Multimethod assessment of rapists, child molesters, and three control groups on behavioral and psychological measures

Emotional intelligence in incarcerated sexual offenders with sexual sadism

Emotional intelligence (EI) is defined by the ability to perceive, manage, and reason about emotions in oneself and others. Studies have reported deficits in EI abilities among certain antisocial populations such as individuals with psychopathy, and enhanced performance among sexual offenders. Despite EI's relevance to offending behaviour, the association between EI and paraphilic offending has been under-studied. We examined the association between EI, sexual offending, and sexual sadism in 80 incarcerated men with sexual offenses and 207 incarcerated men with non-sexual offences. EI was assessed using the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). Sadism was measured using the Severe Sexual Sadism Scale (SeSaS). Results showed that SeSaS scores were positively associated with Strategic EI (the ability to understand and manage emotions), but were not significantly related to Experiential EI. This may reflect core characteristics of sexual sadism including domination and manipulation, challenging the prevalent notion that higher EI is invariably positive.

Mental disorders in a forensic sample of sexual offenders

Objective

The present study examined the prevalence of DSM IV axis I disorders and DSM IV personality disorders among sexual offenders in Forensic State Hospitals in Germany.

Method

Current and lifetime prevalence rates of mental disorders were investigated based on clinical structured interviews among sexual offenders (n = 55). Additionally, subgroups were analyzed on the basis of diagnostic research criteria, with 30 sexual offenders classified as paraphiliacs and 25 sexual offenders as having an impulse control disorder (without paraphilia).

Results

Anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and substance use disorders were common among sexual offenders, as were cluster B and cluster C personality disorders. While social phobia was most common among paraphilic sexual offenders, major depression was most prevalent in impulse control disordered sexual offenders.

Conclusion

The results replicate recent findings of high psychiatric morbidity in sexual offenders placed in forensic facilities. Furthermore, differential patterns of co-morbid mental disorders were found in paraphiliacs and impulse control disordered sexual offenders. With regard to an effective therapy and relapse prevention co-morbid mental disorders should be a greater focus in the assessment of subgroups of sexual offenders.

Male College Students Using Sexually Aggressive Strategies: Findings on the Interpersonal Relationship Profile

Limited interpersonal skills and relationship deficits are recognized as risk factors for sexual aggression as committed by convicted sexual offenders. Yet, less severe forms of sexual aggression are frequently perpetrated by nonforensic samples, including highly educated samples. This study was aimed at characterizing a sample of male college students reporting sexually aggressive strategies as a means to initiate sexual intercourse according to a set of interpersonal relationship factors, thus extending the knowledge on the role of interpersonal dimensions to the distinct contexts of sexual violence. Three hundred eight male college students completed a web survey assessing adult attachment styles, intimacy perception, interpersonal style, and psychosocial adjustment. Findings showed that 162 students (>50%) reported to have used some form of sexually aggressive strategy against women to initiate sexual contact. After controlling for the effects of social desirability, participants reporting sexually aggressive strategies presented significantly less confidence trusting others, more lack of perceived personal validation (within relationships), a more aggressive interpersonal style, and higher levels of hostility. Findings suggest that sexual violence, as measured in the context of college samples, may have an interpersonal nature, reflecting deficient social and intimacy skills; preventive programs are thus expected to enhance interpersonal relationship strategies as well as target individuals' perceived interpersonal vulnerability.

Sex Offenders in Prison: Are They Socially Isolated?

Empirical literature has revealed that social isolation can affect the rehabilitation of sex offenders after serving their sentence. This process of social isolation can already start during incarceration due to strained relationships with fellow prisoners and correctional staff. The current study examined to what extent sex offenders felt socially isolated during incarceration, using survey and registered conviction data on a large sample of male adult prisoners from the Prison Project. It was found that support from and relationships with correctional officers and fellow prisoners were perceived less positive by sex offenders than nonsex offenders. No evidence was found for higher levels of loneliness in sex offenders compared with prisoners convicted for a nonsexual offense. In sum, although the effects were small, sex offenders reported more social isolation during imprisonment compared with nonsex offenders.

