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Tundo GR, Cascio P, Milardi D, Santoro AM, Graziani G, Lacal PM, Bocedi A, Oddone F, Parravano M, Coletta A, Coletta M, Sbardella D. Targeting immunoproteasome in neurodegeneration: A glance to the future. Pharmacol Ther 2023; 241:108329. [PMID: 36526014 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2022.108329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The immunoproteasome is a specialized form of proteasome equipped with modified catalytic subunits that was initially discovered to play a pivotal role in MHC class I antigen processing and immune system modulation. However, over the last years, this proteolytic complex has been uncovered to serve additional functions unrelated to antigen presentation. Accordingly, it has been proposed that immunoproteasome synergizes with canonical proteasome in different cell types of the nervous system, regulating neurotransmission, metabolic pathways and adaptation of the cells to redox or inflammatory insults. Hence, studying the alterations of immunoproteasome expression and activity is gaining research interest to define the dynamics of neuroinflammation as well as the early and late molecular events that are likely involved in the pathogenesis of a variety of neurological disorders. Furthermore, these novel functions foster the perspective of immunoproteasome as a potential therapeutic target for neurodegeneration. In this review, we provide a brain and retina-wide overview, trying to correlate present knowledge on structure-function relationships of immunoproteasome with the variety of observed neuro-modulatory functions.
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Abi Habib J, Lesenfants J, Vigneron N, Van den Eynde BJ. Functional Differences between Proteasome Subtypes. Cells 2022; 11:421. [PMID: 35159231 DOI: 10.3390/cells11030421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Four proteasome subtypes are commonly present in mammalian tissues: standard proteasomes, which contain the standard catalytic subunits β1, β2 and β5; immunoproteasomes containing the immuno-subunits β1i, β2i and β5i; and two intermediate proteasomes, containing a mix of standard and immuno-subunits. Recent studies revealed the expression of two tissue-specific proteasome subtypes in cortical thymic epithelial cells and in testes: thymoproteasomes and spermatoproteasomes. In this review, we describe the mechanisms that enable the ATP- and ubiquitin-dependent as well as the ATP- and ubiquitin-independent degradation of proteins by the proteasome. We focus on understanding the role of the different proteasome subtypes in maintaining protein homeostasis in normal physiological conditions through the ATP- and ubiquitin-dependent degradation of proteins. Additionally, we discuss the role of each proteasome subtype in the ATP- and ubiquitin-independent degradation of disordered proteins. We also discuss the role of the proteasome in the generation of peptides presented by MHC class I molecules and the implication of having different proteasome subtypes for the peptide repertoire presented at the cell surface. Finally, we discuss the role of the immunoproteasome in immune cells and its modulation as a potential therapy for autoimmune diseases.
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Tripathi SC, Vedpathak D, Ostrin EJ. The Functional and Mechanistic Roles of Immunoproteasome Subunits in Cancer. Cells 2021; 10:cells10123587. [PMID: 34944095 PMCID: PMC8700164 DOI: 10.3390/cells10123587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-mediated immunity is driven by antigenic peptide presentation on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Specialized proteasome complexes called immunoproteasomes process viral, bacterial, and tumor antigens for presentation on MHC class I molecules, which can induce CD8 T cells to mount effective immune responses. Immunoproteasomes are distinguished by three subunits that alter the catalytic activity of the proteasome and are inducible by inflammatory stimuli such as interferon-γ (IFN-γ). This inducible activity places them in central roles in cancer, autoimmunity, and inflammation. While accelerated proteasomal degradation is an important tumorigenic mechanism deployed by several cancers, there is some ambiguity regarding the role of immunoproteasome induction in neoplastic transformation. Understanding the mechanistic and functional relevance of the immunoproteasome provides essential insights into developing targeted therapies, including overcoming resistance to standard proteasome inhibition and immunomodulation of the tumor microenvironment. In this review, we discuss the roles of the immunoproteasome in different cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satyendra Chandra Tripathi
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences Nagpur, Nagpur 441108, MH, India;
- Correspondence: (S.C.T.); (E.J.O.)
| | - Disha Vedpathak
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences Nagpur, Nagpur 441108, MH, India;
| | - Edwin Justin Ostrin
- Department of General Internal Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Correspondence: (S.C.T.); (E.J.O.)
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van den Eshof BL, Medfai L, Nolfi E, Wawrzyniuk M, Sijts AJAM. The Function of Immunoproteasomes-An Immunologists' Perspective. Cells 2021; 10:3360. [PMID: 34943869 DOI: 10.3390/cells10123360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteasomes are responsible for intracellular proteolysis and play an important role in cellular protein homeostasis. Cells of the immune system assemble a specialized form of proteasomes, known as immunoproteasomes, in which the constitutive catalytic sites are replaced for cytokine-inducible homologues. While immunoproteasomes may fulfill all standard proteasome’ functions, they seem specially adapted for a role in MHC class I antigen processing and CD8+ T-cell activation. In this way, they may contribute to CD8+ T-cell-mediated control of intracellular infections, but also to the immunopathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. Starting at the discovery of its catalytic subunits in the genome, here, we review the observations shaping our current understanding of immunoproteasome function, and the consequential novel opportunities for immune intervention.
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Tubío-Santamaría N, Ebstein F, Heidel FH, Krüger E. Immunoproteasome Function in Normal and Malignant Hematopoiesis. Cells 2021; 10:1577. [PMID: 34206607 DOI: 10.3390/cells10071577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is a central part of protein homeostasis, degrading not only misfolded or oxidized proteins but also proteins with essential functions. The fact that a healthy hematopoietic system relies on the regulation of protein homeostasis and that alterations in the UPS can lead to malignant transformation makes the UPS an attractive therapeutic target for the treatment of hematologic malignancies. Herein, inhibitors of the proteasome, the last and most important component of the UPS enzymatic cascade, have been approved for the treatment of these malignancies. However, their use has been associated with side effects, drug resistance, and relapse. Inhibitors of the immunoproteasome, a proteasomal variant constitutively expressed in the cells of hematopoietic origin, could potentially overcome the encountered problems of non-selective proteasome inhibition. Immunoproteasome inhibitors have demonstrated their efficacy and safety against inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, even though their development for the treatment of hematologic malignancies is still in the early phases. Various immunoproteasome inhibitors have shown promising preliminary results in pre-clinical studies, and one inhibitor is currently being investigated in clinical trials for the treatment of multiple myeloma. Here, we will review data on immunoproteasome function and inhibition in hematopoietic cells and hematologic cancers.
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Wang Y, Yan K, Lin J, Liu Y, Wang J, Li X, Li X, Hua Z, Zheng Z, Shi J, Sun S, Bi J. CD8+ T Cell Co-Expressed Genes Correlate With Clinical Phenotype and Microenvironments of Urothelial Cancer. Front Oncol 2020; 10:553399. [PMID: 33330025 PMCID: PMC7713665 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.553399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose To identify immune-related co-expressed genes that promote CD8+ T cell infiltration in bladder cancer, and to explore the interactions among relevant genes in the tumor microenvironment. Method We obtained bladder cancer gene matrix and clinical information data from TCGA, GSE32894 and GSE48075. The “estimate” package was used to calculate tumor purity and immune score. The CIBERSORT algorithm was used to assess CD8+ T cell proportions. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis was used to identify the co-expression modules with CD8+ T cell proportions and bladder tumor purity. Subsequently, we performed correlation analysis among angiogenesis factors, angiogenesis inhibitors, immune inflammatory responses, and CD8+ T cell related genes in tumor microenvironment. Results A CD8+ T cell related co-expression network was identified. Eight co-expressed genes (PSMB8, PSMB9, PSMB10, PSME2, TAP1, IRF1, FBOX6, ETV7) were identified as CD8+ T cell-related genes that promoted infiltration of CD8+ T cells, and were enriched in the MHC class I tumor antigen presentation process. The proteins level encoded by these genes (PSMB10, PSMB9, PSMB8, TAP1, IRF1, and FBXO6) were lower in the high clinical grade patients, which suggested the clinical phenotype correlation both in mRNA and protein levels. These factors negatively correlated with angiogenesis factors and positively correlated with angiogenesis inhibitors. PD-1 and PD-L1 positively correlated with these genes which suggested PD-1 expression level positively correlated with the biological process composed by these co-expression genes. In the high expression group of these genes, inflammation and immune response were more intense, and the tumor purity was lower, suggesting that these genes were immune protective factors that improved the prognosis in patients with bladder cancer. Conclusion These co-expressed genes promote high levels of infiltration of CD8+ T cells in an immunoproteasome process involved in MHC class I molecules. The mechanism might provide new pathways for treatment of patients who are insensitive to PD-1 immunotherapy due to low degrees of CD8+ T cell infiltration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yutao Wang
- Department of Urology, China Medical University, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Kexin Yan
- Department of Dermatology, China Medical University, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Jiaxing Lin
- Department of Urology, China Medical University, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Urology, China Medical University, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Jianfeng Wang
- Department of Urology, China Medical University, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Xuejie Li
- Department of Urology, China Medical University, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Xinxin Li
- Department of Urology, China Medical University, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Zhixiong Hua
- Department of Urology, China Medical University, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Zhenhua Zheng
- Department of Urology, China Medical University, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Jianxiu Shi
- Department of Urology, China Medical University, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Siqing Sun
- Department of Urology, China Medical University, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Jianbin Bi
- Department of Urology, China Medical University, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
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Narayanan S, Cai C, Assaraf YG, Guo H, Cui Q, Wei L, Huang J, Ashby CR, Chen Z. Targeting the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway to overcome anti-cancer drug resistance. Drug Resist Updat 2020; 48:100663. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drup.2019.100663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Revised: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Seliger B, Ferrone S. HLA Class I Antigen Processing Machinery Defects in Cancer Cells-Frequency, Functional Significance, and Clinical Relevance with Special Emphasis on Their Role in T Cell-Based Immunotherapy of Malignant Disease. Methods Mol Biol 2020; 2055:325-50. [PMID: 31502159 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9773-2_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
MHC class I antigen abnormalities have been shown to be one of the major immune escape mechanisms murine and human cancer cells utilize to avoid recognition and destruction by host immune system. This mechanism has clinical relevance, since it is associated with poor prognosis and/or reduced patients' survival in many types of malignant diseases. The recent impressive clinical responses to T cell-based immunotherapies triggered by checkpoint inhibitors have rekindled tumor immunologists and clinical oncologists' interest in the analysis of the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I antigen processing machinery (APM) expression and function in malignant cells. Abnormalities in the expression, regulation and/or function of components of this machinery have been associated with the development of resistances to T cell-based immunotherapies. In this review, following the description of the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I APM organization and function, the information related to the frequency of defects in HLA class I APM component expression in various types of cancer and the underlying molecular mechanisms is summarized. Then the impact of these defects on clinical response to T cell-based immunotherapies and strategies to revert this immune escape process are discussed.
