA-β-gal staining rate in PC3 cells. Cell cycle analysis by flow cytometry revealed that ginsenoside Rg3 interfered with the G1/S transition in PC3 cells. The mechanism involved in ginsenoside Rg3-induced cell proliferation arrest was then further investigated. This indicated that the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in PC3 cells was upregulated by ginsenoside Rg3 treatment. Furthermore, pretreatment with N-acetyl-L-cysteine, a scavenger of ROS, was able to reverse the effects on cell number and cell cycle arrest induced by ginsenoside Rg3 in PC3 cells. These results indicate that ginsenoside Rg3 exhibits anticancer effects on prostate cancer cells through ROS-mediated arrest of the cell cycle.

In vitro antibacterial and anticancer properties of Helicteres hirsuta Lour. leaf and stem extracts and their fractions

Helicteres hirsuta Lour. (H. hirsuta) has been considered as a herbal medicine for the treatment of malaria and diabetes but limited studies have been conducted on its anticancer and antibacterial properties. In this study, the in vitro antibacterial and anticancer properties of the leaf and stem extracts and their two sub-fractions (aqueous and saponin-enriched butanol fractions) prepared from H. hirsuta were elucidated. MTT and CCK-8 assays were employed to assess their in vitro anticancer properties against various cancer cell lines. The antibacterial activity was assessed using the disc diffusion method and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values were determined. The results revealed that the saponin-enriched fractions from H. hirsuta leaves and stems showed the highest antibacterial activity against E. coli (MIC values of 2.50 and 5.00 mg/mL, respectively) and S. lugdunensis (MIC values of 0.35 and 0.50 mg/mL, respectively). Importantly, these saponin-enriched fractions possessed strong anticancer activity in vitro towards a range of cancer cell lines including MIA PaCa-2 (pancreas); A2780 (ovarian); H460 (lung); A431 (skin); Du145 (prostate); HT29 (colon); MCF-7 (breast); SJ-G2, U87, SMA (glioblastoma) and BE2-C (neuroblastoma) at low doses (GI₅₀ values of 0.36-11.17 µg/mL). They especially revealed potent anti-pancreatic cancer activity in vitro against MIA PaCa-2, BxPC-3 and CFPAC-1 cells with IC₅₀ values of 1.80-6.43 µg/mL. This finding provides scientific evidence of the cytotoxic activity of the extracts prepared from H. hirsuta leaves and stems, and suggests further studies to isolate active compounds for development of new anticancer agents from these plant extracts.

Functional mechanism of Ginsenosides on tumor growth and metastasis

Ginsengs, has long been used as one medicinal herb in China for more than two thousand years. Many studies have shown that ginsengs have preventive and therapeutic roles for cancer, and play a good complementary role in cancer treatment. Ginsenosides, as most important constituents of ginseng, have been extensively investigated and emphasized in cancer chemoprevention and therapeutics. However, the functional mechanism of Ginsenosides on cancer is not well known. This review will focus on introducing the functional mechanisms of ginsenosides and their metabolites, which regulate signaling pathways related with tumor growth and metastasis. Ginsenosides inhibit tumor growth via upregulating tumor apoptosis, inducing tumor cell differentiation and targeting cancer stem cells. In addition, Ginsenosides regulate tumor microenvironment via suppressing tumor angiogenesis-related proteins and pathways. Structural modification of ginsenosides and their administration alone or combinations with other Chinese medicines or chemical medicines have recently been developed to be a new therapeutic strategy for cancer.