Using Bayesian methods to update and expand the meta-analytic evidence of the five-factor model's relation to antisocial behavior

The Five Factor Model (FFM) of personality is the dominant hierarchical model of personality. Previous work has demonstrated the importance of the FFM domains and facets in understanding a variety of antisocial behaviors ranging from non-violent antisocial behavior to a variety of aggression outcomes. The aim of the present meta-analysis was to quantitatively summarize the empirical work that has examined these relations, as well as update and expand previous work in this area using Bayesian meta-analytic methods. A comprehensive search of available literature on the FFM and antisocial behavior was conducted and posterior distributions of effect sizes were computed for the FFM domains (across 12 antisocial outcomes). The meta-analytic results supported the primary importance of (low) Agreeableness and (low) Conscientiousness in predicting antisocial behavior across antisocial outcomes, with the exception of the outcome related to child molestation. The importance of Neuroticism was more dependent on the specific antisocial outcome under examination. The results are discussed in the context of the descriptive research on the FFM and antisocial behavior, and how Bayesian methods provide additional utility in estimation and prediction compared to more common frequentist methods. Furthermore, we recommend that future work on the FFM and antisocial behavior move towards process-level analyses to further examine how traits are implicated in different forms of antisocial behavior.

Social Anxiety and Loneliness in Adults Who Solicit Minors Online

This study examined the association of social anxiety, loneliness, and problematic Internet use (PIU) with the online solicitation of minors. Within a convenience sample of adult Internet users from Germany, Finland, and Sweden ( N = 2,828), we compared the responses of participants who had not interacted sexually with strangers online ( n = 2,049) with participants who sexually interacted with unknown adults online ( n = 642), and both groups with adults who sexually solicited unknown minors online ( n = 137). Online sexual interaction with adults was associated with higher levels of social anxiety, loneliness, and PIU compared with not sexually interacting with strangers online. Sexually soliciting minors online was associated with higher levels of social anxiety, loneliness, and PIU compared with sexually interacting with adults and not sexually interacting with strangers at all. Interestingly, compared with those with adult contacts, loneliness was specifically pronounced for participants who solicited children, whereas social anxiety and PIU were pronounced for participants soliciting adolescents. These findings suggest that social anxiety, loneliness, and PIU may be among the motivators for using the Internet to solicit individuals of different age groups for sexual purposes. These factors emerged as specifically relevant for adults who sexually solicited minors and who reported greater impairments compared with adults who sexually interacted with adults. These characteristics may thus be important to consider for assessment and treatment procedures for individuals soliciting minors online.

Individual Differences and Attitudes Toward Rape: A Meta-Analytic Review

An overview discusses (a) the importance of rape attitudes, (b) the major rape attitude measures, and (c) the applicability of four theoretical frameworks of hostility toward women to rape attitude maintenance. Findings from 72 studies of rape attitudes and individual differences were quantitatively synthesized. The meta-analysis revealed more rape acceptance for men, older people, and people from lower socioeconomic status backgrounds. For men, cognitive predispositions toward perpetrating rape were strong predictors of rape acceptance. For women, experience as and exposure to rape victims were associated with slightly less rape acceptance. Consistent with some theoretical predictions, traditional gender role beliefs, adversarial sexual beliefs, needs for power and dominance, aggressiveness and anger, and conservative political beliefs predicted rape acceptance. Implications for rape education programs and research are discussed.