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Abstract
The proteasome degrades most cellular proteins in a controlled and tightly regulated manner and thereby controls many processes, including cell cycle, transcription, signalling, trafficking and protein quality control. Proteasomal degradation is vital in all cells and organisms, and dysfunction or failure of proteasomal degradation is associated with diverse human diseases, including cancer and neurodegeneration. Target selection is an important and well-established way to control protein degradation. In addition, mounting evidence indicates that cells adjust proteasome-mediated degradation to their needs by regulating proteasome abundance through the coordinated expression of proteasome subunits and assembly chaperones. Central to the regulation of proteasome assembly is TOR complex 1 (TORC1), which is the master regulator of cell growth and stress. This Review discusses how proteasome assembly and the regulation of proteasomal degradation are integrated with cellular physiology, including the interplay between the proteasome and autophagy pathways. Understanding these mechanisms has potential implications for disease therapy, as the misregulation of proteasome function contributes to human diseases such as cancer and neurodegeneration.
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Abstract
The life of every organism is dependent on the fine-tuned mechanisms of protein synthesis and breakdown. The degradation of most intracellular proteins is performed by the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS). Proteasomes are central elements of the UPS and represent large multisubunit protein complexes directly responsible for the protein degradation. Accumulating data indicate that there is an intriguing diversity of cellular proteasomes. Different proteasome forms, containing different subunits and attached regulators have been described. In addition, proteasomes specific for a particular tissue were identified. Cancer cells are highly dependent on the proper functioning of the UPS in general, and proteasomes in particular. At the same time, the information regarding the role of different proteasome forms in cancer is limited. This review describes the functional and structural heterogeneity of proteasomes, their association with cancer as well as several established and novel proteasome-directed therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexey V Morozov
- Laboratory of Regulation of Intracellular Proteolysis, W.A. Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology RAS, Moscow, Russia
| | - Vadim L Karpov
- Laboratory of Regulation of Intracellular Proteolysis, W.A. Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology RAS, Moscow, Russia
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Ganesan M, Krutik VM, Makarov E, Mathews S, Kharbanda KK, Poluektova LY, Casey CA, Osna NA. Acetaldehyde suppresses the display of HBV-MHC class I complexes on HBV-expressing hepatocytes. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2019; 317:G127-G140. [PMID: 31141391 PMCID: PMC6734374 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00064.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection and alcoholism are major public health problems worldwide, contributing to the development of end-stage liver disease. Alcohol intake affects HBV infection pathogenesis and treatment outcomes. HBV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) play an important role in HBV clearance. Many previous studies have focused on alcohol-induced impairments of the immune response. However, it is not clear whether alcohol alters the presentation of HBV peptide-major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I complexes on infected hepatocytes resulting in escape of its recognition by CTLs. Hence, the focus of this study was to investigate the mechanisms by which ethanol metabolism affects the presentation of CTL epitope on HBV-infected hepatocytes. As demonstrated here, although continuous cell exposure to acetaldehyde-generating system (AGS) increased HBV load in HepG2.2.15 cells, it decreased the expression of HBV core peptide 18-27-human leukocyte antigen-A2complex (CTL epitope) on the cell surface. Moreover, we observed AGS-induced suppression of chymotrypsin- and trypsin-like proteasome activities necessary for peptide processing by proteasome as well as a decline in IFNγ-stimulated immunoproteasome (IPR) function and expression of PA28 activator and immunoproteasome subunits LMP7 and LMP2. Furthermore, IFNγ-induced activation of peptide-loading complex (PLC) components, such as transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP1) and tapasin, were suppressed by AGS. The attenuation of IPR and PLC activation was attributed to AGS-triggered impairment of IFNγ signaling in HepG2.2.15 cells. Collectively, all these downstream events reduced the display of HBV peptide-MHC class I complexes on the hepatocyte surface, which may suppress CTL activation and the recognition of CTL epitopes on HBV-expressing hepatocytes by immune cells, thereby leading to persistence of liver inflammation.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Our study shows that in HBV-expressing HepG2.2.15 cells, acetaldehyde alters HBV peptide processing by suppressing chymotrypsin- and trypsin-like proteasome activities and decreases IFNγ-stimulated immunoproteasome function and expression of PA28 activator and immunoproteasome subunits. It also suppresses IFNγ-induced activation of peptide-loading complex (PLC) components due to impairment of IFNγ signaling via the JAK-STAT1 pathway. These acetaldehyde-induced dysfunctions reduced the display of HBV peptide-MHC class I complexes on the hepatocyte surface, thereby leading to persistence of HBV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murali Ganesan
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System, Omaha, Nebraska
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - Vjaceslav M Krutik
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - Edward Makarov
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - Saumi Mathews
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - Kusum K Kharbanda
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System, Omaha, Nebraska
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
| | | | - Carol A Casey
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System, Omaha, Nebraska
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - Natalia A Osna
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System, Omaha, Nebraska
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
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Albornoz N, Bustamante H, Soza A, Burgos P. Cellular Responses to Proteasome Inhibition: Molecular Mechanisms and Beyond. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E3379. [PMID: 31295808 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20143379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteasome inhibitors have been actively tested as potential anticancer drugs and in the treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Unfortunately, cells adapt to survive in the presence of proteasome inhibitors activating a variety of cell responses that explain why these therapies have not fulfilled their expected results. In addition, all proteasome inhibitors tested and approved by the FDA have caused a variety of side effects in humans. Here, we describe the different types of proteasome complexes found within cells and the variety of regulators proteins that can modulate their activities, including those that are upregulated in the context of inflammatory processes. We also summarize the adaptive cellular responses activated during proteasome inhibition with special emphasis on the activation of the Autophagic-Lysosomal Pathway (ALP), proteaphagy, p62/SQSTM1 enriched-inclusion bodies, and proteasome biogenesis dependent on Nrf1 and Nrf2 transcription factors. Moreover, we discuss the role of IRE1 and PERK sensors in ALP activation during ER stress and the involvement of two deubiquitinases, Rpn11 and USP14, in these processes. Finally, we discuss the aspects that should be currently considered in the development of novel strategies that use proteasome activity as a therapeutic target for the treatment of human diseases.