20(S)-protopanaxadiol regio-selectively targets androgen receptor: anticancer effects in castration-resistant prostate tumors

We have explored the effects of 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (aPPD), a naturally derived ginsenoside, against androgen receptor (AR) positive castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) xenograft tumors and have examined its interactions with AR. In silico docking studies for aPPD binding to AR, alongside transactivation bioassays and in vivo efficacy studies were carried out in the castration-resistant C4-2 xenograft model. Immunohistochemical (IHC) and Western blot analyses followed by evaluation of AR, apoptotic, cell cycle and proliferative markers in excised tumors was performed. The growth of established CRPC tumors was inhibited by 53% with aPPD and a corresponding decrease in serum PSA was seen compared to controls. The IHC data revealed that Ki-67 was significantly lower for aPPD treated tumors and was associated with elevated p21 and cleaved caspase-3 expression, compared to vehicle treatment. Furthermore, aPPD decreased AR protein expression in xenograft tumors, while significantly upregulating p27 and Bax protein levels. In vitro data supporting this suggests that aPPD binds to and significantly inhibits the N-terminal or the DNA binding domains of AR. The AR androgen binding site docking score for androgen (dihydrotestosterone) was −11.1, while that of aPPD was −7.1. The novel findings described herein indicate aPPD potently inhibits PCa in vivo partly via inhibition of a site on the AR N-terminal domain. This manifested as cell cycle arrest and concurrent induction of apoptosis via an increase in Bax, cleaved-caspase-3, p27 and p21 expression.

Tanshinone II-A Inhibits Invasion and Metastasis of Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells in Vitro and in Vivo

Aims and Background

Tanshinone II-A is an alcohol extract of the root of the traditional Chinese medicinal plant Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, whose effects and mechanism in tumor metastasis are still unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of tanshinone II-A on tumor invasion and metastasis in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and its possible mechanism of action.

Methods and Study Design

The HCC cell lines HepG2 and SMMC-7721 were treated with tanshinone II-A at different doses. Invasion and metastasis of tumor cells were examined by in vitro and in vivo assays. The molecular mechanisms of tanshinone II-A for inhibiting invasion and metastasis of HCC cells were investigated by Western blot and gelatin zymography.

Results

Treatment with tanshinone II-A had inhibitory effects on the migration and invasion of HCC cells. Increasing doses resulted in enhanced inhibitory effects. At 0.5 mg/L, the inhibitory effect was noticeable. At 1 mg/L, the inhibitory rate was 53.15%. The inhibitory effect became stronger with time; among 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours of treatment, the most significant effects were observed at 72 hours. Tanshinone II-A also significantly inhibited in vivo metastasis of HepG2 cells. Tanshinone II-A inhibited in vitro and in vivo invasion and metastasis of HCC cells by reducing the expression of the metalloproteinases MMP2 and MMP9 and by blocking NF-kappa B activation.

Conclusions

Tanshinone II-A effectively inhibited invasion and metastasis of HCC cells in vitro and in vivo, partly by inhibiting the activity of MMP2 and MMP9, and partly via the NF-kappa B signal transduction pathway.

Prevention effect of rare ginsenosides against stress-hormone induced MTOC amplification

Stress has been suggested as one of important cause of human cancer without molecular biological evidence. Thus, we test the effect of stress-related hormones on cell viability and mitotic fidelity. Similarly to estrogen, stress hormone cortisol and its relative cortisone increase microtubule organizing center (MTOC) number through elevated expression of γ-tubulin and provide the Taxol resistance to human cancer cell lines. However, these effects are achieved by glucocorticoid hormone receptor (GR) but not by estrogen receptor (ER). Since ginsenosides possess steroid-like structure, we hypothesized that it would block the stress or estrogen-induced MTOC amplification and Taxol resistance. Among tested chemicals, rare ginsenoside, CSH1 (Rg6) shows obvious effect on inhibition of MTOC amplification, γ-tubulin induction and Taxol resistance. Comparing to Fulvestant (FST), ER-α specific inhibitor, this chemical can block the cortisol/cortisone-induced MTOC deregulation as well as ER-α signaling. Our results suggest that stress hormone induced tumorigenesis would be achieved by MTOC amplification, and CSH1 would be useful for prevention of stress-hormone or steroid hormone-induced chromosomal instability.