Social Norms and the Likelihood of Raping: Perceived Rape Myth Acceptance of Others Affects Men's Rape Proclivity

Research showing that rape myth acceptance (RMA) causally affects rape proclivity (RP) was extended by examining the impact of RMA-related norms on RP. Male students (total N = 264) received feedback about the alleged responses of other students to RMAitems either before (Experiment 1) or after (Experiment 2) they reported their own RMA, and then their RP was assessed using acquaintance-rape scenarios. The level of RMA feedback was varied. Results showed that higher norms led to higher RP. In Experiment 1, this effect was mediated via selfreported RMA. Experiment 2 yielded main effects of both RMA feedback and self-reported RMA and an interaction effect showing that RMA feedback was particularly influential at higher levels of own RMA. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Rape Myths

Theories of sexual aggression and victimization have increasingly emphasized the role of rape myths in the perpetuation of sexual assault. Rape myths are attitudes and generally false beliefs about rape that are widely and persistently held, and that serve to deny and justify male sexual aggression against women. Acceptance of such myths has been assessed with a number of measures, and investigators have examined its relationship with numerous variables and interventions. Although there has been extensive research in this area, definitions, terminology, and measures of rape myth acceptance (RMA) continue to lack adequate theoretical and psychometric precision. Despite such criticisms, we emphasize that the significance of this type of research cannot be overstated because it has immense potential for the understanding of sexual assault. The present article offers a theory-based definition of rape myths, reviews and critiques the literature on rape myth acceptance, and suggests directions for future research. In particular we argue that such work must include the development and application of improved measures, with more concern for the theoretical and methodological issues unique to this field.

Risk and Criminogenic Needs of Youth Who Sexually Offended in Singapore: An Examination of Two Typologies

An increasing amount of research has been carried out to understand the characteristics of subgroups of adult sex offenders, but there is limited research into the risk factors and criminogenic needs of subgroups of youth who sexually offended. The current study investigated if there were differences in the risk and criminogenic needs of 167 Singaporean youth who sexually offended based on two typologies - youth who offended both sexually and nonsexually versus youth who offended only sexually, and youth who offended against child victims versus youth who offended against nonchild victims. Results show that youth who offended both sexually and nonsexually were found to have higher risk and criminogenic needs as compared to youth who only sexually offended. In addition, youth who offended against child victims were found to have higher numbers of previous sexual assaults as compared to youth who offended against nonchild victims. These differences have implications for the management and intervention of youth who sexually offended.

Insecure Attachment Style and Dysfunctional Sexual Beliefs Predict Sexual Coercion Proclivity in University Men

INTRODUCTION

Past studies have shown an association between low sexual functioning and engaging in sexually coercive behaviors among men. The mechanism of this relationship is not well understood. Moreover, most studies in this area have been done in incarcerated sex offenders.

AIMS

The aim of the current study was to investigate the role of potential distal predictors of sexual coercion, including insecure attachment style and dysfunctional sexual beliefs, in mediating the relationship between sexual functioning and sexual coercion. The study also seeks to extend past findings to a novel non-forensic population.

METHODS

Male university students (N = 367) anonymously completed online questionnaires.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Participants completed the Sexual Experiences Survey, Improved Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale, Hostility Towards Women Scale, Likelihood of Rape Item, Experiences in Close Relationships Scale, Dysfunctional Sexual Beliefs Scale, and Brief Sexual Functioning Questionnaire.

RESULTS

Sexual functioning was not significantly associated with sexually coercive behaviors in our sample (r = 0.08, P = 0.247), though a significant correlation between sexual functioning and rape myth acceptance was found (r = 0.18, P = 0.007). Path analysis of all variables showed that the likelihood of rape item was the strongest correlate of sexually coercive behaviors (β = 0.34, P < 0.001), while dysfunctional sexual beliefs appeared to mediate the association between anxious attachment and likelihood of rape item score. Anxious (r = -0.27, P = 0.001) and avoidant (r = -0.19, P = 0.004) attachment also correlated significantly with lower sexual functioning.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest the relationship between sexual functioning and sexual coercion may be less robust than previously reported, and may be due to a shared association with other factors. The results elaborate on the interrelation between attachment style and dysfunctional sexual beliefs as predictors of sexual coercion proclivity, suggesting avenues for further research.