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Zanker D, Pang K, Oveissi S, Lu C, Faou P, Nowell C, Mbogo GW, Carotta S, Quillici C, Karupiah G, Hibbs ML, Nutt SL, Neeson P, Puthalakath H, Chen W. LMP2 immunoproteasome promotes lymphocyte survival by degrading apoptotic BH3-only proteins. Immunol Cell Biol 2018; 96:981-993. [PMID: 29738610 DOI: 10.1111/imcb.12163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The role of the immunoproteasome is perceived as confined to adaptive immune responses given its ability to produce peptides ideal for MHC Class-I binding. Here, we demonstrate that the immunoproteasome subunit, LMP2, has functions beyond its immunomodulatory role. Using LMP2-deficient mice, we demonstrate that LMP2 is crucial for lymphocyte development and survival in the periphery. Moreover, LMP2-deficient lymphocytes show impaired degradation of key BH3-only proteins, resulting in elevated levels of pro-apoptotic BIM and increased cell death. Interestingly, LMP2 is the sole immunoproteasome subunit required for BIM degradation. Together, our results suggest LMP2 has important housekeeping functions and represents a viable therapeutic target for cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Zanker
- La Trobe Institute of Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia
| | - Kenneth Pang
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Australia.,Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia.,Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Australia
| | - Sara Oveissi
- La Trobe Institute of Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia
| | - Chunni Lu
- La Trobe Institute of Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia
| | - Pierre Faou
- La Trobe Institute of Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia
| | - Cameron Nowell
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - George W Mbogo
- La Trobe Institute of Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia
| | - Sebastian Carotta
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Australia
| | - Cathy Quillici
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Guna Karupiah
- Australian National University School of Medicine & College of Health and Medicine & University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Margaret L Hibbs
- Department of Immunology and Pathology, Monash University, AMREP Melbourne, Australia
| | - Stephen L Nutt
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Australia
| | - Paul Neeson
- Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Hamsa Puthalakath
- La Trobe Institute of Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia
| | - Weisan Chen
- La Trobe Institute of Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia
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Chen M, Pockaj B, Andreozzi M, Barrett MT, Krishna S, Eaton S, Niu R, Anderson KS. JAK2 and PD-L1 Amplification Enhance the Dynamic Expression of PD-L1 in Triple-negative Breast Cancer. Clin Breast Cancer 2018; 18:e1205-e1215. [PMID: 29933930 DOI: 10.1016/j.clbc.2018.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Revised: 04/25/2018] [Accepted: 05/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Activation of the JAK/STAT pathway is common in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and affects the expression of genes controlling immune signaling. A subset of TNBC cases will have somatic amplification of chromosome 9p24.1, encoding PD-L1, PD-L2, and JAK2, which has been associated with decreased survival. MATERIALS AND METHODS Eleven TNBC cell lines were evaluated using array comparative genomic hybridization. A copy number gain was defined as an array comparative genomic hybridization log2 ratio of ≥ 1. Cell surface expression of programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) was detected using flow cytometry and compared with the median fluorescence intensity of isotype control immunoglobulin. To selectively inhibit JAK2, lentiviral vectors encoding 2 different short hairpin RNA (shRNA) were generated. JAK2, STAT1, STAT3, phosphorylated (p) STAT1, and pSTAT3 expression were measured by immunoblot. Statistical significance was defined as P < .05. RESULTS The cell line HCC70 had 9p24.1 copy number amplification that was associated with both increased JAK2 and pSTAT3; however, knockdown of JAK2 inhibited cell growth independently of 9p24.1 copy number status. In TNBC cell lines with 9p24.1 gain or amplification, PD-L1 expression rapidly and strikingly increased 5- to 38-fold with interferon-γ (P < .05), and inducible PD-L1 expression was completely blocked by JAK2 knockdown and the JAK1/2 inhibitor ruxolitinib. In tumor tissue, expression of interferon-γ-related genes correlated with 9p24.1 copy number status. CONCLUSION These data suggest that the JAK2/STAT1 pathway in TNBC might regulate the dynamic expression of PD-L1 that is induced in the setting of an inflammatory response. Inhibition of JAK2 might provide a synergistic therapy when combined with other immunotherapies in the subset of TNBC with 9p24.1 amplification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meixuan Chen
- Virginia G. Piper Center for Personalized Diagnostics, The Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ; Public Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Breast Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Ministry of Education, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | | | | | | | - Sri Krishna
- Virginia G. Piper Center for Personalized Diagnostics, The Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ; School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ
| | - Seron Eaton
- Virginia G. Piper Center for Personalized Diagnostics, The Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ
| | - Ruifang Niu
- Public Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Breast Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Ministry of Education, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Karen S Anderson
- Virginia G. Piper Center for Personalized Diagnostics, The Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ; Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, AZ.
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Mishra R, Upadhyay A, Prajapati VK, Mishra A. Proteasome-mediated proteostasis: Novel medicinal and pharmacological strategies for diseases. Med Res Rev 2018; 38:1916-1973. [DOI: 10.1002/med.21502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2017] [Revised: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ribhav Mishra
- Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology Unit; Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur; Rajasthan India
| | - Arun Upadhyay
- Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology Unit; Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur; Rajasthan India
| | - Vijay Kumar Prajapati
- Department of Biochemistry; School of Life Sciences; Central University of Rajasthan; Rajasthan India
| | - Amit Mishra
- Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology Unit; Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur; Rajasthan India
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16
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Mandal RK, Dar SA, Jawed A, Wahid M, Lohani M, Panda AK, Mishra BN, Akhter N, Areeshi MY, Haque S. Impact of LMP7 (rs2071543) gene polymorphism in increasing cancer risk: evidence from a meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. Oncotarget 2017; 9:6572-6585. [PMID: 29464093 PMCID: PMC5814233 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.23547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetic variant LMP7 (low molecular weight polypeptide 7) –145 C > A may influence the function of immune surveillance of an individual and lead to cancer development. Various studies have investigated the relevance of LMP7 –145 C > A gene polymorphism with cancer risk; but, their results are conflicting and inconsistent. To obtain a comprehensive conclusion, a meta-analysis was performed by including eight eligible published studies retrieved from PubMed (Medline), EMBASE and Google Scholar web search until December 2016. Individuals with AA genotype (AA vs CC: p = 0.001; OR = 2.602, 95% CI = 1.780 to 3.803) of LMP7 -145 C > A were found to have 2 folds higher risk of cancer than those with CC genotype. The recessive genetic model (AA vs AC + CC) also indicated that individuals with AA genotype have 2 folds higher cancer risk than AC and CC genotypes (p = 0.001; OR = 2.216, 95% CI = 1.525 to 3.221). Also, significant increased cancer risk was observed in Asians but not in Caucasians. No publication bias was observed during the analysis. Trial sequential analysis also strengthened our current findings. These results suggest that genetic variant LMP7–145 C > A has significant role in increasing cancer risk in overall and Asian population, and could be useful as a prognostic marker for early cancer predisposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raju K Mandal
- Research and Scientific Studies Unit, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sajad A Dar
- Research and Scientific Studies Unit, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia.,The University College of Medical Sciences and GTB Hospital University of Delhi, Delhi 110095, India
| | - Arshad Jawed
- Research and Scientific Studies Unit, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohd Wahid
- Research and Scientific Studies Unit, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia.,Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia A Central University, New Delhi 110025, India
| | - Mohtashim Lohani
- Research and Scientific Studies Unit, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Aditya K Panda
- Centre for Life Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand 835205, India
| | - Bhartendu N Mishra
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226021, India
| | - Naseem Akhter
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Albaha University, Albaha 65431, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Y Areeshi
- Research and Scientific Studies Unit, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shafiul Haque
- Research and Scientific Studies Unit, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
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17
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Eskandari SK, Seelen MAJ, Lin G, Azzi JR. The immunoproteasome: An old player with a novel and emerging role in alloimmunity. Am J Transplant 2017; 17:3033-3039. [PMID: 28719024 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.14435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2017] [Revised: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Modern treatment strategies for the maintenance of allograft acceptance frequently target ubiquitously-expressed pathways, leading to significant side-effects and poor long-term allograft outcomes. Constitutive proteasome inhibitors, which have recently been introduced for the treatment of antibody-mediated rejection, target the ubiquitously-expressed proteasome. To limit off-target effects and serious mechanism-based toxicity, however, these inhibitors are administered intermittently and suboptimally. Immunoproteasomes, which are an inducible subset of proteasomes enriched in immune cells, replace constitutive proteasomes after cell exposure to proinflammatory cytokines such as interferon-γ. While immunoproteasomes were first described as processors of antigen for presentation by major histocompatibility complex molecules, recent findings point to its broader biological roles. These vary from activating different subsets of the immune system, by controlling transcriptional activators and downstream cytokines, to affecting their differentiation and survival. These emerging roles of the immunoproteasome in activated immune cells have made it a rational candidate for the targeted treatment of immune-mediated diseases. Preclinical studies have established its role in maintaining allograft acceptance without significant short- or long-term toxicity. This review provides a brief background of the immunoproteasome and outlines its role in immunological pathways and its potential in alloimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Eskandari
- Transplantation Research Center, Renal Division, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Nephrology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - M A J Seelen
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Nephrology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - G Lin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - J R Azzi
- Transplantation Research Center, Renal Division, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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18
