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Hashemi A, Ezati M, Nasr MP, Zumberg I, Provaznik V. Extracellular Vesicles and Hydrogels: An Innovative Approach to Tissue Regeneration. ACS Omega 2024; 9:6184-6218. [PMID: 38371801 PMCID: PMC10870307 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c08280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles have emerged as promising tools in regenerative medicine due to their inherent ability to facilitate intercellular communication and modulate cellular functions. These nanosized vesicles transport bioactive molecules, such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, which can affect the behavior of recipient cells and promote tissue regeneration. However, the therapeutic application of these vesicles is frequently constrained by their rapid clearance from the body and inability to maintain a sustained presence at the injury site. In order to overcome these obstacles, hydrogels have been used as extracellular vesicle delivery vehicles, providing a localized and controlled release system that improves their therapeutic efficacy. This Review will examine the role of extracellular vesicle-loaded hydrogels in tissue regeneration, discussing potential applications, current challenges, and future directions. We will investigate the origins, composition, and characterization techniques of extracellular vesicles, focusing on recent advances in exosome profiling and the role of machine learning in this field. In addition, we will investigate the properties of hydrogels that make them ideal extracellular vesicle carriers. Recent studies utilizing this combination for tissue regeneration will be highlighted, providing a comprehensive overview of the current research landscape and potential future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Hashemi
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 3082/12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Masoumeh Ezati
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 3082/12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Minoo Partovi Nasr
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 3082/12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Inna Zumberg
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 3082/12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Valentine Provaznik
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 3082/12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic
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2
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Wang KH, Liu CH, Tan DH, Nieh MP, Su WF. Block Sequence Effects on the Self-Assembly Behaviors of Polypeptide-Based Penta-Block Copolymer Hydrogels. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2024; 16:6674-6686. [PMID: 38289014 PMCID: PMC10859891 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c18954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Peptide-based hydrogels have great potential for applications in tissue engineering, drug delivery, and so on. We systematically synthesize, characterize, and investigate the self-assembly behaviors of a series of polypeptide-based penta-block copolymers by varying block sequences and lengths. The copolymers contain hydrophobic blocks of poly(γ-benzyl-l-glutamate) (PBG, Bx) and two kinds of hydrophilic blocks, poly(l-lysine) (PLL, Ky) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG, EG34), where x and y are the number of repeating units of each block, where PBG and PLL blocks have unique functions for nerve regeneration and cell adhesion. It shows that a sufficient length of the middle hydrophilic segment capped with hydrophobic end PBG blocks is required. They first self-assemble into flower-like micelles and sequentially form transparent hydrogels (as low as 2.3 wt %) with increased polymer concentration. The hydrogels contain a microscale porous structure, a desired property for tissue engineering to facilitate the access of nutrient flow for cell growth and drug delivery systems with high efficiency of drug storage. We hypothesize that the structure of Bx-Ky-EG34-Ky-Bx agglomerates is beyond micron size (transparent), while that of Ky-Bx-EG34-Bx-Ky is on the submicron scale (opaque). We establish a working strategy to synthesize a polypeptide-based block copolymer with a wide window of sol-gel transition. The study offers insight into rational polypeptide hydrogel design with specific morphology, exploring the novel materials as potential candidates for neural tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke-Hsin Wang
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, National
Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Hao Liu
- Polymer
program, Institute of Materials Science, University of Connecticut, 25 King Hill Road, Unit 3136, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3136, United States
| | - Dun-Heng Tan
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, National
Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Mu-Ping Nieh
- Polymer
program, Institute of Materials Science, University of Connecticut, 25 King Hill Road, Unit 3136, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3136, United States
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, United States
| | - Wei-Fang Su
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, National
Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
- Department
of Materials Engineering, Ming-Chi University
of Technology, 84 Gungjuan
Rd., Taishan Dist, New Taipei City 243303, Taiwan
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Ahmaruzzaman M, Roy P, Bonilla-Petriciolet A, Badawi M, Ganachari SV, Shetti NP, Aminabhavi TM. Polymeric hydrogels-based materials for wastewater treatment. Chemosphere 2023; 331:138743. [PMID: 37105310 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Low-cost and reliable wastewater treatment is a relevant issue worldwide to reduce the concentration of environmental pollutants. Industrial effluents containing dyes, heavy metals, and other inorganic and organic compounds can pollute water resources; therefore, novel technologies are required to mitigate and control their release into the environment. Adsorption is one of the simplest methods for treating contaminated water in which a wide spectrum of adsorbents can be used to remove emerging compounds. Hydrogels are interesting materials with high adsorption capacities that can be synthesized via green routes. These adsorbents are promising for large-scale industrial wastewater treatment applications; however, gaps still exist in achieving sustainable commercial implementation. This review focuses on the discussion and analysis of preparation, characterization, and adsorption properties of hydrogels for water purification. The advantages of these polymeric materials for water treatment were analyzed, including their performance in the removal of different organic and inorganic contaminants. Recent advances in the functionalization of hydrogels and the synthesis of novel composites have also been described. The adsorption capacities of hydrogel-based adsorbents are higher than 500 mg/g for different organic and inorganic pollutants, and can reach values of up to >2000 mg/g for organic compounds, significantly outperforming other materials reported for water cleaning. The main interactions involved in the adsorption of water pollutants using hydrogel-based adsorbents were described and explained to allow the interpretation of their removal mechanisms. The current challenges in the implementation of hydrogels for water purification in real-life operations are also highlighted. This review provides an updated picture of hydrogels as interesting materials to address water depollution worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Ahmaruzzaman
- Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology Silchar, 788010, Assam, India.
| | - Prerona Roy
- Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology Silchar, 788010, Assam, India
| | | | - Michael Badawi
- Laboratoire de Physique et Chimie Théoriques UMR CNRS 7019, Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France
| | - Sharanabasava V Ganachari
- Center for Energy and Environment, School of Advanced Sciences, KLE Technological University, Hubballi, 580 031, India
| | - Nagaraj P Shetti
- Center for Energy and Environment, School of Advanced Sciences, KLE Technological University, Hubballi, 580 031, India
| | - Tejraj M Aminabhavi
- Center for Energy and Environment, School of Advanced Sciences, KLE Technological University, Hubballi, 580 031, India.