Female sexual abusers' cognition: a systematic review

Until recently, the sexual offending literature focused on male perpetrators and neglected to examine the characteristics of female perpetrators. As a result, treatment provision for female sexual abusers has been either nonexistent or inappropriately adapted from programs designed for males. What we do know is that male and female sexual abusers share similarities; however, there remain distinct differences that warrant empirical and theoretical study. The current review systematically examines the literature on offense-supportive cognition in female sexual abusers. The aim of this systematic review is to aid clinical practitioners who work with female sexual abusers by providing an evaluation of current available research regarding implicit theories, rape myth acceptance, violence-supportive cognition, gender stereotypes, beliefs about sex, and empathy. We conclude that further research examining the offense-supportive cognition of female sexual abusers is needed in order to facilitate more effective empirically driven clinical practice.

The role of parent-child bonding, attachment, and interpersonal problems in the development of deviant sexual fantasies in sexual offenders

To understand the origin, development, and functions of deviant sexual fantasy in sexual offenders, the present article investigates three areas of the literature on sexual offenders (i.e., parent-child relationships, attachment, and interpersonal problems), hypothesizing a possible path through which dysfunctional parent-child relationships might lead to deviant sexual fantasies. The review of the literature provides indirect evidence that an insecure attachment style developed in response to dysfunctional parenting practices may generate feelings of inadequacy and inferiority to others and a lack of the self-confidence and social skills to initiate or maintain consensual intimate relationships with appropriate others. It is hypothesized that such problems, in turn, might promote low levels of intimacy and satisfaction in romantic relationships and serious and chronic emotional loneliness, withdrawal, and negative attitudes (such as anger and hostility) toward potential partners, leading to a progressive retirement from the real world and refuge in an internal world of deviant sexual fantasies in order to satisfy attachment-related needs for intimacy, emotional closeness, or power. Such a combination of insecure attachment, interpersonal problems, and use of deviant sexual fantasies as a means to achieve the intimacy, power, or control absent from reality might predispose to sexual offending.

Gender inequitable masculinity and sexual entitlement in rape perpetration South Africa: findings of a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

To describe the prevalence and patterns of rape perpetration in a randomly selected sample of men from the general adult population, to explore factors associated with rape and to describe how men explained their acts of rape.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional household study with a two- stage randomly selected sample of men.

METHODS

1737 South African men aged 18-49 completed a questionnaire administered using an Audio-enhanced Personal Digital Assistant. Multivariable logistic regression models were built to identify factors associated with rape perpetration.

RESULTS

In all 27.6% (466/1686) of men had raped a woman, whether an intimate partner, stranger or acquaintance, and whether perpetrated alone or with accomplices, and 4.7% had raped in the last 12 months. First rapes for 75% were perpetrated before age 20, and 53.9% (251) of those raping, did so on multiple occasions. The logistic regression model showed that having raped was associated with greater adversity in childhood, having been raped by a man and higher maternal education. It was associated with less equitable views on gender relations, having had more partners, and many more gender inequitable practices including transactional sex and physical partner violence. Also drug use, gang membership and a higher score on the dimensions of psychopathic personality, namely blame externalisation and Machiavellian egocentricity. Asked about why they did it, the most common motivations stemmed from ideas of sexual entitlement.

CONCLUSIONS

Perpetration of rape is so prevalent that population-based measures of prevention are essential to complement criminal justice system responses. Our findings show the importance of measures to build gender equity and change dominant ideas of masculinity and gender relations as part of rape prevention. Reducing men's exposure to trauma in childhood is also critically important.

Oppression through acceptance?: predicting rape myth acceptance and attitudes toward rape victims

Feminist theories of rape motivation are based on research suggesting a relationship between dominance and sexual aggression. However, the relationship between dominance and rape myth acceptance (RMA), a predictor of rape proclivity and sexual aggression and a key component in feminist theory, is understudied. The current study tests the hypotheses that individuals' scores on sex-based oppression and intergroup dominance measures will improve the predictive models for RMA and attitudes toward rape and rape victims. The hypotheses are supported. Individuals' general intergroup dominance and sex-based oppression attitudes provide significant unique prediction beyond previously studied predictors of attitudes about rape and rape victims.