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Dani P, Patnaik N, Singh A, Jaiswal A, Agrawal B, Kumar AA, Varkhande SR, Sharma A, Vaish U, Ghosh P, Sharma VK, Sharma P, Verma G, Kar HK, Gupta S, Natarajan VT, Gokhale RS, Rani R. Association and expression of the antigen-processing gene PSMB8, coding for low-molecular-mass protease 7, with vitiligo in North India: case-control study. Br J Dermatol 2017; 178:482-491. [PMID: 28207947 DOI: 10.1111/bjd.15391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vitiligo is a multifactorial, autoimmune, depigmenting disorder of the skin where aberrant presentation of autoantigens may have a role. OBJECTIVES To study the association of two antigen-processing genes, PSMB8 and PSMB9, with vitiligo. METHODS In total 1320 cases of vitiligo (1050 generalized and 270 localized) and 752 healthy controls were studied for the PSMB9 exon 3 G/A single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), PSMB8 exon 2 C/A SNP and PSMB8 intron 6 G/T SNP at site 37 360 using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-restriction fragment length polymorphism. Real-time PCR was used for transcriptional expression of PSMB8 and cytokines. Expression of ubiquitinated proteins and phosphorylated-p38 (P-p38) was studied by Western blotting. RESULTS Significant increases in PSMB8 exon 2 allele A (P < 2.07 × 10-6 , odds ratio 1·93) and genotypes AA (P < 1.03 × 10-6 , odds ratio 2·51) and AC (P < 1.29 × 10-6 , odds ratio 1·63) were observed in patients with vitiligo. Interferon-γ stimulation induced lower expression of PSMB8 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of cases compared with controls, suggesting impaired antigen processing, which was confirmed by accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins in both lesional and nonlesional skin of patients with vitiligo. Expression of proinflammatory cytokines - interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β and IL-8 - was higher in the lesional skin. P-p38 expression was variable but correlated with the amount of ubiquitinated proteins in the lesional and nonlesional skin, suggesting that the inflammatory cytokine responses in lesional skin could be a result of both P-p38-dependent and -independent pathways. CONCLUSIONS The PSMB8 exon 2 SNP is significantly associated with vitiligo. Accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins in skin of cases of vitiligo suggests their aberrant processing, which may promote the development of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Dani
- Molecular Immunogenetics Group, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - N Patnaik
- Molecular Immunogenetics Group, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - A Singh
- Molecular Immunogenetics Group, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India.,Systems Biology Group, CSIR - Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, 110025, India
| | - A Jaiswal
- Molecular Immunogenetics Group, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - B Agrawal
- Molecular Immunogenetics Group, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - A A Kumar
- Molecular Immunogenetics Group, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - S R Varkhande
- Molecular Immunogenetics Group, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - A Sharma
- Molecular Immunogenetics Group, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - U Vaish
- Molecular Immunogenetics Group, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - P Ghosh
- Systems Biology Group, CSIR - Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, 110025, India
| | - V K Sharma
- Department of Dermatology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, 110029, India
| | - P Sharma
- Department of Dermatology, PGIMER, Dr Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital, New Delhi, 110001, India
| | - G Verma
- Department of Dermatology, PGIMER, Dr Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital, New Delhi, 110001, India
| | - H K Kar
- Department of Dermatology, PGIMER, Dr Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital, New Delhi, 110001, India
| | - S Gupta
- Department of Dermatology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, 110029, India
| | - V T Natarajan
- Systems Biology Group, CSIR - Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, 110025, India
| | - R S Gokhale
- Molecular Immunogenetics Group, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India.,Systems Biology Group, CSIR - Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, 110025, India
| | - R Rani
- Molecular Immunogenetics Group, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India.,Systems Biology Group, CSIR - Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, 110025, India
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19
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Du S, Qin W, Leng H, Chen Z, Zhang T. Construction of a recombinant lentivirus-mediated shRNA expression vector targeting the human PSMD10 gene and validation of RNAi efficiency in RPMI‑8226 multiple myeloma cells. Oncol Rep 2017; 38:809-818. [PMID: 28677774 PMCID: PMC5561814 DOI: 10.3892/or.2017.5770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple myeloma (MM) is one of the most common malignant blood cancers. Previous studies have reported that proteasome 26S subunit non-ATPase 10 (PSMD10) is an oncoprotein with complex roles in hepatocellular carcinoma and other malignant tumors. Notably, research on the relationship between PSMD10 and tumorigenesis of MM has rarely been reported. The present study was designed to explore the possibility of PSMD10 as a therapeutic target in the treatment of MM, and the use of RNA interference (RNAi) to determine the function PSMD10. A recombinant lentivirus-mediated short hairpin RNA (shRNA) targeting human PSMD10 mRNA was constructed and used to decrease endogenous PSMD10 expression in the MM RPMI-8226 cell line in vitro. Expression of the PSMD10-targeting shRNA in RPMI-8226 cells transduced with the recombinant vector could be tracked by observing the expression of green fluorescent protein after infection. A transient transgenic RPMI-8226 cell line was generated by transducing cells with the packaged viral particles. Western blot analysis indicated that the protein levels of PSMD10 in the PSMD10-shRNA MM cells were significantly lower than those in the cells transduced with the negative control shRNA. Notably, RT-qPCR analysis did not reveal a marked change in the PSMD10 mRNA level; thus, the knockdown effect of the PSMD10-shRNA may occur during translation. Furthermore, apoptosis of MM cells was increased by silencing PSMD10 expression. Overall, the results demonstrated that the lentivirus-mediated shRNA vector-based RNAi expression system is an efficient method to silence PSMD10 gene expression in the MM RPMI-8226 cell line. It may provide a basis to study the role of PSMD10 in tumor cells, and may be a reliable gene therapy strategy in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyue Du
- Department of Hematology, Huashan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University, Jingan, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Wenjiao Qin
- Department of Hematology, Huashan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University, Jingan, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Haiyan Leng
- Department of Hematology, Huashan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University, Jingan, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Zi Chen
- Department of Hematology, Huashan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University, Jingan, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Tao Zhang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Huashan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University, Jingan, Shanghai, P.R. China
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20
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Reeves E, James E. Antigen processing and immune regulation in the response to tumours. Immunology 2016; 150:16-24. [PMID: 27658710 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2016] [Revised: 09/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The MHC class I and II antigen processing and presentation pathways display peptides to circulating CD8+ cytotoxic and CD4+ helper T cells respectively to enable pathogens and transformed cells to be identified. Once detected, T cells become activated and either directly kill the infected / transformed cells (CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes) or orchestrate the activation of the adaptive immune response (CD4+ T cells). The immune surveillance of transformed/tumour cells drives alteration of the antigen processing and presentation pathways to evade detection and hence the immune response. Evasion of the immune response is a significant event tumour development and considered one of the hallmarks of cancer. To avoid immune recognition, tumours employ a multitude of strategies with most resulting in a down-regulation of the MHC class I expression at the cell surface, significantly impairing the ability of CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes to recognize the tumour. Alteration of the expression of key players in antigen processing not only affects MHC class I expression but also significantly alters the repertoire of peptides being presented. These modified peptide repertoires may serve to further reduce the presentation of tumour-specific/associated antigenic epitopes to aid immune evasion and tumour progression. Here we review the modifications to the antigen processing and presentation pathway in tumours and how it affects the anti-tumour immune response, considering the role of tumour-infiltrating cell populations and highlighting possible future therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Reeves
- Cancer Sciences Unit, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, UK.,Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Edward James
- Cancer Sciences Unit, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, UK.,Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
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21
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Zhang XD, Baladandayuthapani V, Lin H, Mulligan G, Li B, Esseltine DLW, Qi L, Xu J, Hunziker W, Barlogie B, Usmani SZ, Zhang Q, Crowley J, Hoering A, Shah JJ, Weber DM, Manasanch EE, Thomas SK, Li BZ, Wang HH, Zhang J, Kuiatse I, Tang JL, Wang H, He J, Yang J, Milan E, Cenci S, Ma WC, Wang ZQ, Davis RE, Yang L, Orlowski RZ. Tight Junction Protein 1 Modulates Proteasome Capacity and Proteasome Inhibitor Sensitivity in Multiple Myeloma via EGFR/JAK1/STAT3 Signaling. Cancer Cell 2016; 29:639-652. [PMID: 27132469 PMCID: PMC4983190 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2016.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2013] [Revised: 12/26/2015] [Accepted: 03/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Proteasome inhibitors have revolutionized outcomes in multiple myeloma, but they are used empirically, and primary and secondary resistance are emerging problems. We have identified TJP1 as a determinant of plasma cell proteasome inhibitor susceptibility. TJP1 suppressed expression of the catalytically active immunoproteasome subunits LMP7 and LMP2, decreased proteasome activity, and enhanced proteasome inhibitor sensitivity in vitro and in vivo. This occurred through TJP1-mediated suppression of EGFR/JAK1/STAT3 signaling, which modulated LMP7 and LMP2 levels. In the clinic, high TJP1 expression in patient myeloma cells was associated with a significantly higher likelihood of responding to bortezomib and a longer response duration, supporting the use of TJP1 as a biomarker to identify patients most likely to benefit from proteasome inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing-Ding Zhang
- Department of Lymphoma/Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China; Xi'an Jiaotong University Suzhou Academy, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | | | - Heather Lin
- Department of Biostatistics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - George Mulligan
- Millennium: The Takeda Oncology Company, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Bin Li
- Millennium: The Takeda Oncology Company, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | | | - Lin Qi
- Xi'an Jiaotong University Suzhou Academy, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Jianliang Xu
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Singapore 138673, Republic of Singapore
| | - Walter Hunziker
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Singapore 138673, Republic of Singapore
| | - Bart Barlogie
- Myeloma Institute for Research and Therapy, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
| | - Saad Z Usmani
- Myeloma Institute for Research and Therapy, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA; Department of Hematologic Oncology, Levine Cancer Institute, Carolinas Healthcare System, Charlotte, NC 28204, USA
| | - Qing Zhang
- Myeloma Institute for Research and Therapy, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA; Department of Hematologic Oncology, Levine Cancer Institute, Carolinas Healthcare System, Charlotte, NC 28204, USA
| | - John Crowley
- Cancer Research and Biostatistics, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Antje Hoering
- Cancer Research and Biostatistics, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Jatin J Shah
- Department of Lymphoma/Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Donna M Weber
- Department of Lymphoma/Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Elisabet E Manasanch
- Department of Lymphoma/Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Sheeba K Thomas
- Department of Lymphoma/Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Bing-Zong Li
- Department of Lymphoma/Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Hui-Han Wang
- Department of Lymphoma/Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jiexin Zhang
- Department of Biostatistics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Isere Kuiatse
- Department of Lymphoma/Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jin-Le Tang
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Hua Wang
- Department of Lymphoma/Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jin He
- Department of Lymphoma/Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jing Yang
- Department of Lymphoma/Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Enrico Milan
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan 20132, Italy
| | - Simone Cenci
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan 20132, Italy
| | - Wen-Cai Ma
- Department of Lymphoma/Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Zhi-Qiang Wang
- Department of Lymphoma/Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Richard Eric Davis
- Department of Lymphoma/Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Lin Yang
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China; Xi'an Jiaotong University Suzhou Academy, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China.