Ginseng on Nuclear Hormone Receptors

The first record of ginseng use dates back over two millennia, and ginseng is now popular in more than 35 countries. Ginsenosides are the pharmacological constituents responsible for the beneficial effects of ginseng. There is increasing evidence that ginseng and its bioactive ingredients are involved in the regulation of nuclear receptors, molecules that act in response to the specific binding of hormones, which link to a diverse array of signaling pathways, such as the ERK and PI3K/Akt pathways. Knowledge of the mechanism of how ginseng mediates these complexes is essential for the development of multi-target phytomedicine as possible therapy for different diseases. Here, we discuss the literature on the effects of ginseng and its constituents on estrogen, glucocorticoid, peroxisome proliferator-activated, and androgen nuclear hormone receptors, as well as how ginseng and its constituents exert their biological function in the treatment of cancer, obesity, and cardiovascular and neurological disorders. The accumulated results definitely show that the nuclear receptors are cellular targets of ginsenosides, but more rigorous data are required to establish and provide a scientific basis to confirm the suggested efficacy of ginseng or products with ginsenosides.

Characterization of the changes in eicosanoid profiles of activated macrophages treated with 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg3

In this study, we used ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry to assess the levels of eicosanoids from RAW264.7 macrophages treated with lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3). The production of nitric oxide (NO) and the secretion of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were increased in inflammatory macrophages treated with LPS. Rg3 treatment, however, decreased the levels of NO, TNF-α, and IL-6 in activated macrophages. Eicosanoids, known as major metabolites correlated with inflammation, have pro- or anti-inflammatory activities. For a detailed characterization of the eicosanoids altered by treatment with LPS and Rg3, the eicosanoids were profiled by multiple reaction monitoring. A total of 69 macrophage eicosanoids were analyzed and the profiling dataset was statistically analyzed. Principal component and hierarchical cluster analyses differentiated control cells from cells treated with LPS, Rg3, or LPS+Rg3 for 12 or 24h. Furthermore, 18 differentially regulated eicosanoids were found between macrophages treated with LPS for 24h and those treated with LPS+Rg3 for 24h (fold change>2, p value<0.05). These results indicate that Rg3 alters eicosanoid metabolism in activated macrophages treated with LPS. Furthermore, we also identified several eicosanoids correlated with the anti-inflammatory activity of Rg3.

Enhanced Rg3 negatively regulates Th1 cell responses

Background

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG; Panax ginseng Meyer) is a widely used medicinal herb known to exert various immune modulatory functions. KRG and one of its purified components, ginsenoside Rg3, are known to possess anti-inflammatory activities. How they impact helper T cell-mediated responses is not fully explored. In this study, we attempted to evaluate the effect of KRG extract (KRGE) and ginsenoside Rg3 on Th1 cell responses.

Methods

Using well-characterized T cell in vitro differentiation systems, we examined the effects of KRGE or enhanced Rg3 on the Th1-inducing cytokine production from dendritic cells (DC) and the naïve CD4⁺ T cells differentiation to Th1 cells. Furthermore, we examined the change of Th1 cell population in the intestine after treatment of enhanced Rg3. The influence of KRGE or enhanced Rg3 on Th1 cell differentiation was evaluated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction.

Results

KRGE significantly inhibited the production level of IL-12 from DCs and subsequent Th1 cell differentiation. Similarly, enhanced Rg3 significantly suppressed the expression of interferon gamma (IFNγ) and T-bet in T cells under Th1-skewing condition. Consistent with these effects in vitro, oral administration of enhanced Rg3 suppressed the frequency of Th1 cells in the Peyer's patch and lamina propria cells in vivo.

Conclusion

Enhanced Rg3 negatively regulates the differentiation of Th1 cell in vitro and Th1 cell responses in the gut in vivo, providing fundamental basis for the use of this agent to treat Th1-related diseases.