Social desirability and sexual offenders: a review

Social desirability--the desire to make a favorable impression on others-poses a significant threat to the validity of self-reports. This review examines research on social desirability in both forensic and nonforensic populations with the goal of identifying how best to minimize threats to the validity of research with sexual offenders. Although social desirability has long been a major research topic in personality, consensus has not been reached on key questions such as its dimensional structure and whether social desirability constitutes a trait or a response bias. Research with offenders has shown that social desirability is negatively related to recidivism and that different offender subtypes vary in the degree to which social desirability appears to influence self-reports, with child molesters exhibiting the strongest tendency to "fake good." Several methods of controlling for social desirability have been proposed, but the effectiveness of these methods in increasing validity of offender self reports is questionable. Given the lack of consensus in the personality literature, a fresh start is needed in which basic questions regarding social desirability are revisited with respect to offender populations.

Dating aggression, sexual coercion, and aggression-supporting attitudes among college men as a function of participation in aggressive high school sports

Aggressive male sports have been criticized as bastions of sexism and training grounds for aggression against women, but there have been few empirical demonstrations of these alleged relationships. The authors studied self-reported dating aggression and sexual coercion in 147 college men. Men who had participated in aggressive high school sports, as compared with other men, engaged in more psychological aggression, physical aggression, and sexual coercion toward their dating partners, caused their partners more physical injury, were more accepting of violence, had more sexist attitudes and hostility toward women, were more accepting of rape myths, and were less tolerant of homosexuality. Results indicate that participation in aggressive high school sports is one of the multiple developmental pathways leading to relationship violence.

Aggression and anxiety in rapists and child molesters

This study expands the empirical and theoretical understanding of the distinction between those who perpetrate sexual assaults against children (child molesters) and those who perpetrate them against adults (rapists). Two questionnaires were completed by 88 incarcerated, male sexual offenders (45 child molesters and 43 rapists): the Spielberger state trait anxiety inventory and the Buss-Durkee hostility inventory. It was found that the rapists' level of aggression was significantly higher than that of the child molesters. No significant differences in anxiety levels were found between the two groups. The results are discussed in terms of their relevance to theory and clinical practice.

Hostility and recidivism in sexual offenders

In this study, we examined the association of hostility, as measured by the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI), with offence characteristics and recidivism in 656 adult male sexual offenders. Hostility was significantly associated with having prior violent charges, the use of violence in the index sexual offence, sexual recidivism, and violent recidivism. After controlling for risk level, as measured by a modified version of the Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offence Recidivism (RRASOR-mod), the significant association between hostility and sexual and violent recidivism remained. When examined by type of offender, hostility was significantly associated with recidivism in intrafamilial and extrafamilial child molesters, but not in rapists or mixed offenders. Given the predictive value of hostility independent of the RRASOR-mod, the present findings confirm and encourage treatment efforts directed toward the management of hostility and anger in sexual offenders.

A model for the assessment of static and dynamic factors in sexual offenders

A sample of 519 sexual offenders who were consecutive admissions to the Ontario Region of Correctional Service of Canada (CSC) were assessed with reference to a large series of variables thought to be related to sexual offending. We grouped these variables into five domains: criminality, social competence, sexual deviance, substance abuse and treatment readiness. We standardized scores on each of these domains to facilitate the calculation of total scores for each domain. We then performed a variety of analyses to determine whether these domains might constitute a reasonable model for the comprehensive evaluation of sexual offenders. Analyses indicated that overall the model received a moderate level of support.

The antisocial attitudes and associates of sex offenders

INTRODUCTION

Meta-analyses have demonstrated that attitudes and associates (peer group behaviour) are among the best predictors of antisocial behaviour in offender populations. Research on sex offender attitudes has typically focused on sex-related content and not antisocial attitudes in general. This study investigates the antisocial attitudes of sex offenders by comparing them with non-sex offenders on responses to the Measures of Criminal Attitudes and Associates (MCAA).

METHOD

The MCAA comprises two parts. Part A is a quantified self-report measure of criminal friends. Part B contains four attitude scales: Violence, Entitlement, Antisocial Intent and Associates. Ninety sex offenders were compared with 119 nonsex offenders on their endorsement of the MCAA and criminal history.