| | - Robert Z Orlowski
- Department of Lymphoma/Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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22
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Abstract
The Immunoproteasome has traditionally been viewed primarily for its role in peptide production for antigen presentation by the major histocompatibility complex, which is critical for immunity. However, recent research has shown that the Immunoproteasome is also very important for the clearance of oxidatively damaged proteins in homeostasis, and especially during stress and disease. The importance of the Immunoproteasome in protein degradation has become more evident as diseases characterized by protein aggregates have also been linked to deficiencies of the Immunoproteasome. Additionally, there are now diseases defined by mutations or polymorphisms within Immunoproteasome-specific subunit genes, further suggesting its crucial role in cytokine signaling and protein homeostasis (or "proteostasis"). The purpose of this review is to highlight our growing understanding of the importance of the Immunoproteasome in the management of protein quality control, and the detrimental impact of its dysregulation during disease and aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen K Johnston-Carey
- a Leonard Davis School of Gerontology of the Ethel Percy Andrus Gerontology Center , The University of Southern California , Los Angeles , CA , USA
| | - Laura C D Pomatto
- a Leonard Davis School of Gerontology of the Ethel Percy Andrus Gerontology Center , The University of Southern California , Los Angeles , CA , USA
| | - Kelvin J A Davies
- a Leonard Davis School of Gerontology of the Ethel Percy Andrus Gerontology Center , The University of Southern California , Los Angeles , CA , USA ;,b Division of Molecular & Computational Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, & Sciences , Los Angeles , CA , USA
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23
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Kimura H, Caturegli P, Takahashi M, Suzuki K. New Insights into the Function of the Immunoproteasome in Immune and Nonimmune Cells. J Immunol Res 2015; 2015:541984. [PMID: 26636107 DOI: 10.1155/2015/541984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The immunoproteasome is a highly efficient proteolytic machinery derived from the constitutive proteasome and is abundantly expressed in immune cells. The immunoproteasome plays a critical role in the immune system because it degrades intracellular proteins, for example, those of viral origin, into small proteins. They are further digested into short peptides to be presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules. In addition, the immunoproteasome influences inflammatory disease pathogenesis through its ability to regulate T cell polarization. The immunoproteasome is also expressed in nonimmune cell types during inflammation or neoplastic transformation, supporting a role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases and neoplasms. Following the success of inhibitors of the constitutive proteasome, which is now an established treatment modality for multiple myeloma, compounds that selectively inhibit the immunoproteasome are currently under active investigation. This paper will review the functions of the immunoproteasome, highlighting areas where novel pharmacological treatments that regulate immunoproteasome activity could be developed.
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24
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Abstract
Cellular proteostasis is a highly dynamic process and is primarily carried out by the degradation tools of ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). Abnormalities in UPS function result in the accumulation of damaged or misfolded proteins which can form intra- and extracellular aggregated proteinaceous deposits leading to cellular dysfunction and/or death. Deposition of abnormal protein aggregates and the cellular inability to clear them have been implicated in the pathogenesis of a number of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. Contrary to the upregulation of proteasome function in oncogenesis and the use of proteasome inhibition as a therapeutic strategy, activation of proteasome function would serve therapeutic objectives of treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. This review describes the current understanding of the role of the proteasome in neurodegenerative disorders and potential utility of proteasomal modulation therein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geeta Rao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Oklahoma Health Science Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Brandon Croft
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Oklahoma Health Science Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Chengwen Teng
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Oklahoma Health Science Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Vibhudutta Awasthi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Oklahoma Health Science Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
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25
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Zhang HM, Fu J, Hamilton R, Diaz V, Zhang Y. The mammalian target of rapamycin modulates the immunoproteasome system in the heart. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2015; 86:158-67. [PMID: 26239133 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2015.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Revised: 07/11/2015] [Accepted: 07/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) plays an important role in cardiac development and function. Inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin has been shown to attenuate pathological cardiac hypertrophy and improve the function of aging heart, accompanied by an inhibition of the cardiac proteasome activity. The current study aimed to determine the potential mechanism(s) by which mTOR inhibition modulates cardiac proteasome. Inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin was found to reduce primarily the immunoproteasome in both H9c2 cells in vitro and mouse heart in vivo, without significant effect on the constitutive proteasome and protein ubiquitination. Concurrent with the reduction of the immunoproteasome, rapamycin reduced two important inflammatory response pathways, the NF-κB and Stat3 signaling. In addition, rapamycin attenuated the induction of the immunoproteasome in H9c2 cells by inflammatory cytokines, including INFγ and TNFα, by suppressing NF-κB signaling. These data indicate that rapamycin indirectly modulated immunoproteasome through the suppression of inflammatory response pathways. Lastly, the role of the immunoproteasome during the development of cardiac hypertrophy was investigated. Administration of a specific inhibitor of the immunoproteasome ONX 0914 attenuated isoproterenol-induced cardiac hypertrophy, suggesting that the immunoproteasome may be involved in the development of cardiac hypertrophy and therefore could be a therapeutic target. In conclusion, rapamycin inhibits the immunoproteasome through its effect on the inflammatory signaling pathways and the immunoproteasome could be a potential therapeutic target for pathological cardiac hypertrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Mei Zhang
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China.