Mucilaginibacter hankyongensis sp. nov., isolated from soil of ginseng field Baekdu Mountain

A Gram-negative, non-motile, aerobic, and rod-shaped bacterial strain designated as BR5-28^T was isolated from the soil of a ginseng field at Baekdu Mountain Korea, and its taxonomic position was investigated using a polyphasic approach. Strain BR5-28^T grew at 10-42°C (optimum temperature, 30°C) and pH 5.5-8.5 (optimum pH, 7.0) on R2A agar medium without additional NaCl supplementation. Strain BR5- 28T exhibited β-glucosidase activity, which was responsible for its ability to transform the ginsenosides Rb1 and Rd (the two dominant active components of ginseng) to compound-K. Based on 16S rRNA gene phylogeny, the novel strain showed a new branch within the genus Mucilaginibacter of the family Sphingobacteriaceae, and formed clusters with Mucilaginibacter frigoritolerans FT22^T (95.8%) and Mucilaginibacter gotjawali SA3-7^T (95.7%). The G+C content of the genomic DNA was 45.1%. The predominant respiratory quinone was MK-7 and the major fatty acids were summed feature 3 (comprising C_16:1 ω6c and/or C_16:1 ω7c), iso-C_15:0 and anteiso-C_15:0. The major polar lipids were diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylglycerol and phosphatidylethanolamine. Strain BR5-28^T was differentiated genotypically and phenotypically from the recognized species of the genus Mucilaginibacter. The isolate therefore represents a novel species, for which the name Mucilaginibacter hankyongensis sp. nov. is proposed, with the type strain BR5-28^T (=KCTC 22274^T =DSM 21151^T).

Ginsenoside Rg3 inhibits the senescence of prostate stromal cells through down-regulation of interleukin 8 expression

Senescent stromal cells support the development of prostate cancer and are considered potential therapeutic targets. This research evaluated the regulatory effects of ginsenoside Rg3 on the senescence of prostatic stromal cells pre-incubated in medium supplemented with 0.5% fetal bovine serum. The results revealed that ginsenoside Rg3 decreased the number of stromal cells positively stained with a senescent cell marker (senescence-associated β-galactosidase). Ginsenoside Rg3 also increased the viability of stromal cells and promoted cell cycle transition from G0/G1 to S phase, as well as inhibited the carcinoma-associated fibroblast-like phenotype in prostate stromal cells, through the up-regulation of smooth muscle cell markers SM22 and smooth muscle myosin heavy chain. Conditioned medium collected from stromal cells treated with ginsenoside Rg3 exhibited an attenuated effect on the promotion of prostate cancer cell migration compared with conditioned medium from stromal cells without Rg3 treatment. Down-regulation of interleukin 8 (IL-8) in a dose- and time-dependent manner was observed in ginsenoside Rg3-treated stromal cells, and over-expression or addition of IL-8 reversed the anti-senescence role of Rg3 in prostate stromal cells. Furthermore, ginsenoside Rg3 down-regulated IL-8 expression by decreasing the reactive oxygen species level in prostatic stromal cells and reducing the transcriptional activity of IL-8 promoter by damping the transcription factors C/EBP β and p65 binding to IL-8 promoter. Our research revealed that ginsenoside Rg3 was able to inhibit prostate stromal cell senescence by down-regulating IL-8 expression. The results suggest a potential value for ginsenoside Rg3 in prostate cancer treatment through the targeting of pro-carcinogenic senescent stromal cells.

Comparative Analysis of the Rats' Gut Microbiota Composition in Animals with Different Ginsenosides Metabolizing Activity

Following oral intake of Panax ginseng, major ginsenosides are metabolized to deglycosylated ginsenosides by gut microbiota before absorption into the blood. As the composition of gut microbiota varies between individuals, metabolic activities are significantly different. We selected 6 rats with low efficiency metabolism (LEM) and 6 rats with high efficiency metabolism (HEM) from 60 rats following oral administration of Panax ginseng extract, and analyzed their gut microbiota composition using Illumina HiSeq sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. The components of gut microbiota between the LEM and HEM groups were significantly different. Between the 2 groups, S24-7, Alcaligenaceae, and Erysipelotrichaceae occupied most OTUs of the HEM group, which was notably higher than the LEM group. Furthermore, we isolated Bifidobacterium animalis GM1 that could convert the ginsenoside Rb1 to Rd. The result implies that these specific intestinal bacteria may dominate the metabolism of Panax ginseng.