RESULTS

Sex offenders endorsed fewer antisocial attitudes, reported fewer criminal friends and had fewer incarcerations than did non-sex offenders. Rapists endorsed antisocial attitudes more than did child molesters and incest offenders. However, these differences disappeared on controlling for age. A finding of fewer previous incarcerations among sex offenders was robust even controlling for age.

CONCLUSION

The MCAA appears to be a reliable and valid instrument with sex offender samples. General antisocial attitudes appear to have a similar relationship with criminal history for both sex offenders and non-sex offenders, and should not be ignored in future studies or clinical practice. While a general sense of entitlement was not associated with sex offending per se, its stronger association with incarceration among sex offenders than non-sex offenders might suggest that this has the potential for identifying an important, perhaps more serious sub-group of sex offenders.

An evaluation of the Bumby RAPE and MOLEST scales as measures of cognitive distortions with civilly committed sexual offenders

Cognitive distortions are commonly viewed as an important factor in the assessment and treatment of sexual offenders. However, consensus about the operational definition of cognitive distortions and the best instrument to measure such distortions is lacking. This paper evaluates the Bumby MOLEST and RAPE scales as measures of cognitive distortions with patients civilly committed under California's Sexually Violent Predator law. Rapists and child molesters in the current sample endorsed markedly fewer cognitive distortions than the sexual offenders in Bumby's original study (K. M. Bumby, 1996). It is suggested that current self-report measures such as the MOLEST and RAPE scales are too susceptible to a socially desirable response set to provide useful data with sexual offenders who are involuntarily committed for treatment.

Psychopathology of incarcerated sex offenders

The psychopathology and particularly the personality disorders of sex offenders were compared to general inmates of the Colorado Department of Corrections. Using the MCMI-III (Millon, 1994, 1997), sex offenders in general were found to have more varied types of personalities than general population inmates. Specifically, they were more schizoid, avoidant, depressive, dependent, self-defeating, and schizotypal. General population inmates had the more classically criminal personality characteristics of antisocial, narcissistic, and sadistic. Multivariate analysis showed the Dependent, Narcissistic, Antisocial, and Schizotypal scales to be the most differentiating. Sex offenders were also found to have more affective psychopathology such as anxiety, dysthymia, PTSD, and major depression. A similar trend was found when comparing child molesters to rapists. The child molesters were more neurotic, affective, and socially impaired than the rapists. Multivariate analysis showed the Dependent scale to be the most important in differentiating these two types of sex offenders.

Heterosocial competence of rapists and child molesters: a meta-analysis

A meta-analysis of 119 effect sizes from 14 papers examined the heterosocial competence of sex offenders. Rapists had significantly lower heterosocial competence than non-sex-offenders, but this effect was relatively small. Rapists in prison differed from non-sex-offenders who were not in prison; however, they did not differ from non-sex-offending prisoners. When unreliable measures were excluded from the analysis, nonincarcerated students and other volunteers who reported committing rape did not differ from nonincarcerated non-sex-offenders. The difference in heterosocial competence between child molesters and non-sex-offenders was significantly larger than the difference between rapists and non-sex-offenders. Also, child molesters had significantly less heterosocial competence than rapists. Findings clarify the relationship between heterosocial competence, rape, and child sexual abuse. Implications for the research and treatment of sex offenders are discussed.

Conquest by Force: A Narcissistic Reactance Theory of Rape and Sexual Coercion

Men's efforts to force women to engage in unwanted sexual activity can be explained by a combination of reactance theory and narcissism. Reactance theory suggests that deprivation of specific sexual options will cause men to desire them more, to try to reclaim them by forcing sex and by aggressing against the woman who has refused them, and assorted findings support this analysis. Narcissism is proposed to moderate the link, especially because coercion is relatively rare in response to sexual refusals. Evidence about sexually coercive men supports the narcissism hypothesis, such as by showing self-serving cognitive distortions, an excessive concern with being admired, an inflated sense of entitlement, selectively low empathy, and a broadly exploitative approach to heterosexual relations.