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Ghrayeb M, Chai L. Demonstrating Principle Aspects of Peptide‐ and Protein‐ Based Hydrogels Using Metallogels Examples. Isr J Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ijch.202200011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mnar Ghrayeb
- Institute of Chemistry The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Edmond J. Safra campus Jerusalem 91904 Israel
| | - Liraz Chai
- Institute of Chemistry The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Edmond J. Safra campus Jerusalem 91904 Israel
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Tanaka T, Kuroiwa K. Supramolecular Hybrids from Cyanometallate Complexes and Diblock Copolypeptide Amphiphiles in Water. Molecules 2022; 27:3262. [PMID: 35630738 PMCID: PMC9143414 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27103262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The self-assembly of discrete cyanometallates has attracted significant interest due to the potential of these materials to undergo soft metallophilic interactions as well as their optical properties. Diblock copolypeptide amphiphiles have also been investigated concerning their capacity for self-assembly into morphologies such as nanostructures. The present work combined these two concepts by examining supramolecular hybrids comprising cyanometallates with diblock copolypeptide amphiphiles in aqueous solutions. Discrete cyanometallates such as [Au(CN)2]-, [Ag(CN)2]-, and [Pt(CN)4]2- dispersed at the molecular level in water cannot interact with each other at low concentrations. However, the results of this work demonstrate that the addition of diblock copolypeptide amphiphiles such as poly-(L-lysine)-block-(L-cysteine) (Lysm-b-Cysn) to solutions of these complexes induces the supramolecular assembly of the discrete cyanometallates, resulting in photoluminescence originating from multinuclear complexes with metal-metal interactions. Electron microscopy images confirmed the formation of nanostructures of several hundred nanometers in size that grew to form advanced nanoarchitectures, including those resembling the original nanostructures. This concept of combining diblock copolypeptide amphiphiles with discrete cyanometallates allows the design of flexible and functional supramolecular hybrid systems in water.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Keita Kuroiwa
- Department of Nanoscience, Faculty of Engineering, Sojo University, 4-22-1 Ikeda, Nishi-ku, Kumamoto 860-0082, Japan;
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Patel P, Thareja P. Hydrogels differentiated by length scales: A review of biopolymer-based hydrogel preparation methods, characterization techniques, and targeted applications. Eur Polym J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2021.110935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Rizvi A, Mulvey JT, Carpenter BP, Talosig R, Patterson JP. A Close Look at Molecular Self-Assembly with the Transmission Electron Microscope. Chem Rev 2021; 121:14232-14280. [PMID: 34329552 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Molecular self-assembly is pervasive in the formation of living and synthetic materials. Knowledge gained from research into the principles of molecular self-assembly drives innovation in the biological, chemical, and materials sciences. Self-assembly processes span a wide range of temporal and spatial domains and are often unintuitive and complex. Studying such complex processes requires an arsenal of analytical and computational tools. Within this arsenal, the transmission electron microscope stands out for its unique ability to visualize and quantify self-assembly structures and processes. This review describes the contribution that the transmission electron microscope has made to the field of molecular self-assembly. An emphasis is placed on which TEM methods are applicable to different structures and processes and how TEM can be used in combination with other experimental or computational methods. Finally, we provide an outlook on the current challenges to, and opportunities for, increasing the impact that the transmission electron microscope can have on molecular self-assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aoon Rizvi
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| | - Justin T Mulvey
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| | - Brooke P Carpenter
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| | - Rain Talosig
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| | - Joseph P Patterson
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
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Lin YJ, Horner J, Illie B, Lynch ML, Furst EM, Wagner NJ. Molecular engineering of thixotropic, sprayable fluids with yield stress using associating polysaccharides. J Colloid Interface Sci 2020; 580:264-274. [PMID: 32688119 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2020.06.107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
HYPOTHESIS Molecular engineering facilitates the development of a complex fluid with contradictory requirements of yield stress and sprayability, while minimizing the amount of structuring material (<0.05 wt%). This unique system can be achieved by a biopolymer hydrogel with tunable inter- and intra-molecular interactions for microstructural robustness and molecular extensibility by the variation of chemical conformations that microstructure breaks up under shear followed by a low molecularly extensible response. EXPERIMENTS Blends of xanthan and konjac glucomannan containing 99.95 wt% water are demonstrated to satisfy these contradictory requirements and formulated as a function of KCl concentrations. A systematic study was performed using shear and extensional rheology and compared to a reference solution of polyethylene oxide (PEO), a well-known, Boger fluid, highlights the role of molecular elasticity in controlling critical rheological properties. Static light scattering (SLS) and simultaneous rheology and small-angle neutron scattering (RheoSANS) are also used to elucidate the equilibrium structure and flow dynamics. FINDINGS The blends exhibit a lower yield stress and extensional resistance with added KCl, which leads to good spray characteristics in contrast to strain-hardening PEO. The results suggest that the inter-molecular attractions between the two gums leading to network formation with appropriate stiffness, that break up readily under shear, and low molecular elasticity are critical molecular design parameters necessary to achieve sprayable, yields stress fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Jiun Lin
- Center for Research in Soft Matter and Polymers, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Jeffrey Horner
- Center for Research in Soft Matter and Polymers, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Brandon Illie
- The Procter & Gamble Company, Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA
| | | | - Eric M Furst
- Center for Research in Soft Matter and Polymers, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Norman J Wagner
- Center for Research in Soft Matter and Polymers, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
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Raghuwanshi VS, Garnier G. Characterisation of hydrogels: Linking the nano to the microscale. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2019; 274:102044. [PMID: 31677493 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2019.102044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Revised: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogels are water enriched soft materials widely used for applications as varied as super absorbents, breast implants and contact lenses. Hydrogels have also been designed for smart functional devices including drug delivery, tissue engineering and diagnostics such as blood typing. The hydrogel properties and functionality depend on their crosslinking density, water holding capacity and fibre/polymer composition, strength and internal structure. Determining these parameters and properties are challenging. This review presents the main characterisation methods providing both qualitative and quantitative information of the structures and compositions of hydrogel. The length scale of interest ranges from the nano to the micro scale and the techniques and results are analysed in relationship to the hydrogel macroscopic applications. The characterisation methods examined aim at quantifying swelling, mechanical strength, mesh size, bound and free water content, pore structure, chemical composition, strength of chemical bonds and mechanical strength. These hydrogel parameters enable us to understand the fundamental mechanisms of hydrogel formation, to control their structure and functionality, and to optimize and tailor specific hydrogel properties to engineer particular applications.