Botanical drugs in Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese Medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

China and India have a long history in the therapeutic application of botanical drugs in traditional medicine. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and Ayurveda are considered as two of the most ancient systems of medicine, with history of more than two millennia. Medicinal plants are the principal medicinal materials used in both these systems.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review discusses about the histories of Ayurveda and TCM, the common medicinal plants species, the drug processing strategies used, and the current statuses of these traditional systems of medicine (TSM). Through the views presented in this article, we aim to provide a new perspective to herbal drug researchers for expanding and improving the utilization of botanical drugs and their therapeutic applications.

METHODS

A bibliographic investigation of Chinese and Indian pharmacopoeias, monographs and official websites was performed. Furthermore, information was obtained from scientific databases on ethnobotany and ethno medicines.

RESULTS

The review of Ayurveda and TCM ethno medicine indicates that both these systems have many medicinal materials in common. The studies carried out by the authors for comparison of plants from same genus from both these TSM's have been discussed to further bring focus to the utilization of "qualitatively" similar species which can be utilized and substituted for endangered or economically valued species. The overview of ancient literature and scientific findings for drugs in both these systems suggests that, the botanical drugs used in common and their processing methods can be explored further for extensive utilization in traditional medicine.

CONCLUSION

This review describes the histories, common medicinal plant species, their processing methods and therapeutic applications in Ayurveda and TCM. The insights provided through this article may be used by herbal drug researchers and pharmacologists for further exploration of botanical drugs from these two traditional systems of medicine.

Antinociceptive Effects of Ginsenoside Rg3 in a Rat Model of Incisional Pain

BACKGROUND

Ginsenoside Rg3 is an extract of total ginseng saponins, which accounts for 4.7% of all saponins. This study aimed to identify the mechanisms of the antinociceptive effects of ginsenoside Rg3.

METHODS

Rats were randomly divided into six groups, which were treated with vehicle or 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, or 4 mg/kg of ginsenoside Rg3 intraperitoneally 2 h after a plantar incision was made. To evaluate the mechanisms of antinociceptive effects, the rats were intraperitoneally injected with naloxone 5 mg/kg, atropine 1 mg/kg, yohimbine 2 mg/kg, mecamylamine 1 mg/kg, prazosin 1 mg/kg, and dexmedetomidine 5 μg/kg. Hyperalgesia produced by the plantar incision was assessed using von Frey filaments 1 day before the incision (BI) and 2 h after the plantar incision (AP); this measurement was repeated at 15, 30, 45, 60, 80, 100 and 120 min, and 24 and 48 h after the injection of ginsenoside Rg3. Serum interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels were measured 1 day before incision and 120 min, 24 h, and 48 h after the injection of ginsenoside Rg3 or vehicle.

RESULTS

The mechanical withdrawal threshold (MWT) significantly increased in the group that received ginsenoside Rg3. The dose-MWT response showed a curvilinear, bell-shaped relationship. The maximum MWT was found with the administration of ginsenoside Rg3 at 1.5 mg/kg; MWT decreased to 2 and 4 mg/kg. Yohimbine diminished the analgesic effect of ginsenoside Rg3. Prazosin and dexmedetomidine increased the analgesic effect of ginsenoside Rg3. IL-1β and IL-6 appeared significantly lower relative to control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Ginsenoside Rg3 has an analgesic effect with a curvilinear dose-response relationship. Alpha 2 adrenergic receptor appeared to be related to the analgesic effect of ginsenoside Rg3. Also, the anti-inflammatory effect of ginsenoside Rg3 could be related to its analgesic effect.