Do pedophiles have a weaker identity structure compared with nonsexual offenders?

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine whether pedophiles have a weaker identity structure compared with nonsexual offenders.

METHOD

The recruitment process secured the participation of 87 male adult subjects, divided into three groups: 27 pedophiles who abused male victims (X = 38.6 years), 30 pedophiles who abused female victims (X = 35.5 years), 30 nonsexual offenders (X = 29.8 years). The concept of identity was examined on the basis of two factors: body image limits and ego identity. Two objective tests, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the Ego Identity Scale, and one projective test, the Rorschach scored according to the Fisher and Cleveland method, were used.

RESULTS

A multivariate analysis of covariance, at a significance threshold of p < .05, indicated that pedophiles who abused female victims and pedophiles who abused male victims have more fragile body image limits, as measured by the penetration score, and present a higher level of social introversion (Si scale) than do nonsexual offenders. Moreover, pedophiles who abused male victims have a weaker ego (Es scale) than do pedophiles who abused female victims and nonsexual offenders. In other respects, no significant intergroup difference emerged in terms of body image limits as measured by the barrier score and of strength of ego identity (Ego Identity Scale).

CONCLUSIONS

Conceptual and empirical elements related to body image and ego identity are addressed to shed light on the potential disturbances in the identity of pedophile subjects. These results imply not only that certain impairments exist at the level of the basis structures of the personality, but also that these impairments should be taken into account in formulating a program and devising a therapeutic process for pedophiles.

Violence against women: an integrated, ecological framework

This article encourages the widespread adoption of an integrated, ecological framework for understanding the origins of gender-based violence. An ecological approach to abuse conceptualizes violence as a multifaceted phenomenon grounded in an interplay among personal, situational, and sociocultural factors. Although drawing on the conceptual advances of earlier theorists, this article goes beyond their work in three significant ways. First, it uses the ecological framework as a heuristic tool to organize the existing research base into an intelligible whole. Whereas other theorists present the framework as a way to think about violence, few have attempted to establish what factors emerge as predictive of abuse at each level of the social ecology. Second, this article integrates results from international and cross-cultural research together with findings from North American social science. And finally, the framework draws from findings related to all types of physical and sexual abuse of women to encourage a more integrated approach to theory building regarding gender-based abuse.

Interpersonal competency in sex offenders

The major theoretical frameworks all invoke, often implicitly, social competency deficits as part of their causal explanations for sexual aggression. In this article, the authors review the evidence for this general position, noting both that social competency is not best seen as being equivalent to social skill and that domain specificity is likely to be important. They argue that intimacy, empathy, and cognitive distortions are likely to be the most salient domains in the area of sexual aggression. Recent use of attachment theory to conceptualize intimacy suggests that this approach may have more utility in both classification and intervention planning. An information processing view of empathy, together with likelihood of situational constraints on deficits, has usefully advanced this area. The possible relationships between such deficits and cognitive distortions are noted. Current literature on cognitive distortions is also briefly reviewed. Finally, suggestions for a helpful research agenda are made.

Psychological profile of pedophiles and child molesters

Pedophiles and child molesters share some characteristics. Most are male, and they can be heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual. Some prefer adult sex partners but choose children because they are available and vulnerable. The sexual abuse perpetrated may be a 1-time incident and may consist only of fondling. Penetration is unlikely with young children. Perpetrators' ages range from teens to midlife. Most victims are girls, and the perpetrator usually is a relative, friend, or neighbor. The home of the victim is often the setting for the incident. When boys are victims, sexual abuse may take place outside the home, and perpetrators may be strangers. Perpetrators of sexual abuse of children often claim that they themselves were victims of childhood sexual abuse. Psychological profiles are helpful but are compromised partly because many perpetrators are prisoners and control groups are lacking for this research.