| | - Jianliang Fu
- Department of Neurology, Shanghai Jiaotong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Ryan Hamilton
- Barshop Institute, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, TX 78249, United States
| | - Vivian Diaz
- Barshop Institute, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, TX 78249, United States
| | - Yiqiang Zhang
- Barshop Institute, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, TX 78249, United States; Department of Physiology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, TX 78249, United States
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26
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Abstract
During viral infection, proper regulation of immune responses is necessary to ensure successful viral clearance with minimal host tissue damage. Proteasomes play a crucial role in the generation of antigenic peptides for presentation on MHC class I molecules, and thus activation of CD8 T cells, as well as activation of the NF-κB pathway. A specialized type of proteasome called the immunoproteasome is constitutively expressed in hematopoietic cells and induced in non-immune cells during viral infection by interferon signaling. The immunoproteasome regulates CD8 T cell responses to many viral epitopes during infection. Accumulating evidence suggests that the immunoproteasome may also contribute to regulation of proinflammatory cytokine production, activation of the NF-κB pathway, and management of oxidative stress. Many viruses have mechanisms of interfering with immunoproteasome function, including prevention of transcriptional upregulation of immunoproteasome components as well as direct interaction of viral proteins with immunoproteasome subunits. A better understanding of the role of the immunoproteasome in different cell types, tissues, and hosts has the potential to improve vaccine design and facilitate the development of effective treatment strategies for viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary K McCarthy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Jason B Weinberg
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA ; Department of Pediatrics and Communicable Diseases, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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27
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Demasi M, Simões V, Bonatto D. Cross-talk between redox regulation and the ubiquitin-proteasome system in mammalian cell differentiation. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2014; 1850:1594-606. [PMID: 25450485 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2014.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2014] [Revised: 10/24/2014] [Accepted: 10/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Embryogenesis and stem cell differentiation are complex and orchestrated signaling processes. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) act as essential signal transducers in cellular differentiation, as has been shown through recent discoveries. On the other hand, the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) has long been known to play an important role in all cellular regulated processes, including differentiation. SCOPE OF REVIEW In the present review, we focus on findings that highlight the interplay between redox signaling and the UPS regarding cell differentiation. Through systems biology analyses, we highlight major routes during cardiomyocyte differentiation based on redox signaling and UPS modulation. MAJOR CONCLUSION Oxygen availability and redox signaling are fundamental regulators of cell fate upon differentiation. The UPS plays an important role in the maintenance of pluripotency and the triggering of differentiation. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Cellular differentiation has been a matter of intense investigation mainly because of its potential therapeutic applications. Understanding regulatory mechanisms underlying cell differentiation is an important issue. Correspondingly, the role of UPS and regulation of redox processes have been emerged as essential factors to control the fate of cells upon differentiation. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Redox regulation of differentiation and de-differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilene Demasi
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - Vanessa Simões
- Department of Genetics and Evolutive Biology, IB, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Diego Bonatto
- Center of Biotechnology, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul., Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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28
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Abstract
Immunoproteasomes contain replacements for the three catalytic subunits of standard proteasomes. In most cells, oxidative stress and proinflammatory cytokines are stimuli that lead to elevated production of immunoproteasomes. Immune system cells, especially antigen-presenting cells, express a higher basal level of immunoproteasomes. A well-described function of immunoproteasomes is to generate peptides with a hydrophobic C terminus that can be processed to fit in the groove of MHC class I molecules. This display of peptides on the cell surface allows surveillance by CD8 T cells of the adaptive immune system for pathogen-infected cells. Functions of immunoproteasomes, other than generating peptides for antigen presentation, are emerging from studies in immunoproteasome-deficient mice, and are complemented by recently described diseases linked to mutations or single-nucleotide polymorphisms in immunoproteasome subunits. Thus, this growing body of literature suggests a more pleiotropic role in cell function for the immunoproteasome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah A Ferrington
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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29
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Schmidt M, Finley D. Regulation of proteasome activity in health and disease. Biochim Biophys Acta 2013; 1843:13-25. [PMID: 23994620 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2013.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 318] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2013] [Revised: 08/05/2013] [Accepted: 08/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is the primary selective degradation system in the nuclei and cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, required for the turnover of myriad soluble proteins. The hundreds of factors that comprise the UPS include an enzymatic cascade that tags proteins for degradation via the covalent attachment of a poly-ubiquitin chain, and a large multimeric enzyme that degrades ubiquitinated proteins, the proteasome. Protein degradation by the UPS regulates many pathways and is a crucial component of the cellular proteostasis network. Dysfunction of the ubiquitination machinery or the proteolytic activity of the proteasome is associated with numerous human diseases. In this review we discuss the contributions of the proteasome to human pathology, describe mechanisms that regulate the proteolytic capacity of the proteasome, and discuss strategies to modulate proteasome function as a therapeutic approach to ameliorate diseases associated with altered UPS function. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Ubiquitin-Proteasome System. Guest Editors: Thomas Sommer and Dieter H. Wolf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Schmidt
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
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30
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Desvergne A, Genin E, Maréchal X, Gallastegui N, Dufau L, Richy N, Groll M, Vidal J, Reboud-Ravaux M. Dimerized Linear Mimics of a Natural Cyclopeptide (TMC-95A) Are Potent Noncovalent Inhibitors of the Eukaryotic 20S Proteasome. J Med Chem 2013; 56:3367-78. [DOI: 10.1021/jm4002007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Audrey Desvergne
- Enzymologie
Moléculaire
et Fonctionnelle, UR4, University Paris 6, Pierre et Marie Curie, UPMC-Sorbonne Universités, Case 256, 7 Quai
Saint Bernard, 75252 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Emilie Genin
- Chimie et Photonique Moléculaires, Université de Rennes 1, CNRS-UMR 6510, Bâtiment
10A, Campus de Beaulieu, 35042 Rennes Cedex, France
| | - Xavier Maréchal
- Enzymologie
Moléculaire
et Fonctionnelle, UR4, University Paris 6, Pierre et Marie Curie, UPMC-Sorbonne Universités, Case 256, 7 Quai
Saint Bernard, 75252 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Nerea Gallastegui
- Center for Integrated Protein
Science, Department Chemie Lehrstuhl für Biochemie, Technische Universität München, Lichetenbergstrasse
4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Laure Dufau
- Enzymologie
Moléculaire
et Fonctionnelle, UR4, University Paris 6, Pierre et Marie Curie, UPMC-Sorbonne Universités, Case 256, 7 Quai
Saint Bernard, 75252 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Nicolas Richy
- Chimie et Photonique Moléculaires, Université de Rennes 1, CNRS-UMR 6510, Bâtiment
10A, Campus de Beaulieu, 35042 Rennes Cedex, France
| | - Michael Groll
- Center for Integrated Protein
Science, Department Chemie Lehrstuhl für Biochemie, Technische Universität München, Lichetenbergstrasse
4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Joëlle Vidal
- Chimie et Photonique Moléculaires, Université de Rennes 1, CNRS-UMR 6510, Bâtiment
10A, Campus de Beaulieu, 35042 Rennes Cedex, France
| | - Michèle Reboud-Ravaux
- Enzymologie
Moléculaire
et Fonctionnelle, UR4, University Paris 6, Pierre et Marie Curie, UPMC-Sorbonne Universités, Case 256, 7 Quai
Saint Bernard, 75252 Paris Cedex 05, France
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31
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Timofeev AV, Kuzmenko YV, Zharkova II, Starodubova ES, Karpov VL. Activation of transcription of immunoproteasome subunit genes in murine monocytes infected with different mycobacterial strains. Mol Biol 2013. [DOI: 10.1134/s0026893313020155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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32
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Ebstein F, Kloetzel PM, Krüger E, Seifert U. Emerging roles of immunoproteasomes beyond MHC class I antigen processing. Cell Mol Life Sci 2012; 69:2543-58. [PMID: 22382925 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-012-0938-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2011] [Revised: 01/18/2012] [Accepted: 02/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The proteasome is a multi-catalytic protein complex whose primary function is the degradation of abnormal or foreign proteins. Upon exposure of cells to interferons (IFNs), the β1i/LMP2, β2i/MECL-1, and β5i/LMP7 subunits are induced and incorporated into newly synthesized immunoproteasomes (IP), which are thought to function solely as critical players in the optimization of the CD8(+) T-cell response. However, the observation that IP are present in several non-immune tissues under normal conditions and/or following pathological events militates against the view that its role is limited to MHC class I presentation. In support of this concept, the recent use of genetic models deficient for β1i/LMP2, β2i/MECL-1, or β5i/LMP7 has uncovered unanticipated functions for IP in innate immunity and non-immune processes. Herein, we review recent data in an attempt to clarify the role of IP beyond MHC class I epitope presentation with emphasis on its involvement in the regulation of protein homeostasis, cell proliferation, and cytokine gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frédéric Ebstein
- Institut für Biochemie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin Campus CVK, Germany
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33
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Abstract
The ubiquitin-proteasomal system is an essential element of the protein quality control machinery in cells. The central part of this system is the 20S proteasome. The proteasome is a barrel-shaped multienzyme complex, containing several active centers hidden at the inner surface of the hollow cylinder. So, the regulation of the substrate entry toward the inner proteasomal surface is a key control mechanism of the activity of this protease. This chapter outlines the knowledge on the structure of the subunits of the 20S proteasome, the binding and structure of some proteasomal regulators and inducible proteasomal subunits. Therefore, this chapter imparts the knowledge on proteasomal structure which is required for the understanding of the following chapters.