Calcitriol and 20(S)-protopanaxadiol synergistically inhibit growth and induce apoptosis in human prostate cancer cells

The potential cancer preventive roles of calcitriol, the dihydroxylated metabolite of Vitamin D3, as well as 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (aPPD), the aglycone of the protopanaxadiol family of ginsenosides, have gained much attention in recent years for the prevention/treatment of prostate cancer (PCa). In the present study, we evaluated the anticancer and chemosensitization effects of calcitriol at clinically relevant concentrations and aPPD, either alone or in combination, in two well-characterized human PCa cell lines: androgen-sensitive non-metastatic LNCaP cells and androgen-independent metastatic C4-2 cells. The effects of the treatments on PCa cell viability and proliferation rates were evaluated by MTS and Brdu assays, respectively. Combination Indices (CI) and Dose Reduction Indices (DRI) were estimated to assess synergistic anticancer activity using Calcusyn software (Biosoft, Cambridge, UK). Then, we determined the potential Pharmacodynamic interaction mechanisms as follows: The protein expression levels of the genes those are known to control cell cycle (cyclin D1 and cdk2); apoptosis (Bcl-2, Bax, and Capspases 3), androgen receptor and Vitamin D receptors were examined upon combinational treatment. The cell viability assay data show that addition of 10nM calcitriol to aPPD significantly lowered its IC50 values from the range of 41-53μM to 13-23μM, in LNCaP and C4-2 prostate cancer cells. The cell proliferation rate was significantly lower for combination treatments compared to the cells treated with aPPD alone. Similarly, Western blot results indicate that aPPD significantly upregulated Vitamin D receptor (VDR) expression, while calcitriol further enhanced the ability of aPPD to induce pro-apoptotic BAX, increased cleaved caspase-3 and downregulate cdk2 protein levels. Thus, the pharmacodynamic interaction between aPPD and calcitriol in impacting growth inhibition and apoptosis appears to be synergistic in nature. In conclusion, calcitriol sensitizes PCa cells to aPPD-mediated anticancer effects by enhancing its ability to induce apoptosis and reduce cell proliferation, and this synergism may limit calcitriol toxicity by facilitating the use of lower calcitriol doses. The associated increase in VDR expression and calcitriol half-life may be mechanistically associated with this sensitization effect.

Neuroprotective effects of 20(S)-protopanaxadiol against glutamate-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in PC12 cells

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Mey.) is commonly used in traditional oriental medicine for its wide spectrum of medicinal properties, including anti-inflammatory, antitumorigenic, adaptogenic and anti-aging properties. 20(S)-Protopanaxadiol (PPD), the main intestinal metabolite of ginsenosides, is one of the active ingredients in ginseng. In this study, we aimed to investigate the neuroprotective effects of PPD on PC12 cells; however, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. We examined cell viability by MTT assay and the morphological changes of PC12 cells following glutamate-induced cell damage and evaluated the anti-apoptotic effects of PPD using Hoechst 33258 staining, western blot analysis and Muse™ Cell Analyzer and the antioxidant effects of PPD using FACS analysis and immunofluorescence. Furthermore, PPD exerted protective effects on PC12 cells via the inhibition of mitochondrial damage against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity using immunofluorescence, electron microscopy and FACS analysis. We demonstrate that treatment with PPD suppresses apoptosis, which contributes to the neuroprotective effects of PPD against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity in PC12 cells. Treatment with PPD inhibited nuclear condensation and decreased the number of Annexin V-positive cells. In addition, PPD increased antioxidant activity and mitochondrial homeostasis in the glutamate-exposed cells. These antioxidant effects were responsible for the neuroprotection and enhanced mitochondrial function following treatment with PPD. Furthermore, PD inhibited the glutamate-induced morphological changes in the mitochondria and scavenged the mitochondrial and cytosolic reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced by glutamate. In addition, mitochondrial function was significantly improved in terms of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and enhanced mitochondrial mass compared with the cells exposed to glutamate and not treated with PPD. Taken together, the findings of our study indicate that the antioxidant effects and the enhanced mitochondrial function triggered by PPD contribute to the inhibition of apoptosis, thus leading to a neuroprotective response, as a novel survival mechanism.