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Negri GE, Gharakhanian EG, Deming TJ. Tunable, Functional Diblock Copolypeptide Hydrogels Based on Methionine Homologs. Macromol Biosci 2019; 20:e1900243. [DOI: 10.1002/mabi.201900243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 08/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Graciela E. Negri
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of California, Los Angeles 607 Charles E Young Dr. E Los Angeles CA 90095–1600 USA
| | - Eric G. Gharakhanian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of California, Los Angeles 607 Charles E Young Dr. E Los Angeles CA 90095–1600 USA
| | - Timothy J. Deming
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of California, Los Angeles 607 Charles E Young Dr. E Los Angeles CA 90095–1600 USA
- Department of Bioengineering University of California, Los Angeles 5121 Engineering 5 Los Angeles CA 90095–1600 USA
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Hanay SB, O’Dwyer J, Kimmins SD, de Oliveira FCS, Haugh MG, O’Brien FJ, Cryan SA, Heise A. Facile Approach to Covalent Copolypeptide Hydrogels and Hybrid Organohydrogels. ACS Macro Lett 2018; 7:944-949. [PMID: 35650970 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.8b00431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Crosslinking of tryptophan (Trp) containing copolypeptides with varying ratios of benzyl-l-glutamate (BLG) and Nα-(carbobenzyloxy)-l-lysine (Z-Lys) is achieved by the selective reaction with hexamethylene-bis-TAD (bisTAD). Conversion of the resulting organogels into biocompatible hydrogels by full BLG or Z-Lys deprotection is demonstrated. Moreover, diffusion controlled deprotection allows the design of macroscopic hybrid organohydrogels comprising hydrophilic as well as hydrophobic regions at a desired ratio and position. FTIR and SEM analysis confirm the coexistence of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic segments in one copolypeptide piece. Selective loading of hydrogel and organogel segments with hydrophilic and hydrophobic dyes, respectively, is observed on macroscopic amphiphilic gels and films. These materials offer significant potential as dual-loaded drug release gels as well as tissue engineering platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saltuk B. Hanay
- Department of Chemistry, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Joanne O’Dwyer
- Drug Delivery and Advanced Materials Team, School of Pharmacy, RCSI, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Tissue Engineering Research Group, Department of Anatomy, RCSI, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Scott D. Kimmins
- Department of Chemistry, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | | | - Matthew G. Haugh
- Tissue Engineering Research Group, Department of Anatomy, RCSI, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Fergal J. O’Brien
- Tissue Engineering Research Group, Department of Anatomy, RCSI, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Trinity Centre for Bioengineering, Trinity College Dublin (TCD), Dublin 2, Ireland
- Centre for Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), RCSI, Dublin 2, and National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and Bioengineering Research Centre (AMBER) RCSI and TCD, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Sally-Ann Cryan
- Drug Delivery and Advanced Materials Team, School of Pharmacy, RCSI, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Trinity Centre for Bioengineering, Trinity College Dublin (TCD), Dublin 2, Ireland
- Centre for Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), RCSI, Dublin 2, and National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - Andreas Heise
- Department of Chemistry, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Centre for Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), RCSI, Dublin 2, and National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and Bioengineering Research Centre (AMBER) RCSI and TCD, Dublin 2, Ireland
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Liarou E, Varlas S, Skoulas D, Tsimblouli C, Sereti E, Dimas K, Iatrou H. Smart polymersomes and hydrogels from polypeptide-based polymer systems through α-amino acid N-carboxyanhydride ring-opening polymerization. From chemistry to biomedical applications. Prog Polym Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2018.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Haider MJ, Zhang HV, Sinha N, Fagan JA, Kiick KL, Saven JG, Pochan DJ. Self-assembly and soluble aggregate behavior of computationally designed coiled-coil peptide bundles. Soft Matter 2018; 14:5488-5496. [PMID: 29923575 PMCID: PMC6355460 DOI: 10.1039/c8sm00435h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Coiled-coil peptides have proven useful in a range of materials applications ranging from the formation of well-defined fibrils to responsive hydrogels. The ability to design from first principles their oligomerization and subsequent higher order assembly offers their expanded use in producing new materials. Toward these ends, homo-tetrameric, antiparallel, coiled-coil, peptide bundles have been designed computationally, synthesized via solid-phase methods, and their solution behavior characterized. Two different bundle-forming peptides were designed and examined. Within the targeted coiled coil structure, both bundles contained the same hydrophobic core residues. However, different exterior residues on the two different designs yielded sequences with different distributions of charged residues and two different expected isoelectric points of pI 4.4 and pI 10.5. Both coiled-coil bundles were extremely stable with respect to temperature (Tm > 80 C) and remained soluble in solution even at high (millimolar) peptide concentrations. The coiled-coil tetramer was confirmed to be the dominant species in solution by analytical sedimentation studies and by small-angle neutron scattering, where the scattering form factor is well represented by a cylinder model with the dimensions of the targeted coiled coil. At high concentrations (5-15 mM), evidence of interbundle structure was observed via neutron scattering. At these concentrations, the synthetic bundles form soluble aggregates, and interbundle distances can be determined via a structure factor fit to scattering data. The data support the successful design of robust coiled-coil bundles. Despite their different sequences, each sequence forms loosely associated but soluble aggregates of the bundles, suggesting similar dissociated states for each. The behavior of the dispersed bundles is similar to that observed for natural proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Haider
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, USA. ,
| | - Huixi Violet Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA.
| | - Nairiti Sinha
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, USA. ,
| | - Jeffrey A. Fagan
- Materials Science and Engineering Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA.
| | - Kristi L. Kiick
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, USA. ,
| | - Jeffery G. Saven
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA.