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34
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Berhane S, Aresté C, Ablack JN, Ryan GB, Blackbourn DJ, Mymryk JS, Turnell AS, Steele JC, Grand RJA. Adenovirus E1A interacts directly with, and regulates the level of expression of, the immunoproteasome component MECL1. Virology 2011; 421:149-58. [PMID: 22018786 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2011.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2011] [Revised: 07/29/2011] [Accepted: 09/27/2011] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Proteasomes represent the major non-lysosomal mechanism responsible for the degradation of proteins. Following interferon γ treatment 3 proteasome subunits are replaced producing immunoproteasomes. Adenovirus E1A interacts with components of the 20S and 26S proteasome and can affect presentation of peptides. In light of these observations we investigated the relationship of AdE1A to the immunoproteasome. AdE1A interacts with the immunoproteasome subunit, MECL1. In contrast, AdE1A binds poorly to the proteasome β2 subunit which is replaced by MECL1 in the conversion of proteasomes to immunoproteasomes. Binding sites on E1A for MECL1 correspond to the N-terminal region and conserved region 3. Furthermore, AdE1A causes down-regulation of MECL1 expression, as well as LMP2 and LMP7, induced by interferon γ treatment during Ad infections or following transient transfection. Consistent with previous reports AdE1A reduced IFNγ-stimulated STAT1 phosphorylation which appeared to be responsible for its ability to reduce expression of immunoproteasome subunits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Berhane
- Cancer Research UK, School of Cancer Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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35
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Franke NE, Niewerth D, Assaraf YG, van Meerloo J, Vojtekova K, van Zantwijk CH, Zweegman S, Chan ET, Kirk CJ, Geerke DP, Schimmer AD, Kaspers GJL, Jansen G, Cloos J. Impaired bortezomib binding to mutant β5 subunit of the proteasome is the underlying basis for bortezomib resistance in leukemia cells. Leukemia 2011; 26:757-68. [DOI: 10.1038/leu.2011.256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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36
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Sijts EJ, Kloetzel PM. The role of the proteasome in the generation of MHC class I ligands and immune responses. Cell Mol Life Sci 2011; 68:1491-502. [PMID: 21387144 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-011-0657-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2011] [Revised: 02/17/2011] [Accepted: 02/18/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The ubiquitin–proteasome system (UPS) degrades intracellular proteins into peptide fragments that can be presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules. While the UPS is functional in all mammalian cells, its subunit composition differs depending on cell type and stimuli received. Thus, cells of the hematopoietic lineage and cells exposed to (pro)inflammatory cytokines express three proteasome immunosubunits, which form the catalytic centers of immunoproteasomes, and the proteasome activator PA28. Cortical thymic epithelial cells express a thymus-specific proteasome subunit that induces the assembly of thymoproteasomes. We here review new developments regarding the role of these different proteasome components in MHC class I antigen processing, T cell repertoire selection and CD8 T cell responses. We further discuss recently discovered functions of proteasomes in peptide splicing, lymphocyte survival and the regulation of cytokine production and inflammatory responses.
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37
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Wan X, Yang C, Yang Q, Xue H, Fan X, Tang NL, Yu W. BOOST: A fast approach to detecting gene-gene interactions in genome-wide case-control studies. Am J Hum Genet 2010; 87:325-40. [PMID: 20817139 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 298] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2010] [Revised: 07/09/2010] [Accepted: 07/29/2010] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene-gene interactions have long been recognized to be fundamentally important for understanding genetic causes of complex disease traits. At present, identifying gene-gene interactions from genome-wide case-control studies is computationally and methodologically challenging. In this paper, we introduce a simple but powerful method, named "BOolean Operation-based Screening and Testing" (BOOST). For the discovery of unknown gene-gene interactions that underlie complex diseases, BOOST allows examination of all pairwise interactions in genome-wide case-control studies in a remarkably fast manner. We have carried out interaction analyses on seven data sets from the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium (WTCCC). Each analysis took less than 60 hr to completely evaluate all pairs of roughly 360,000 SNPs on a standard 3.0 GHz desktop with 4G memory running the Windows XP system. The interaction patterns identified from the type 1 diabetes data set display significant difference from those identified from the rheumatoid arthritis data set, although both data sets share a very similar hit region in the WTCCC report. BOOST has also identified some disease-associated interactions between genes in the major histocompatibility complex region in the type 1 diabetes data set. We believe that our method can serve as a computationally and statistically useful tool in the coming era of large-scale interaction mapping in genome-wide case-control studies.
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38
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Camarena A, Aquino-Galvez A, Falfán-Valencia R, Sánchez G, Montaño M, Ramos C, Juárez A, García-de-Alba C, Granados J, Selman M. PSMB8 (LMP7) but not PSMB9 (LMP2) gene polymorphisms are associated to pigeon breeder's hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Respir Med 2010; 104:889-94. [PMID: 20153157 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmed.2010.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2009] [Revised: 01/15/2010] [Accepted: 01/20/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis (HP) is a lung inflammatory disorder caused by inhalation of organic particles by a susceptible host. However, only a small proportion of individuals exposed to HP-associated antigens develop the disease, suggesting that additional host/environmental factors may play a role. We have previously found that genetic susceptibility associated to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) plays an important role in this disease. The low molecular weight proteosome (LMP, currently named PSMB) genes code for subunits of the proteosome, a multimeric enzymatic complex that degrades proteins into peptides in order to be presented in the MHC class I pathway. We hypothesized that polymorphisms in PSMB8 or PSMB9 genes could be involved in the susceptibility to HP. Thus, in this study we analyzed the polymorphic site at amino acid position 60 (Arg/His) of the fourth exon in the PSMB9 gene and the amino acid position 49 (Gln/Lys) in the second exon of PSMB8 gene in 50 Mexican patients with HP and 50 healthy ethnically matched controls. PSMB typing was performed using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphisms (PCR-RFLP). Our results demonstrated that HP patients had a significant increase of the PSMB8 KQ genotype frequency (OR = 7.25, CI = 2.61-21.3; p = 0.000034). No differences were found in the distribution of PSMB9 alleles/genotypes. However, PSMB9-RH/PSMB8 KQ haplotype was significantly increased in HP patients (OR = 6.77, CI = 1.34-65.31, p < 0.02). These findings suggest that PSMB8 KQ genotype could increase the risk to develop hypersensitivity pneumonitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angel Camarena
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosio Villegas, Tlalpan 4502, Sección XVI, CP 14080, México City, DF, Mexico
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39
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Abstract
IFN-gamma up-regulates MHC class I expression and antigen processing and presentation on cells, since IFN-gamma can induce multiple gene expressions that are related to MHC class I antigen processing and presentation. MHC class I antigen presentation-associated gene expression is initiated by IRF-1. IRF-1 expression is initiated by phosphorylated STAT1. IFN-gamma binds to IFN receptors, and then activates JAK1/JAK2/STAT1 signal transduction via phosphorylation of JAK and STAT1 in cells. IFN-gamma up-regulates MHC class I antigen presentation via activation of JAK/STAT1 signal transduction pathway. Mechanisms of IFN-gamma to enhance MHC class I antigen processing and presentation were summarized in this literature review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Zhou
- Diamantina Institute for Cancer Immunology and Metabolic Medicine, Princess Alexandra Hospital, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
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40
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Abstract
When cells are stimulated with pro-inflammatory cytokines, most of their constitutively expressed proteasomes are replaced with immunoproteasomes, which increase the production of peptides for presentation on MHC class I molecules. In addition, cortical thymic epithelial cells selectively express a type of proteasome known as the thymoproteasome that is required for the positive selection of thymocytes. Here, we discuss how these specialized types of proteasome shape the T cell receptor repertoire of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and propose that immunoproteasomes have functions, in addition to antigen processing, that influence cytokine production and T cell differentiation, survival and function. We also discuss how inhibitors of immunoproteasomes can suppress undesired T cell responses in autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Groettrup
- Division of Immunology, Department of Biology, University of Constance, Konstanz, Germany.
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41
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Fu JJ, Lin P, Lv XY, Yan XJ, Wang HX, Zhu C, Tsang B, Yu XG, Wang H. Low Molecular Mass Polypeptide-2 in Human Trophoblast: Over-Expression in Hydatidiform Moles and Possible Role in Trophoblast Cell Invasion. Placenta 2009; 30:305-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2009.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2008] [Revised: 01/07/2009] [Accepted: 01/07/2009] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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42
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Goubau D, Romieu-Mourez R, Solis M, Hernandez E, Mesplède T, Lin R, Leaman D, Hiscott J. Transcriptional re-programming of primary macrophages reveals distinct apoptotic and anti-tumoral functions of IRF-3 and IRF-7. Eur J Immunol 2009; 39:527-40. [PMID: 19152337 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200838832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The immunoregulatory transcriptional modulators - IFN-regulatory factor (IRF)-3 and IRF-7 - possess similar structural features but distinct gene-regulatory potentials. For example, adenovirus-mediated transduction of the constitutively active form of IRF-3 triggered cell death in primary human MPhi, whereas expression of active IRF-7 induced a strong anti-tumoral activity in vitro. To further characterize target genes involved in these distinct cellular responses, transcriptional profiles of active IRF-3- or IRF-7-transduced primary human MPhi were compared and used to direct further mechanistic studies. The pro-apoptotic BH3-only protein Noxa was identified as a primary IRF-3 target gene and an essential regulator of IRF-3, dsRNA and vesicular stomatitis virus-induced cell death. The critical role of IRF-7 and type I IFN production in increasing the immunostimulatory capacity of MPhi was also evaluated; IRF-7 increased the expression of a broad range of IFN-stimulated genes including immunomodulatory cytokines and genes involved in antigen processing and presentation. Furthermore, active IRF-7 augmented the cross-presentation capacity and tumoricidal activity of MPhi and led to an anti-tumor response against the B16 melanoma model in vivo. Altogether, these data further highlight the respective functions of IRF-3 and IRF-7 to program apoptotic, immune and anti-tumor responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Goubau
- Terry Fox Molecular Oncology Group, Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, McGill University, Montreal, Que, Canada
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43
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Abstract
The majority of cellular proteins are degraded by proteasomes within the ubiquitin-proteasome ATP-dependent degradation pathway. Products of proteasomal activity are short peptides that are further hydrolysed by proteases to single amino acids. However, some peptides can escape this degradation, being selected and taken up by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules for presentation to the immune system on the cell surface. MHC class I molecules are highly selective and specific in terms of ligand binding. Variability of peptides produced in living cells arises in a variety of ways, ensuring fast and efficient immune responses. Substitution of constitutive proteasomal subunits with immunosubunits leads to conformational changes in the substrate binding channels, resulting in a modified protein cleavage pattern and consequently in the generation of new antigenic peptides. The recently discovered event of proteasomal peptide splicing opens new horizons in the understanding of additional functions that proteasomes apparently possess. Whether peptide splicing is an occasional side product of proteasomal activity still needs to be clarified. Both gamma-interferon-induced immunoproteasomes and peptide splicing represent two significant events providing increased diversity of antigenic peptides for flexible and fine-tuned immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ljudmila Borissenko
- Charité (CCM), Institut für Biochemie, AG Strukturforschung, Monbijoustrasse 2, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
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44
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence J Stern
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655, USA.
