Post-transcriptional inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase by Gö6976 in murine microglia

Regulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase gene in glial cells

Elevated levels of NO produced within the central nervous system (CNS) are associated with the pathogenesis of neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative human diseases such as multiple sclerosis, HIV dementia, brain ischemia, trauma, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. Resident glial cells in the CNS (astroglia and microglia) express inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and produce high levels of NO in response to a wide variety of proinflammatory and degenerative stimuli. Although pathways resulting in the expression of iNOS may vary in two different glial cells of different species, the intracellular signaling events required for the expression of iNOS in these cells are slowly becoming clear. Various signaling cascades converge to activate several transcription factors that control the transcription of iNOS in glial cells. The present review summarizes different results and discusses current understandings about signaling mechanisms for the induction of iNOS expression in activated glial cells. A complete understanding of the regulation of iNOS expression in glial cells is expected to identify novel targets for therapeutic intervention in NO-mediated neurological disorders.

Microglia induce neural cell death via a proximity-dependent mechanism involving nitric oxide

Microglial cells play a major role in the pathogenesis of many neurological diseases by exacerbating neuronal and non-neuronal cell death, but the mechanisms involved are unclear. To investigate the microglial-neuronal interactions, we used the murine BV-2 microglial cell line and the human neuronal-like SK-N-SH neuroblastoma cell line in a co-culture system that enabled proximity-dependent interaction and communication, a trans-well system that allowed proximity-independent communication through diffusible molecules only, and a conditioned media system through which no proximity-dependent interactions or cell-to-cell communication is possible. Activation of BV-2 cells with lipopolysaccharide and interferon-gamma (LPS/IFN-gamma) decreased viability of the BV-2 cells alone and in co-cultures with SK-N-SH cells, but not SK-N-SH cells grown alone. In contrast, activation of BV-2 cells in the trans-well and conditioned media system did not have any effect on the viability of SK-N-SH cells, suggesting that microglia must be in close proximity to the neural cells to elicit cytotoxicity. To determine the molecules involved in proximity-dependent cell death, inhibitors of microglial activation were investigated. Only the specific inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) inhibitor S-methylisothiourea, and hypothermia, which is known to suppress microglial iNOS expression, prevented cell death after LPS/IFN-gamma activation. These results suggest that activated microglia release nitric oxide that is, at least partially, responsible for proximity-dependent microglial-mediated neural toxicity.

Catalase induces the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase through activation of NF-κB and PI3K signaling pathway in Raw 264.7 cells

It has been reported that macrophages produce substantial amounts of nitrite and nitrate after addition of catalase, but the mechanism associated remains unclear. In present study, we investigated whether catalase modulates the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), an enzyme that produces nitric oxide. Exposure of Raw 264.7 macrophages (Raw cells) to catalase induced high expression of iNOS mRNA as well as protein with enzymatic activity. Data of mechanical analyses, such as iNOS promoter-driven luciferase assay and actinomycin D chase experiments demonstrated that the induction was due to increased iNOS transcription and post-transcriptional iNOS mRNA stability. Of interest, catalase-induced iNOS protein expression was abrogated through inactivation of NF-kappaB pathway by MG132 or BAY 11-7085 and PI3K pathway by LY294002 or wortmannin, respectively. In particular, blockage of PI3K pathway by LY294002 down-regulated iNOS transcription and steady-state iNOS mRNA levels as well as iNOS mRNA stability induced by catalase, suggesting regulation of PI3K pathway in catalase-induced iNOS expression at the levels of iNOS transcription, steady-state mRNA status, and mRNA stability. Additional cell culture works in different types of cells indicated that iNOS expression by catalase might be cell type-specific, based on the facts that catalase induced iNOS expression in BV2 microglial macrophage-like cells, but not in HT-29 or A549, human colon or lung cancer epithelial-like cells. Together, these results demonstrate for the first time that catalase induces iNOS expression in Raw cells, which seems to be associated with the increase of iNOS transcription and mRNA stability as well as the activation of NF-kappaB and PI3K signaling pathways.

Hypothermia suppresses inducible nitric oxide synthase and stimulates cyclooxygenase-2 in lipopolysaccharide stimulated BV-2 cells

Hypothermia is neuroprotective, possibly through suppression of microglial activation. We investigated the effects of hypothermia on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated BV-2 cells. At 37 degrees C, LPS elicited strong increases in inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), nitric oxide (NO), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), and interleukin-6 (IL-6), accompanied by translocation of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) to the nucleus. Hypothermia (33 degrees C) caused complete suppression of iNOS and NO, a partial reduction of IL-6 but did not prevent TNF-alpha production or NF-kappaB translocation. In contrast, LPS induced cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) to higher levels under hypothermic conditions. These results show that hypothermia selectively suppresses iNOS in microglia.