| | - Darrin J. Pochan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, USA. ,
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Lau HK, Paul A, Sidhu I, Li L, Sabanayagam CR, Parekh SH, Kiick KL. Microstructured Elastomer-PEG Hydrogels via Kinetic Capture of Aqueous Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation. Adv Sci (Weinh) 2018; 5:1701010. [PMID: 29938180 PMCID: PMC6010786 DOI: 10.1002/advs.201701010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2017] [Revised: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Heterogeneous hydrogels with desired matrix complexity are studied for a variety of biomimetic materials. Despite the range of such microstructured materials described, few methods permit independent control over microstructure and microscale mechanics by precisely controlled, single-step processing methods. Here, a phototriggered crosslinking methodology that traps microstructures in liquid-liquid phase-separated solutions of a highly elastomeric resilin-like polypeptide (RLP) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) is reported. RLP-rich domains of various diameters can be trapped in a PEG continuous phase, with the kinetics of domain maturation dependent on the degree of acrylation. The chemical composition of both hydrogel phases over time is assessed via in situ hyperspectral coherent Raman microscopy, with equilibrium concentrations consistent with the compositions derived from NMR-measured coexistence curves. Atomic force microscopy reveals that the local mechanical properties of the two phases evolve over time, even as the bulk modulus of the material remains constant, showing that the strategy permits control of mechanical properties on micrometer length scales, of relevance in generating mechanically robust materials for a range of applications. As one example, the successful encapsulation, localization, and survival of primary cells are demonstrated and suggest the potential application of phase-separated RLP-PEG hydrogels in regenerative medicine applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang Kuen Lau
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringUniversity of Delaware201 DuPont HallNewarkDE19716USA
| | - Alexandra Paul
- Department of Biology and Biological EngineeringChalmers University of TechnologyGothenburgSE‐412 96Sweden
- Department of Molecular SpectroscopyMax Planck Institute for Polymer ResearchAckermannweg 1055128MainzGermany
| | - Ishnoor Sidhu
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of DelawareNewarkDE19716USA
| | - Linqing Li
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringUniversity of Delaware201 DuPont HallNewarkDE19716USA
| | | | - Sapun H. Parekh
- Department of Molecular SpectroscopyMax Planck Institute for Polymer ResearchAckermannweg 1055128MainzGermany
| | - Kristi L. Kiick
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringUniversity of Delaware201 DuPont HallNewarkDE19716USA
- Delaware Biotechnology Institute15 Innovation WayNewarkDE19711USA
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Tsubasa A, Otsuka S, Maekawa T, Takano R, Sakurai S, Deming TJ, Kuroiwa K. Development of hybrid diblock copolypeptide amphiphile/magnetic metal complexes and their spin crossover with lower-critical-solution-temperature(LCST)-type transition. POLYMER 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2016.12.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Wang R, Sing MK, Avery RK, Souza BS, Kim M, Olsen BD. Classical Challenges in the Physical Chemistry of Polymer Networks and the Design of New Materials. Acc Chem Res 2016; 49:2786-2795. [PMID: 27993006 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.6b00454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Polymer networks are widely used from commodity to biomedical materials. The space-spanning, net-like structure gives polymer networks their advantageous mechanical and dynamic properties, the most essential factor that governs their responses to external electrical, thermal, and chemical stimuli. Despite the ubiquity of applications and a century of active research on these materials, the way that chemistry and processing interact to yield the final structure and the material properties of polymer networks is not fully understood, which leads to a number of classical challenges in the physical chemistry of gels. Fundamentally, it is not yet possible to quantitatively predict the mechanical response of a polymer network based on its chemical design, limiting our ability to understand and characterize the nanostructure of gels and rationally design new materials. In this Account, we summarize our recent theoretical and experimental approaches to study the physical chemistry of polymer networks. First, our understanding of the impact of molecular defects on topology and elasticity of polymer networks is discussed. By systematically incorporating the effects of different orders of loop structure, we develop a kinetic graph theory and real elastic network theory that bridge the chemical design, the network topology, and the mechanical properties of the gel. These theories show good agreement with the recent experimental data without any fitting parameters. Next, associative polymer gel dynamics is discussed, focusing on our evolving understanding of the effect of transient bonds on the mechanical response. Using forced Rayleigh scattering (FRS), we are able to probe diffusivity across a wide range of length and time scales in gels. A superdiffusive region is observed in different associative network systems, which can be captured by a two-state kinetic model. Further, the effects of the architecture and chemistry of polymer chains on gel nanostructure are studied. By incorporating shear-thinning coiled-coil protein motifs into the midblock of a micelle-forming block copolymer, we are able to responsively adjust the gel toughness through controlling the nanostructure. Finally, we review the development of novel application-oriented materials that emerge from our enhanced understanding of gel physical chemistry, including injectable gel hemostats designed to treat internal wounds and engineered nucleoporin-like polypeptide (NLP) hydrogels that act as biologically selective filters. We believe that the fundamental physical chemistry questions articulated in this Account will provide inspiration to fully understand the design of polymer networks, a group of mysterious yet critically important materials.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Bruno S. Souza
- Department
of Chemistry, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina 88040-900, Brazil
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Cardoso AZ, Mears LLE, Cattoz BN, Griffiths PC, Schweins R, Adams DJ. Linking micellar structures to hydrogelation for salt-triggered dipeptide gelators. Soft Matter 2016; 12:3612-3621. [PMID: 26963370 DOI: 10.1039/c5sm03072b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Some functionalised dipeptides can form hydrogels when salts are added to solutions at high pH. We have used surface tension, conductivity, rheology, optical, confocal and scanning electron microscopy, (1)H NMR and UV-Vis spectroscopy measurements to characterise fully the phase behaviour of solutions of one specific gelator, 2NapFF, at 25 °C at pH 10.5. We show that this specific naphthalene-dipeptide undergoes structural transformations as the concentration is increased, initially forming spherical micelles, then worm-like micelles, followed by association of these worm-like micelles. On addition of a calcium salt, gels are generally formed as long as worm-like micelles are initially present in solution, although there are structural re-organisations that occur at lower concentrations, allowing gelation at lower than expected concentration. Using IR and SANS, we show the differences between the structures present in the solution and hydrogel phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andre Zamith Cardoso
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool, L69 7ZD, UK.
| | - Laura L E Mears
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool, L69 7ZD, UK.
| | - Beatrice N Cattoz
- Department of Pharmaceutical, Chemical and Environmental Science, University of Greenwich, Medway Campus, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK
| | - Peter C Griffiths
- Department of Pharmaceutical, Chemical and Environmental Science, University of Greenwich, Medway Campus, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK
| | - Ralf Schweins
- Institut Laue-Langevin, Large Scale Structures Group, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 20156, F-38042 Grenoble CEDEX 9, France
| | - Dave J Adams
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool, L69 7ZD, UK.