20-(s)-ginsenoside Rg3 induces apoptotic cell death in human leukemic U937 and HL-60 cells through PI3K/Akt pathways

Leukemia is currently one of the most deadly diseases. Ginseng has been used in Asian countries for the treatment and prevention of various diseases, including leukemia, but the molecular mechanism of its antileukemia activity has not been well defined. The aim of this study was to explore the effect of 20-(s)-ginsenoside Rg3 on apoptosis in human leukemic U937 and HL-60 cells and the underlying mechanism. We found that 20-(s)-ginsenoside Rg3 reduced cell viability and induced apoptosis in U937 and HL-60 cells. The induction of apoptosis was accompanied by the downregulation of PI3K/Akt family proteins. Moreover, we observed that 20-(s)-ginsenoside Rg3 treatment resulted in activation of caspase-3 and caspase-9. Taken together, our findings suggest for the first time that 20-(s)-ginsenoside Rg3 can promote apoptosis in U937 and HL-60 cells, at least partly through the downregulation of PI3K/Akt family proteins. Moreover, the triggering of caspase-3 and caspase-9 activation mediated apoptotic induction. All these findings collectively demonstrate that the natural compound 20-(s)-ginsenoside Rg3 effectively induces apoptosis in human leukemic cells, which suggests that this compound may play a role in future therapies for leukemia.

Yang-tonifying traditional Chinese medicinal plants and their potential phytoandrogenic activity

The concept of phytoandrogens, plants that contain androgens or those that stimulate androgenic activity in men, is relatively new. In traditional Chinese medicine a number of phytoandrogens are classified in medicinal plant restoratives for reinforcing yang, and they find their application in the treatment of the kidney yang deficiency diseases. In this review, the phytoandrogens used in traditional Chinese medicine are listed, and their proven applications in the treatment of kidney yang deficiency diseases, such as sexual disorders, cancer, and obesity and associated metabolic syndromes are presented. As a background, the mechanism of action of androgens, their synthesis and metabolism, the interrelations of androgens and estrogens, as well as the state of art methods to detect and analyze these hormonal activities in medicinal plants are discussed.

Cytotoxicity effect of degraded and undegraded kappa and iota carrageenan in human intestine and liver cell lines

Background

Carrageenan is a linear sulphated polysaccharide extracted from red seaweed of the Rhodophyceae family. It has broad spectrum of applications in biomedical and biopharmaceutical field. In this study, we determined the cytotoxicity of degraded and undegraded carrageenan in human intestine (Caco-2; cancer and FHs 74 Int; normal) and liver (HepG2; cancer and Fa2N-4; normal) cell lines.

Methods

Food grade k-carrageenan (FGKC), dried sheet k-carrageenan (DKC), commercial grade k-carrageenan (CGKC), food grade i-carrageenan (FGIC) and commercial grade i-carrageenan (CGIC) were dissolved in hydrochloric acid and water to prepare degraded and undegraded carrageenan, respectively. Carrageenan at the concentration range of 62.5 – 2000.0 μg mL⁻¹ was used in the study. MTT assay was used to determine the cell viability while the mode of cell death was determined by May-Grunwald Giemsa (MGG) staining, acridine orange-ethidium bromide (AO/EtBr) staining, agarose gel electrophoresis and gene expression analysis.