Gö6976 inhibits LPS-induced microglial TNFalpha release by suppressing p38 MAP kinase activation

Microglial responses to endotoxin, including the synthesis of inflammatory factors, contribute to gliosis and neuron degeneration in cultured brain tissue. We have previously shown that Gö6976, a protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor, suppressed the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced production of inflammatory factors in microglia and afforded marked protection of neurons from glia-mediated cytotoxicity. The purpose of this study was to identify the signal transduction pathway underlying the neuroprotective effect of Gö6976. Gö6976 suppressed the LPS-induced release of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) in the microglial cell line, BV2. We show in this study the inhibitory effect of Gö6976 on TNFalpha release occurring through suppression of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation and not through a PKC mechanism. While Gö6976 did not inhibit the activity of p38 MAPK directly, it did suppress its activation by phosphorylation, indicating the target of action of Gö6976 is a signaling event upstream of p38 MAPK. Although Gö6976 is considered a selective inhibitor of certain PKC isozymes, suppression of TNFalpha production was not mediated through inhibition of PKC activity. Gö6976 appears to play a novel role in neuroprotection by suppressing the release of pro-inflammatory factors by inhibiting the activation of p38 MAPK in microglia, rather than a PKC isoform.

Regulating factors for microglial activation

Microglia, residential macrophages in the central nervous system, can release a variety of factors including cytokines, chemokines, etc. to regulate the communication among neuronal and other types of glial cells. Microglia play immunological roles in mechanisms underlying the phagocytosis of invading microorganisms and removal of dead or damaged cells. When microglia are hyperactivated due to a certain pathological imbalance, they may cause neuronal degeneration. Pathological activation of microglia has been reported in a wide range of conditions such as cerebral ischemia, Alzheimer's disease, prion diseases, multiple sclerosis, AIDS dementia, and others. Nearly 5000 papers on microglia can be retrieved on the Web site PubMed at present (November 2001) and half of them were published within the past 5 years. Although it is not possible to read each paper in detail, as many factors as possible affecting microglial functions in in vitro culture systems are presented in this review. The factors are separated into "activators" and "inhibitors," although it is difficult to classify many of them. An overview on these factors may help in the development of a new strategy for the treatment of various neurodegenerative diseases.

Gö6976 protects mesencephalic neurons from lipopolysaccharide-elicited death by inhibiting p38 MAP kinase phosphorylation

Glial activation is associated with inflammation-related neuron degeneration in the brain. A variety of protein kinases are assumed to contribute to the expression of inflammation-related products, such as nitric oxide (NO) and proinflammatory cytokines, however, the mechanisms of glial activation and glia-mediated neurotoxicity remain unclear. We found that the indolocarbazole, Gö6976, originally known as a selective protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor, protects neurons from glia-mediated damage and suppresses lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced microglial production of inflammatory factors. The purpose of the study we report here was to determine the mechanism underlying the neuroprotective effect of Gö6976 in mesencephalic neuron/glia cultures. Gö6976 suppressed LPS-induced neurotoxicity in mesencephalic neuron/glia cultures and the protective effect of Gö6976 paralleled the suppression of p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation and inhibition of NO production. Gö6976 did not directly inhibit the activity of p38 MAPK; rather, the inhibitor suppressed the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK, suggesting that the target of Gö6976 is a signaling event upstream of p38 MAPK. Although Gö6976 was originally known to be a selective PKC inhibitor, the neuroprotection was not mediated through its reputed effects on PKC activity. This paper demonstrates that the neuroprotective effect of Gö6976 against LPS-induced damage is mediated through the inhibition of proinflammatory factors, such as NO from microglia, by inhibiting the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK.

Role of nitric oxide in inflammation-mediated neurodegeneration

Increasing evidence has suggested that inflammation in the brain is closely associated with the pathogenesis of several degenerative neurologic disorders, including Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's diseases, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and AIDS dementia. The hallmark of brain inflammation is the activation of glial cells, especially that of microglia that produce a variety of proinflammatory and neurotoxic factors, including cytokines, fatty acid metabolites, free radicals--such as nitric oxide (NO) and superoxide. Excessive production of NO, as a consequence of nitric oxide synthase induction in activated glia, has been attributed to participate in neurodegeneration. Using primary mixed neuron-glia cultures and glia-enriched cultures prepared from embryonic rodent brain tissues, we have systemically studied the relationship between the production of NO and neurodegeneration in response to stimulation by the inflammagen lipopolysaccharide. This review summarizes our recent findings on the kinetics of NO generation, the relative contribution of microglia and astrocytes to NO accumulation, the relationship between NO production and neurodegeneration, and points of intervention along the pathways associated with NO generation to achieve neuroprotection. We also describe our results relating to the effect of several opioid-related agents on microglial activation and neuroprotection. Among these agents, the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone, especially its non-opioid enantiomer (+)-naloxone, promises to be of potential therapeutic value for the treatment of inflammation-related diseases.