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Abstract
Gelation of the left helical N-substituted homopolypeptide poly(L-proline) (PLP) in water was explored, employing rheological and small-angle scattering studies at different temperatures and concentrations in order to investigate the network structure and its mechanical properties. Stiff gels were obtained at 10 wt % or higher at 5 °C, the first time gelation has been observed for homopolypeptides. The secondary structure and helical rigidity of PLP has large structural similarities to gelatin but as gels the two materials show contrasting trends with temperature. With increasing temperature in D2O, the network stiffens, with broad scattering features of similar correlation length for all concentrations and molar masses of PLP. A thermoresponsive transition was also achieved between 5 and 35 °C, with moduli at 35 °C higher than gelatin at 5 °C. The brittle gels could tolerate strains of 1% before yielding with a frequency-independent modulus over the observed range, similar to natural proline-rich proteins, suggesting the potential for thermoresponsive or biomaterial-based applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manos Gkikas
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Reginald K. Avery
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Bradley D. Olsen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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Wei K, Zhu M, Sun Y, Xu J, Feng Q, Lin S, Wu T, Xu J, Tian F, Xia J, Li G, Bian L. Robust Biopolymeric Supramolecular “Host−Guest Macromer” Hydrogels Reinforced by in Situ Formed Multivalent Nanoclusters for Cartilage Regeneration. Macromolecules 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.5b02527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Jia Xu
- Shanghai Jiaotong
University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Feng Tian
- Shanghai
Institute of of Applied Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | | | | | - Liming Bian
- China Orthopedic Regenerative
Medicine Group (CORMed), Shanghai, China
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21
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Koshari SH, Wagner NJ, Lenhoff AM. Characterization of lysozyme adsorption in cellulosic chromatographic materials using small-angle neutron scattering. J Chromatogr A 2015; 1399:45-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2015.04.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2015] [Revised: 04/18/2015] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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22
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Affiliation(s)
- April R. Rodriguez
- Department of Bioengineering University of California 5121 Engineering 5, HS-SEAS Los Angeles, California 90095 USA
| | - Uh‐Joo Choe
- Department of Bioengineering University of California 5121 Engineering 5, HS-SEAS Los Angeles, California 90095 USA
| | - Daniel T. Kamei
- Department of Bioengineering University of California 5121 Engineering 5, HS-SEAS Los Angeles, California 90095 USA
| | - Timothy J. Deming
- Department of Bioengineering University of California 5121 Engineering 5, HS-SEAS Los Angeles, California 90095 USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of California Los Angeles, California 90095 USA)
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23
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Zhu C, Bettinger CJ. Photoreconfigurable Physically Cross-Linked Triblock Copolymer Hydrogels: Photodisintegration Kinetics and Structure–Property Relationships. Macromolecules 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/ma502372f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Christopher J. Bettinger
- McGowan Institute
of Regenerative Medicine, 450 Technology
Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15219, United States
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24
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Draper ER, Mears LLE, Castilla AM, King SM, McDonald TO, Akhtar R, Adams DJ. Using the hydrolysis of anhydrides to control gel properties and homogeneity in pH-triggered gelation. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra22253b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The rate of pH change does not affect the primary assembly of a gelator, but does control the mechanical properties of the gel.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Stephen M. King
- ISIS Facility
- Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
- Science and Technology Facilities Council
- Didcot
- UK
| | | | - Riaz Akhtar
- Centre for Materials and Structures
- School of Engineering
- University of Liverpool
- Liverpool L69 3GH
- UK
| | - Dave J. Adams
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Liverpool
- Liverpool
- UK
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25
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Sathaye S, Mbi A, Sonmez C, Chen Y, Blair DL, Schneider JP, Pochan DJ. Rheology of peptide- and protein-based physical hydrogels: Are everyday measurements just scratching the surface? WIREs Nanomed Nanobiotechnol 2014; 7:34-68. [DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2014] [Revised: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sameer Sathaye
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Delaware Biotechnology Institute; University of Delaware; Newark DE USA
| | - Armstrong Mbi
- Department of Physics; Georgetown University; Washington DC USA
| | - Cem Sonmez
- Department of Chemistry; University of Delaware; Newark DE USA
- Chemical Biology Laboratory; National Cancer Institute, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research; Frederick MD USA
| | - Yingchao Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Delaware Biotechnology Institute; University of Delaware; Newark DE USA
| | - Daniel L. Blair
- Department of Physics; Georgetown University; Washington DC USA
| | - Joel P. Schneider
- Chemical Biology Laboratory; National Cancer Institute, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research; Frederick MD USA
| | - Darrin J. Pochan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Delaware Biotechnology Institute; University of Delaware; Newark DE USA
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26
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Kabiri M, Unsworth LD. Application of Isothermal Titration Calorimetry for Characterizing Thermodynamic Parameters of Biomolecular Interactions: Peptide Self-Assembly and Protein Adsorption Case Studies. Biomacromolecules 2014; 15:3463-73. [DOI: 10.1021/bm5004515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Kabiri
- Department
of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G6, Canada
| | - Larry D. Unsworth
- Department
of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G6, Canada
- NanoLife
Group, National Institute for Nanotechnology, National Research Council (Canada), Edmonton, Alberta T6G
2M9,Canada
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27
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Cai H, Jiang G, Chen C, Li Z, Shen Z, Fan X. New Morphologies and Phase Transitions of Rod–Coil Dendritic–Linear Block Copolymers Depending on Dendron Generation and Preparation Procedure. Macromolecules 2014. [DOI: 10.1021/ma402112n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Huanhuan Cai
- Beijing
National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Polymer
Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry
and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Guoliang Jiang
- Beijing
National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Polymer
Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry
and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Chongyi Chen
- Laboratory
of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Zhibo Li
- Laboratory
of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Zhihao Shen
- Beijing
National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Polymer
Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry
and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Xinghe Fan
- Beijing
National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Polymer
Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry
and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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28
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Rodriguez AR, Kramer JR, Deming TJ. Enzyme-Triggered Cargo Release from Methionine Sulfoxide Containing Copolypeptide Vesicles. Biomacromolecules 2013; 14:3610-4. [DOI: 10.1021/bm400971p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- April R. Rodriguez
- Department of Bioengineering and ‡Department of Chemistry
and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Jessica R. Kramer
- Department of Bioengineering and ‡Department of Chemistry
and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Timothy J. Deming
- Department of Bioengineering and ‡Department of Chemistry
and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
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29
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Kuroiwa K, Masaki Y, Koga Y, Deming TJ. Self-assembly of discrete metal complexes in aqueous solution via block copolypeptide amphiphiles. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:2022-35. [PMID: 23337202 PMCID: PMC3565363 DOI: 10.3390/ijms14012022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2012] [Revised: 01/09/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The integration of discrete metal complexes has been attracting significant interest due to the potential of these materials for soft metal-metal interactions and supramolecular assembly. Additionally, block copolypeptide amphiphiles have been investigated concerning their capacity for self-assembly into structures such as nanoparticles, nanosheets and nanofibers. In this study, we combined these two concepts by investigating the self-assembly of discrete metal complexes in aqueous solution using block copolypeptides. Normally, discrete metal complexes such as [Au(CN)(2)]-, when molecularly dispersed in water, cannot interact with one another. Our results demonstrated, however, that the addition of block copolypeptide amphiphiles such as K(183)L(19) to [Au(CN)(2)]- solutions induced one-dimensional integration of the discrete metal complex, resulting in photoluminescence originating from multinuclear complexes with metal-metal interactions. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed a fibrous nanostructure with lengths and widths of approximately 100 and 20 nm, respectively, which grew to form advanced nanoarchitectures, including those resembling the weave patterns of Waraji (traditional Japanese straw sandals). This concept of combining block copolypeptide amphiphiles with discrete coordination compounds allows the design of flexible and functional supramolecular coordination systems in water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keita Kuroiwa
- Department of Nanoscience, Faculty of Engineering, Sojo University, 4-22-1 Ikeda, Nishi-ku, Kumamoto 860-0082, Japan; E-Mails: (Y.M.); (Y.K.)