Use of physical force as an offense characteristic in subtyping juvenile sexual offenders

Juvenile sexual offenders were grouped based on whether they had ever used physical force or threats of force to commit an offense using self-reports on the Multiphasic Sex Inventory (MSI) and clinical records review. Subjects were 101 male offenders, 12 to 19 years, residing at a residential treatment facility. Cross-tabulation of self-report and records review were done to define three groups of offenders: rapists (i.e., those who used force), nonrapists, and deniers. These three groups were compared using the MSI and Jesness on other variables assessing offense patterns, sexual deviance, delinquent attitudes, perceived social competence, and offense-related cognitions. Rapists reported significantly more sexual assault fantasy/predatory behavior, greater preoccupation with children, and more paraphilias than did nonrapists and deniers. In comparison to deniers, rapists also reported more obsessive thinking about sex, and a greater willingness to participate in treatment. These findings are discussed with a focus on the apparent validity and usefulness of subtyping juvenile offenders based on whether or not they have used physical force or threats of force in committing a sexual offense.

Discriminating among incarcerated sexual offenders by their perception of interpersonal problems and experience-related anxiety

Fifty-seven (57) incarcerated sex offenders were assessed for their capacity to perceive interpersonal difficulties and experience related anxiety. The findings suggest that the men who have sexually transgressed against minors view themselves as easily exploitable and nurturant, and those who have sexually aggressed against adult females demonstrated minimal regard for external negative views of them. These two groups did not differ significantly from each other along social avoidance and non assertiveness dimensions. Assertiveness was found to decrease as a consequence of multiple incarcerations in both groups. Furthermore, perception of interpersonal difficulties and experience related anxiety in our study correctly classified 72% of high and low violent sexual offenders.

A review of cognitive factors in the etiology of rape: theories, empirical studies, and implications

In the past decade, research into the etiology of rape has increasingly focused on cognitive variables. The studies reviewed in the present article provide evidence that men with a high proclivity to rape have more rape supportive attitudes, are more likely to consider victims to be responsible for rape, and are less knowledgeable about the negative impact of rape on the victims. These men tend to misperceive cues emitted by women in heterosocial interactions; fail to generate inhibitory self-verbalizations to suppress association of sex and aggression; and have more coercive, sexual fantasies. Furthermore, a high proclivity to rape is associated with a semantic network in which concepts of sex and power are closely linked in such a way that power cues are necessary precursors of sexual feelings. Multivariate studies suggest that rape-supportive attitudes interact with noncognitive factors in the etiology of rape. Implications for rape prevention and treatment of rapists are considered. Finally, methodological issues are discussed, and recommendations for future research are given.

Rape and rapists: theory and treatment

The sexual assault of adult women is noteworthy by its huge social and personal cost to the victims, their families, and ultimately society as a whole. The past decade has seen burgeoning research and clinical interest regarding child molesters but a lack of equivalent effort concerning rapists. Rapists are significantly different from child molesters. While considerable heterogeneity exists within this group, there is a lack of distinctiveness when compared to the wider population of serious criminal offenders. These two features of rapists have implications both for research and treatment. We also argue that despite the advances of the last decade this has been in terms of theory proliferation rather than integration, and that major explanatory gaps remain. In particular, there is a need for more middle-level theory that articulates mechanisms and can underpin treatment. Current treatment approaches have typically been developed for child molesters, and while there has been a significant increase in comprehensiveness and sophistication, the evidence for treatment efficacy with rapists remains tentative. Treatment programs need to be tailored to the specific needs of rapists and to the issues of treatment engagement and completion. We conclude with a variety of suggestions for the research agenda over the next decade.

The relationship between self-esteem and deviant sexual arousal in nonfamilial child molesters

Changes in self-esteem as a result of direct treatment were evaluated in 12 nonfamilial child molesters, and the relationship between these changes and reductions in deviant arousal was assessed. Treatment enhanced self-esteem, and these improvements were significantly correlated with reductions in deviant arousal even though deviant fantasies were not targeted in treatment. Implications of these findings for theoretical analyses of sexual offending and for treatment are discussed.