p38 MAP kinase is involved in lipopolysaccharide-induced dopaminergic neuronal cell death in rat mesencephalic neuron-glia cultures

Immune stimulants, such as the bacterial endotoxin, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the human immunodeficiency virus-1 coat protein gp120, or beta-amyloid peptides, lead to glial activation and production of various immune mediators, such as nitric oxide (NO) and proinflammatory cytokines in the brain. These mediators appear to contribute to neuronal cell death in neurodegenerative diseases. However, the signaling pathways, which mediate the neurotoxic effect by the endotoxin, are not understood. The purpose of this study was to determine the role of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) in LPS-induced neurodegeneration using mesencephalic dopaminergic neuron/glia cultures. We have found that the p38 MAPK is important in LPS-induced death of mesencephalic neurons in rat neuron-glia mixed cultures. Upon treatment with 10 ng/ml LPS, the number of dopaminergic neurons decreased by 80% within 48 h, preceded by a significant production of NO by glia. Neuroprotection by selective inhibition of p38 MAPK activity paralleled a decrease in LPS-induced inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression. These events were significantly reduced by the selective p38 MAPK inhibitor, SB202190, but not by the inactive analogue SB202474. Inhibition of iNOS activity and NO production by treatment with GW274150 was also neuroprotective. Although the p38 MAPK inhibitor afforded significant neuroprotection from LPS toxicity in the neuron-glia mixed culture, it failed to protect dopaminergic neurons from 6-hydroxy-dopamine-induced toxicity, which acts directly on dopaminergic neurons by inducing hydroxyl radical formation from the mitochondria. The results suggest that p38 MAPK in glia plays a significant role in the LPS-induced death of mesencephalic neurons through induction of nitric oxide synthase and resulting NO production.

Time dependency of the action of nitric oxide in lipopolysaccharide-interferon-gamma-induced neuronal cell death in murine primary neuron-glia co-cultures

We investigated the time-dependency of the action of nitric oxide (NO) on glia-mediated neuronal cell death. Cortical neuron-glia co-cultures were treated with lipopolysaccharide and interferon gamma (LPS/IFNgamma). The production of NO was first detectable 9 h after the exposure to LPS/IFNgamma and increased for up to 48 h. A significant neuronal cell death was observed 36-48 h after treatment with LPS/IFNgamma. The NO generated at the initial stage of NO synthesis (about 12 h) following exposure to LPS/IFNgamma was found to be critical for LPS/IFNgamma-induced neurotoxicity. Furthermore, the rate of NO production at the initial stage of NO synthesis was correlated linearly with the extent of neuronal cell death. These findings suggest that the maximal rate of NO synthesis, instead of the accumulated NO(2)(-) level, is a sensitive index for predicting endotoxin-induced cytotoxicity.

The indolocarbazole Gö6976 protects neurons from lipopolysaccharide/interferon-gamma-induced cytotoxicity in murine neuron/glia co-cultures

The expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and the production of nitric oxide (NO) after exposure to endotoxins has been implicated in immune-mediated neurotoxicity. The indolocarbazole compound Gö6976, which has been described as a selective protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor in vitro, rescued neurons from lipopolysaccharide/interferon-gamma (LPS/IFNgamma)- or interleukin-1alpha/tumor necrosis alpha/IFNgamma (IL-1alpha/TNFalpha/IFNgamma)-induced cytotoxicity in murine primary neuron-glia co-cultures. Other compounds known to inhibit PKC, Ro31-8220, GF109203X, Gö7874, H7, staurosporine and H89, failed to rescue neurons from the LPS/IFNgamma-induced cytotoxicity. These results suggest that the neuroprotection by Gö6976 from the LPS/IFNgamma-induced neuronal cell death is not mediated through its reputed effects on PKC activity. The neuroprotection paralleled the inhibition of iNOS gene expression and NO production. However, further analyses correlating NO production with the extent of neurotoxicity suggested that additional mechanism(s) besides the inhibition of the iNOS/NO system may be responsible for the neuroprotective effects of Gö6976. An understanding of the mechanism underlying the neuroprotective effect of Gö6976 may provide key insights into potential interventions for immune-mediated neurodegenerative diseases.