| | - Yoshitaka Masaki
- Department of Nanoscience, Faculty of Engineering, Sojo University, 4-22-1 Ikeda, Nishi-ku, Kumamoto 860-0082, Japan; E-Mails: (Y.M.); (Y.K.)
| | - Yuko Koga
- Department of Nanoscience, Faculty of Engineering, Sojo University, 4-22-1 Ikeda, Nishi-ku, Kumamoto 860-0082, Japan; E-Mails: (Y.M.); (Y.K.)
| | - Timothy J. Deming
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; E-Mail:
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30
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31
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Newcomb CJ, Moyer TJ, Lee SS, Stupp SI. Advances in cryogenic transmission electron microscopy for the characterization of dynamic self-assembling nanostructures. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 2012. [PMID: 23204913 DOI: 10.1016/j.cocis.2012.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Elucidating the structural information of nanoscale materials in their solvent-exposed state is crucial, as a result, cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) has become an increasingly popular technique in the materials science, chemistry, and biology communities. Cryo-TEM provides a method to directly visualize the specimen structure in a solution-state through a thin film of vitrified solvent. This technique complements X-ray, neutron, and light scattering methods that probe the statistical average of all species present; furthermore, cryo-TEM can be used to observe changes in structure over time. In the area of self-assembly, this tool has been particularly powerful for the characterization of natural and synthetic small molecule assemblies, as well as hybrid organic-inorganic composites. In this review, we discuss recent advances in cryogenic TEM in the context of self-assembling systems with emphasis on characterization of transitions observed in response to external stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina J Newcomb
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
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32
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Shundo A, Penaloza DP, Tanaka K. Microscopic heterogeneity in viscoelastic properties of molecular assembled systems. Chin J Polym Sci 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s10118-013-1193-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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33
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Zhang Z, Hu J, Ma PX. Nanofiber-based delivery of bioactive agents and stem cells to bone sites. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2012; 64:1129-41. [PMID: 22579758 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2012.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2012] [Revised: 04/23/2012] [Accepted: 04/25/2012] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Biodegradable nanofibers are important scaffolding materials for bone regeneration. In this paper, the basic concepts and recent advances of self-assembly, electrospinning and thermally induced phase separation techniques that are widely used to generate nanofibrous scaffolds are reviewed. In addition, surface functionalization and bioactive factor delivery within these nanofibrous scaffolds to enhance bone regeneration are also discussed. Moreover, recent progresses in applying these nanofiber-based scaffolds to deliver stem cells for bone regeneration are presented. Along with the significant advances, challenges and obstacles in the field as well as the future perspective are discussed.
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Jia L, Liu M, Di Cicco A, Albouy PA, Brissault B, Penelle J, Boileau S, Barbier V, Li MH. Self-assembly of amphiphilic liquid crystal polymers obtained from a cyclopropane-1,1-dicarboxylate bearing a cholesteryl mesogen. Langmuir 2012; 28:11215-11224. [PMID: 22747000 DOI: 10.1021/la301860b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We study the self-assembly of a new family of amphiphilic liquid crystal (LC) copolymers synthesized by the anionic ring-opening polymerization of a new cholesterol-based LC monomer, 4-(cholesteryl)butyl ethyl cyclopropane-1,1-dicarboxylate. Using the t-BuP(4) phosphazene base and thiophenol or a poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) functionalized with thiol group to generate in situ the initiator during the polymerization, LC homopolymer and amphiphilic copolymers with narrow molecular weight distributions were obtained. The self-assemblies of the LC monomer, homopolymer, and block copolymers in bulk and in solution were studied by small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), polarizing optical microscopy (POM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). All polymers exhibit in bulk an interdigitated smectic A (SmA(d)) phase with a lamellar period of 4.6 nm. The amphiphilic copolymers self-organize in solution into vesicles with wavy membrane and nanoribbons with twisted and folded structures, depending on concentration and size of LC hydrophobic block. These new morphologies will help the comprehension of the fascinating organization of thermotropic mesophase in lyotropic structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Jia
- Institut Curie, CNRS, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Laboratoire Physico-Chimie Curie, UMR168, Paris, France
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Jia L, Albouy P, Di Cicco A, Cao A, Li M. Self-assembly of amphiphilic liquid crystal block copolymers containing a cholesteryl mesogen: Effects of block ratio and solvent. POLYMER 2011; 52:2565-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2011.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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36
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Shundo A, Mizuguchi K, Miyamoto M, Goto M, Tanaka K. Controllable heterogeneity in a supramolecular hydrogel. Chem Commun (Camb) 2011; 47:8844-6. [DOI: 10.1039/c1cc12733k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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37
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Xia L, Liu Y, Li Z. Biosilicification Templated by Amphiphilic Block Copolypeptide Assemblies. Macromol Biosci 2010; 10:1566-75. [DOI: 10.1002/mabi.201000297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Abstract
Peptide-based hydrogels are an important class of biomaterials finding use in food industry and potential use in tissue engineering, drug delivery and microfluidics. A primary experimental method to explore the physical properties of these hydrogels is rheology. A fundamental understanding of peptide hydrogel mechanical properties and underlying molecular mechanisms is crucial for determining whether these biomaterials are potentially suitable for biotechnological uses. In this critical review, we cover the literature containing rheological characterization of the physical properties of peptide and polypeptide-based hydrogels including hydrogel bulk mechanical properties, gelation mechanisms, and the behavior of hydrogels during and after flow (219 references).