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45
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Affiliation(s)
- Ljudmila Borissenko
- Charité (CCM), Institut für Biochemie, AG Strukturforschung, Monbijoustrasse 2, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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46
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Palmowski MJ, Gileadi U, Salio M, Gallimore A, Millrain M, James E, Addey C, Scott D, Dyson J, Simpson E, Cerundolo V. Role of immunoproteasomes in cross-presentation. J Immunol 2006; 177:983-90. [PMID: 16818754 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.2.983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The evidence that proteasomes are involved in the processing of cross-presented proteins is indirect and based on the in vitro use of proteasome inhibitors. It remains, therefore, unclear whether cross-presentation of MHC class I peptide epitopes can occur entirely within phagolysosomes or whether it requires proteasome degradation. To address this question, we studied in vivo cross-presentation of an immunoproteasome-dependent epitope. First, we demonstrated that generation of the immunodominant HY Uty(246-254) epitope is LMP7 dependent, resulting in the lack of rejection of male LMP7-deficient (LMP7(-/-)) skin grafts by female LMP7(-/-) mice. Second, we ruled out an altered Uty(246-254)-specific T cell repertoire in LMP7(-/-) female mice and demonstrated efficient Uty(246-254) presentation by re-expressing LMP7 in male LMP7(-/-) cells. Finally, we observed that LMP7 expression significantly enhanced cross-priming of Uty(246-254)-specific T cells in vivo. The observations that male skin grafts are not rejected by LMP7(-/-) female mice and that presentation of a proteasome-dependent peptide is not efficiently rescued by alternative cross-presentation pathways provide strong evidence that proteasomes play an important role in cross-priming events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Palmowski
- Tumour Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, United Kingdom
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47
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Groll M, Larionov OV, Huber R, de Meijere A. Inhibitor-binding mode of homobelactosin C to proteasomes: new insights into class I MHC ligand generation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:4576-9. [PMID: 16537370 PMCID: PMC1450213 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0600647103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Most class I MHC ligands are generated from the vast majority of cellular proteins by proteolysis within the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway and are presented on the cell surface by MHC class I molecules. Here, we present the crystallographic analysis of yeast 20S proteasome in complex with the inhibitor homobelactosin C. The structure reveals a unique inhibitor-binding mode and provides information about the composition of proteasomal primed substrate-binding sites. IFN-gamma inducible substitution of proteasomal constitutive subunits by immunosubunits modulates characteristics of generated peptides, thus producing fragments with higher preference for binding to MHC class I molecules. The structural data for the proteasome:homobelactosin C complex provide an explanation for involvement of immunosubunits in antigen generation and open perspectives for rational design of ligands, inhibiting exclusively constitutive proteasomes or immunoproteasomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Groll
- *Ludwig Maximilians Universität, Adolf Butenandt Institut, Butenandtstrasse 5, Gebäude B, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Oleg V. Larionov
- Institut für Organische und Biomolekulare Chemie, Tammannstrasse 2, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Robert Huber
- Max Planck Institut für Biochemie, Am Klopferspitz 18a, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany; and
- Technische Universität München, D-85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Armin de Meijere
- Institut für Organische und Biomolekulare Chemie, Tammannstrasse 2, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
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Satoh E, Mabuchi T, Satoh H, Asahara T, Nukui H, Naganuma H. Reduced expression of the transporter associated with antigen processing 1 molecule in malignant glioma cells, and its restoration by interferon-gamma and -beta. J Neurosurg 2006; 104:264-71. [PMID: 16509500 DOI: 10.3171/jns.2006.104.2.264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECT It remains unclear whether malignant glioma cells can deliver tumor antigens efficiently to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) Class I molecules. To elucidate the mechanism of antigen presentation in malignant gliomas, the authors examined the expression of the transporter associated with antigen processing 1 (TAP1), which transports antigens to MHC Class I molecules, and low-molecular-mass polypeptide 2 (LMP2), which is a subunit of a proteasome. They also analyzed the effects of interferon (IFN)-gamma and IFN-beta on the expression of these molecules. METHODS Five glioma cells expressed undetectable or very low levels of TAP1 protein and did not express TAP1 messenger (m)RNA. Normal brain tissue and glioma tissue specimens also showed undetectable levels of TAP1 protein and the same levels of LMP2 protein as lymphoblastoid B cells. Treatments of the tumor cells with IFN-gamma, or -beta enhanced the expression of both TAP1 protein and mRNA as well as the expression of MHC Class I molecules. The expression of LMP2 protein was not altered by the IFN treatments. The authors analyzed structural alterations in the TAP1 promoter region in eight malignant glioma cell lines. Single nucleotide polymorphism was found in 446 bp up-stream of the translation start site of the TAP1 gene, and a point mutation was found in 34 bp upstream of the TAP1 gene. CONCLUSIONS Malignant glioma cells may be less immunogenic due to low levels of TAP1 expression. Upregulated expression of TAP1 and MHC Class I molecules by IFN-gamma and -beta may enhance antigen presentation in malignant glioma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eiji Satoh
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Yamanashi, Faculty of Medicine, Yamanashi, Japan.
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Strehl B, Seifert U, Krüger E, Heink S, Kuckelkorn U, Kloetzel PM. Interferon-gamma, the functional plasticity of the ubiquitin-proteasome system, and MHC class I antigen processing. Immunol Rev 2005; 207:19-30. [PMID: 16181324 DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2005.00308.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The proteasome system is a central component of a cascade of proteolytic processing steps required to generate antigenic peptides presented at the cell surface to cytotoxic T lymphocytes by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules. The nascent protein pool or DRiPs (defective ribosomal products) appear to represent an important source for MHC class I epitopes. Owing to the destructive activities of aminopeptidases in the cytosol, at most 1% of the peptides generated by the ubiquitin-proteasome system seems to be made available to the immune system. Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) helps to override these limitations by the formation of immunoproteasomes, the activator complex PA28, and the induction of several aminopeptidases. Both immunoproteasomes and PA28 use cleavage sites already used by constitutive proteasomes but with altered and in some cases dramatically enhanced frequency. Therefore, two proteolytic cascades appear to have evolved to provide MHC class I epitopes. The 'constitutive proteolytic cascade' is designed to efficiently degrade proteins to single amino acid residues, allowing only a small percentage of peptides to be presented at the cell surface. In contrast, the IFN-gamma-controlled proteolytic cascade generates larger amounts of appropriate antigenic peptides, assuring more peptides to overcome the proteolytic restrictions of the constitutive system, thereby enhancing MHC class I antigen presentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Britta Strehl
- Institut für Biochemie, Charité, Berlin University Berlin, Germany
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Heink S, Ludwig D, Kloetzel PM, Krüger E. IFN-gamma-induced immune adaptation of the proteasome system is an accelerated and transient response. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:9241-6. [PMID: 15944226 PMCID: PMC1166598 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0501711102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Peptide generation by the proteasome is rate-limiting in MHC class I-restricted antigen presentation in response to IFN-gamma. IFN-gamma-induced de novo formation of immunoproteasomes, therefore, essentially supports the rapid adjustment of the mammalian immune system. Here, we report that the molecular interplay between the proteasome maturation protein (POMP) and the proteasomal beta5i subunit low molecular weight protein 7 (LMP7) has a key position in this immune adaptive program. IFN-gamma-induced coincident biosynthesis of POMP and LMP7 and their direct interaction essentially accelerate immunoproteasome biogenesis compared with constitutive 20S proteasome assembly. The dynamics of this process is determined by rapid LMP7 activation and the immediate LMP7-dependent degradation of POMP. Silencing of POMP expression impairs recruitment of both beta5 subunits into the proteasome complex, resulting in decreased proteasome activity, reduced MHC class I surface expression, and induction of apoptosis. Furthermore, our data reveal that immunoproteasomes exhibit a considerably shortened half-life, compared with constitutive proteasomes. In consequence, our studies demonstrate that the cytokine-induced rapid immune adaptation of the proteasome system is a tightly regulated and transient response allowing cells to return rapidly to a normal situation once immunoproteasome function is no longer required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvia Heink
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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