Results

Degraded FGKC, DKC and CGKC showed IC₅₀ in 24, 48 and 72 hours treated Caco-2, FHs 74 Int, HepG2 and Fa2N-4 cell lines as tested by MTT assay. Degraded FGIC and CGIC only showed its toxicity in Fa2N-4 cells. The characteristics of apoptosis were demonstrated in degraded k-carrageenan treated Caco-2, FHs 74 Int, HepG2 and Fa2N-4 cells after MGG staining. When Caco-2 and HepG2 cells were undergone AO/EtBr staining, chromatin condensation and nuclear fragmentation were clearly seen under the microscope. However, DNA ladder was only found in HepG2 cells after gel electrophoresis analysis. Degraded k-carrageenan also inactivated PCNA, Ki-67 and survivin gene in HepG2. On the other hand, undegraded FGKC, DKC, CGKC, FGIC and CGIC treated cells showed no cytotoxic effect after analyzed by the same analyses as in degraded carrageenan.

Conclusion

Degraded k-carrageenan inhibited cell proliferation in Caco-2, FHs 74 Int, HepG2 and Fa2N-4 cell lines and the anti-proliferative effect was related to apoptosis together with inactivation of cell proliferating genes as determined by morphological observation and molecular analysis. However, no cytotoxic effect was found in undegraded carrageenan towards normal and cancer intestine and liver cell lines.

Red ginseng extract promotes the hair growth in cultured human hair follicles

Ginseng has been shown to promote hair growth in several recent studies. However, its effects on human hair follicles and its mechanisms of action have not been sufficiently elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the hair growth-promoting effects of red ginseng extract (RGE) and its ginsenosides. The proliferative activities of cultured human hair follicles treated with RGE and ginsenoside-Rb1 were assessed using Ki-67 immunostaining. Their effects on isolated human dermal papilla cells (hDPCs) were evaluated using cytotoxicity assays, immunoblot analysis of signaling proteins, and the determination of associated growth factors. We examined the ability of RGE and ginsenosides to protect hair matrix keratinocyte proliferation against dihydrotestosterone (DHT)-induced suppression and their effects on the expression of androgen receptor. The in vivo hair growth-promoting effect of RGE was also investigated in C57BL/6 mice. Both RGE and ginsenoside-Rb1 enhanced the proliferation of hair matrix keratinocytes. hDPCs treated with RGE or ginsenoside-Rb1 exhibited substantial cell proliferation and the associated phosphorylation of ERK and AKT. Moreover, RGE, ginsenoside-Rb1, and ginsenoside-Rg3 abrogated the DHT-induced suppression of hair matrix keratinocyte proliferation and the DHT-induced upregulation of the mRNA expression of androgen receptor in hDPCs. Murine experiments revealed that the subcutaneous injection of 3% RGE resulted in more rapid hair growth than the negative control. In conclusion, RGE and its ginsenosides may enhance hDPC proliferation, activate ERK and AKT signaling pathways in hDPCs, upregulate hair matrix keratinocyte proliferation, and inhibit the DHT-induced androgen receptor transcription. These results suggest that red ginseng may promote hair growth in humans.

Renoprotective effect of red ginseng in gentamicin-induced acute kidney injury

Aminoglycoside-induced nephrotoxicity is one of the prevalent causes of acute kidney injury (AKI). Oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis of renal tubular cells is known to be a major mechanism of renal injury. Red ginseng extract (RGE) has been reported to possess antioxidant and immune-modulatory activities. We investigated the effect of RGE on gentamicin (GM)-induced apoptosis and oxidative stress in cultured renal tubular cells and animal model of GM-induced AKI. GM induced the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) with an increase in NADPH oxidase (NOX) activity and mitochondrial oxidation in NRK-52E cells that were ameliorated with RGE. GM-induced apoptosis of NRK-52E cells, which was associated with an increased expression of mitochondrial Bax, cytosolic cytochrome c, and cleaved caspase-9 and -3, along with a decrease in bcl-2 expression, was also blocked by RGE. In an animal model of GM-induced AKI, RGE treatment significantly attenuated renal dysfunction, cell apoptosis, and tubular damage. RGE ameliorated ROS production in rats with GM-induced AKI, as demonstrated by an increase in the reduced form of glutathione in renal cortex and a decrease in urinary excretion of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine. Our results suggest that RGE protects the kidney from GM-induced AKI via the mechanism of modulation of oxidative stress.