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Affiliation(s)
- Congqi Yan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Delaware Institute of Biotechnology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Darrin J. Pochan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Delaware Institute of Biotechnology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
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Yan H, Nykanen A, Ruokolainen J, Farrar D, Gough JE, Saiani A, Miller AF. Thermo-reversible protein fibrillar hydrogels as cell scaffolds. Faraday Discuss 2009; 139:71-84; discussion 105-28, 419-20. [PMID: 19048991 DOI: 10.1039/b717748h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Hen egg white lysozyme has been exposed to various physical and chemical denaturing environments and the physical properties of the resulting gels have been examined and their potential for use as tissue engineering scaffolds has been explored. Transparent, self-supporting fibrillar hydrogels were obtained when lysozyme was heated at low pH, while opaque, particulate gels were obtained at high pH. No increase in viscosity was observed for lysozyme at pH 7 unless the native state was disrupted by reducing the disulfide bridges. This was achieved by adding 20 mM of the reductant dithiothreitol (DTT). Under these conditions the macroscopic critical gelation concentration, C(gel), was found to be approximately 3.0 mM and mechanical spectra obtained as a function of temperature revealed that the gelling and melting temperatures increased with increasing lysozyme concentration. The mechanical strength of the hydrogel measured as the plateau elastic modulus shows a scaling behavior of G(e) approximately c2.43 for concentrations > or = C(gel), which is in good agreement with the theoretical prediction for densely cross-linked semi-flexible networks. Infrared spectroscopy showed that an alpha-helix to beta-sheet molecular transition occurred during heating resulting in beta-sheet rich fibrils forming through the self-assembly of beta-sheet rich denaturated proteins. Cryo-transmission electron microscopy shows these fibres (6 nm in diameter) exist as single entities at low concentration, and at C(gel) associate to form the junctions of a well defined regular network. Our preliminary cell culture experiments show the gel matrix promotes cell spreading, attachment and proliferation; indicating our lysozyme hydrogels are cytocompatible and they provide a viable support for the cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Yan
- School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, University of Manchester, Sackville Street, Manchester, U. K. M60 1QD
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40
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Dandu R, Cresce AV, Briber R, Dowell P, Cappello J, Ghandehari H. Silk–elastinlike protein polymer hydrogels: Influence of monomer sequence on physicochemical properties. POLYMER 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2008.11.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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41
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Rao J, Zhang Y, Zhang J, Liu S. Facile Preparation of Well-Defined AB2 Y-Shaped Miktoarm Star Polypeptide Copolymer via the Combination of Ring-Opening Polymerization and Click Chemistry. Biomacromolecules 2008; 9:2586-93. [DOI: 10.1021/bm800462q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jingyi Rao
- Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Chemistry, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Yanfeng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Chemistry, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Jingyan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Chemistry, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Shiyong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Chemistry, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
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Yan H, Frielinghaus H, Nykanen A, Ruokolainen J, Saiani A, Miller AF. Thermoreversible lysozyme hydrogels: properties and an insight into the gelation pathway. Soft Matter 2008; 4:1313-1325. [PMID: 32907277 DOI: 10.1039/b716966c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The gelation behaviour of aqueous solutions of hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) in the presence of 20 mM DTT in the concentration range 0.7 to 4.0 mM has been investigated using microDSC, FTIR, cryoTEM, SANS and oscillatory rheology. The macroscopic critical gelation concentration, Cgel, was found to be ∼ 3.0 mM. The disruption of the disulfide bonds by the DTT and the destabilisation of the protein were found to be a prerequisite for the formation of β-sheet rich fibrils under the mild conditions used in this work. Using our methodology the hydrogels obtained have a pH of 7, hence are suitable for cell culture, and are also thermoreversible. The hydrogel melting temperature was found to increase with increasing concentration and a similar structure was observed across the concentration range investigated. Our results suggest these systems are composed of a well defined regular network where single β-sheet rich fibrils (∼ 3 nm diameter) form initially, then two of these fibrils associate two-by-two to form junctions (∼ 6 nm diameter) and then on cooling further aggregate to form larger bundles of fibres. The network mesh size was found to decrease with increasing concentration. Our results suggest that below Cgel small unconnected gel-like aggregates exist that have a similar structure to the hydrogels obtained above Cgel. Using our data we propose a model for the denaturation and gelation behaviour of our system. During the first heating an α-helix to β-sheet molecular transition for the protein conformation occurs resulting in β-sheet rich fibrils forming through the self-assembly of β-sheet rich denaturated proteins. At high temperature the solution contains β-sheet rich fibrils with dissolved protein. On cooling an increase in the amount of β-sheet was observed via FTIR suggesting that as the temperature is decreased more and more protein forms β-sheet rich fibrils. At the gelation temperature these fibrils associate two-by-two to form the network junctions resulting in the macroscopic gelation of the sample. Our results suggest the network junctions are formed via specific hydrophobic interactions. The hydrogels elastic modulus was found to scale as C2.45 for C > Cgel.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Yan
- School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, University of Manchester, Sackville Street, Manchester, UKM60 1QD.
| | - H Frielinghaus
- Jülich Centre for Neutron Science, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Garching, 85747, Germany
| | - A Nykanen
- Department of Engineering Physics and Mathematics and Center for New Materials, Helsinki University of Technology, P.O. Box 2200 TKK, Finland
| | - J Ruokolainen
- Department of Engineering Physics and Mathematics and Center for New Materials, Helsinki University of Technology, P.O. Box 2200 TKK, Finland
| | - A Saiani
- School of Materials, University of Manchester, Grosvenor Street, Manchester, UKM1 7HS
| | - A F Miller
- School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, University of Manchester, Sackville Street, Manchester, UKM60 1QD.
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Nykänen A, Nuopponen M, Hiekkataipale P, Hirvonen SP, Soininen A, Tenhu H, Ikkala O, Mezzenga R, Ruokolainen J. Direct Imaging of Nanoscopic Plastic Deformation below Bulk Tg and Chain Stretching in Temperature-Responsive Block Copolymer Hydrogels by Cryo-TEM. Macromolecules 2008. [DOI: 10.1021/ma702496j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Antti Nykänen
- Department of Engineering Physics and Center for New Materials, Helsinki University of Technology, P.O Box 5100, FI-02015 TKK, Finland; Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; Department of Physics and Fribourg Center for Nanomaterials, University of Fribourg, Perolles Fribourg, CH-1700 Switzerland; and Nestlé Research Center, Vers-Chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland
| | - Markus Nuopponen
- Department of Engineering Physics and Center for New Materials, Helsinki University of Technology, P.O Box 5100, FI-02015 TKK, Finland; Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; Department of Physics and Fribourg Center for Nanomaterials, University of Fribourg, Perolles Fribourg, CH-1700 Switzerland; and Nestlé Research Center, Vers-Chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland
| | - Panu Hiekkataipale
- Department of Engineering Physics and Center for New Materials, Helsinki University of Technology, P.O Box 5100, FI-02015 TKK, Finland; Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; Department of Physics and Fribourg Center for Nanomaterials, University of Fribourg, Perolles Fribourg, CH-1700 Switzerland; and Nestlé Research Center, Vers-Chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland
| | - Sami-Pekka Hirvonen
- Department of Engineering Physics and Center for New Materials, Helsinki University of Technology, P.O Box 5100, FI-02015 TKK, Finland; Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; Department of Physics and Fribourg Center for Nanomaterials, University of Fribourg, Perolles Fribourg, CH-1700 Switzerland; and Nestlé Research Center, Vers-Chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland
| | - Antti Soininen
- Department of Engineering Physics and Center for New Materials, Helsinki University of Technology, P.O Box 5100, FI-02015 TKK, Finland; Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; Department of Physics and Fribourg Center for Nanomaterials, University of Fribourg, Perolles Fribourg, CH-1700 Switzerland; and Nestlé Research Center, Vers-Chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland
| | - Heikki Tenhu
- Department of Engineering Physics and Center for New Materials, Helsinki University of Technology, P.O Box 5100, FI-02015 TKK, Finland; Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; Department of Physics and Fribourg Center for Nanomaterials, University of Fribourg, Perolles Fribourg, CH-1700 Switzerland; and Nestlé Research Center, Vers-Chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland
| | - Olli Ikkala
- Department of Engineering Physics and Center for New Materials, Helsinki University of Technology, P.O Box 5100, FI-02015 TKK, Finland; Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; Department of Physics and Fribourg Center for Nanomaterials, University of Fribourg, Perolles Fribourg, CH-1700 Switzerland; and Nestlé Research Center, Vers-Chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland
| | - Raffaele Mezzenga
- Department of Engineering Physics and Center for New Materials, Helsinki University of Technology, P.O Box 5100, FI-02015 TKK, Finland; Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; Department of Physics and Fribourg Center for Nanomaterials, University of Fribourg, Perolles Fribourg, CH-1700 Switzerland; and Nestlé Research Center, Vers-Chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland
| | - Janne Ruokolainen
- Department of Engineering Physics and Center for New Materials, Helsinki University of Technology, P.O Box 5100, FI-02015 TKK, Finland; Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; Department of Physics and Fribourg Center for Nanomaterials, University of Fribourg, Perolles Fribourg, CH-1700 Switzerland; and Nestlé Research Center, Vers-Chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland
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Abstract
The fibrillization of peptides is relevant to many diseases based on the deposition of amyloids. The formation of fibrils is being intensively studied, especially in terms of nanotechnology applications, where fibrillar peptide hydrogels are used for cell scaffolds, as supports for functional and responsive biomaterials, biosensors, and nanowires. This Review is concerned with fundamental aspects of the self-assembly of peptides into fibrils, and discusses both natural amyloid-forming peptides and synthetic materials, including peptide fragments, copolymers, and amphiphiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian W Hamley
- Department of Chemistry, University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire RG6 6AD, UK.
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Cui H, Hodgdon TK, Kaler EW, Abezgauz L, Danino D, Lubovsky M, Talmon Y, Pochan DJ. Elucidating the assembled structure of amphiphiles in solution via cryogenic transmission electron microscopy. Soft Matter 2007; 3:945-955. [PMID: 32900043 DOI: 10.1039/b704194b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
For the past twenty years, significant progress has been made in both developing cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) technology and understanding assembled behavior of amphiphilic molecules. Cryo-TEM can provide high-resolution images of complex fluids in a near state. Samples embedded in a thin layer of vitrified solvent do not exhibit artifacts that would normally occur when using chemical fixation or staining-and-drying techniques. Cryo-TEM has been useful in imaging biological molecules in aqueous solutions. Cryo-TEM has become a powerful tool in the study of -assembled structures of amphiphiles in solution as a complementary tool to small-angle X-ray and neutron scattering, light scattering, rheology measurements, and nuclear magnetic resonance. The application of cryo-TEM in the study of assembled behavior of amphiphilic block copolymers, hydrogels, and other complex soft systems continues to emerge. In this context, the usage of cryo-TEM in the field of amphiphilic complex fluids and self-assembled nano-materials is briefly reviewed, and its unique role in exploring the nature of assembled structure in liquid suspension is highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Honggang Cui
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Delaware Biotechnology Institute, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716.
| | - Travis K Hodgdon
- Center for Molecular Engineering and Thermodynamics, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716
| | - Eric W Kaler
- Center for Molecular Engineering and Thermodynamics, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716
| | - Ludmila Abezgauz
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
| | - Dganit Danino
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
| | - Maya Lubovsky
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
| | - Yeshayahu Talmon
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
| | - Darrin J Pochan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Delaware Biotechnology Institute, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716.
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Loizou E, Weisser JT, Dundigalla A, Porcar L, Schmidt G, Wilker JJ. Structural Effects of Crosslinking a Biopolymer Hydrogel Derived from Marine Mussel Adhesive Protein. Macromol Biosci 2006; 6:711-8. [PMID: 16967473 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.200600097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
In an effort to explore new biocompatible substrates for biomedical technologies, we present a structural study on a crosslinked gelatinous protein extracted from marine mussels. Prior studies have shown the importance of iron in protein crosslinking and mussel adhesive formation. Here, the structure and properties of an extracted material were examined both before and after crosslinking with iron. The structures of these protein hydrogels were studied by SEM, SANS, and SAXS. Viscoelasticity was tested by rheological means. The starting gel was found to have a heterogeneous porous structure on a micrometer scale and, surprisingly, a regular structure on the micron to nanometer scale. However disorder, or "no periodic structure", was deduced from scattering on nanometer length scales at very high q. Crosslinking with iron condensed the structure on a micrometer level. On nanometer length scales at high q, small angle neutron scattering showed no significant differences between the samples, possibly due to strong heterogeneity. X-ray scattering also confirmed the absence of any defined periodic structure. Partial crosslinking transformed the viscoelastic starting gel into one with more rigid and elastic properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Loizou
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P. Nowak
- a School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology , Atlanta, GA, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Jun Sato
- b University of California, Bioengineering Department , Los Angeles, CA, 90049, USA
| | - Victor Breedveld
- b University of California, Bioengineering Department , Los Angeles, CA, 90049, USA
| | - Timothy J. Deming
- a School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology , Atlanta, GA, GA, 30332, USA
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