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Zhang X, Jiang P, Wang C. The role of prostate-specific antigen in the osteoblastic bone metastasis of prostate cancer: a literature review. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1127637. [PMID: 37746292 PMCID: PMC10513387 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1127637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the only human malignancy that generates predominantly osteoblastic bone metastases, and osteoblastic bone metastases account for more than 90% of osseous metastases of prostate cancer. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) plays an important role in the osteoblastic bone metastasis of prostate cancer, which can promote osteomimicry of prostate cancer cells, suppress osteoclast differentiation, and facilitate osteoblast proliferation and activation at metastatic sites. In the meantime, it can activate osteogenic factors, including insulin-like growth factor, transforming growth factor β2 and urokinase-type plasminogen activator, and meanwhile suppress osteolytic factors such as parathyroid hormone-related protein. To recapitulate, PSA plays a significant role in the osteoblastic predominance of prostate cancer bone metastasis and bone remodeling by regulating multiple cells and factors involved in osseous metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Chaojun Wang
- Department of Urology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
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2
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Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most prominent causes of cancer-related mortality in the male population. A highly impactful prognostic factor for patients diagnosed with PCa is the presence or absence of bone metastases. The formation of secondary tumours at the bone is the most commonly observed site for the establishment of PCa metastases and is associated with reduced survival of patients in addition to a cohort of life-debilitating symptoms, including mobility issues and chronic pain. Despite the prevalence of this disease presentation and the high medical relevance of bone metastases, the mechanisms underlying the formation of metastases to the bone and the understanding of what drives the osteotropism exhibited by prostate tumours remain to be fully elucidated. This lack of in-depth understanding manifests in limited effective treatment options for patients with advanced metastatic PCa and culminates in the low rate of survival observed for this sub-set of patients. The present review aims to summarise the most recent promising advances in the understanding of how and why prostate tumours metastasise to the bone, with the ultimate aim of highlighting novel treatment and prognostic targets, which may provide the opportunity to improve the diagnosis and treatment of patients with PCa with bone metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Archer Goode
- Newcastle University Centre for Cancer, Newcastle University Institute of Biosciences, International Centre for Life, Newcastle NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Ning Wang
- The Mellanby Centre for Musculoskeletal Research, Department of Oncology and Metabolism, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2RX, UK
| | - Jennifer Munkley
- Newcastle University Centre for Cancer, Newcastle University Institute of Biosciences, International Centre for Life, Newcastle NE1 3BZ, UK
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3
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Jain A, Bozovicar K, Mehrotra V, Bratkovic T, Johnson MH, Jha I. Investigating the specificity of endothelin-traps as a potential therapeutic tool for endothelin-1 related disorders. World J Diabetes 2022; 13:434-441. [PMID: 35800412 PMCID: PMC9210543 DOI: 10.4239/wjd.v13.i6.434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Endothelin (ET)-traps are Fc-fusion proteins with a design based on the physiological receptors of ET-1. Previous work has shown that use of the selected ET-traps potently and significantly reduces different markers of diabetes pathology back to normal, non-disease levels.
AIM To demonstrate the selected ET-traps potently and significantly bind to ET-1.
METHODS We performed phage display experiments to test different constructs of ET-traps, and conducted bio-layer interferometry binding assays to verify that the selected ET-traps bind specifically to ET-1 and display binding affinity in the double-digit picomolar range (an average of 73.8 rM, n = 6).
RESULTS These experiments have confirmed our choice of the final ET-traps and provided proof-of-concept for the potential use of constructs as effective biologics for diseases associated with pathologically elevated ET-1.
CONCLUSION There is increased need for such therapeutics as they could help save millions of lives around the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjun Jain
- ET-Traps Limited, Cambridge CB3 0JE, United Kingdom
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3DY, United Kingdom
- Accelerate Cambridge, Judge Business School, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1AG, United Kingdom
| | - Kristof Bozovicar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia 1000, Slovenia
| | - Vidhi Mehrotra
- ET-Traps Limited, Cambridge CB3 0JE, United Kingdom
- Accelerate Cambridge, Judge Business School, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1AG, United Kingdom
| | - Tomaz Bratkovic
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia 1000, Slovenia
| | - Martin H Johnson
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3DY, United Kingdom
| | - Ira Jha
- ET-Traps Limited, Cambridge CB3 0JE, United Kingdom
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Andriessen AS, Donnelly CR, Ji RR. Reciprocal interactions between osteoclasts and nociceptive sensory neurons in bone cancer pain. Pain Rep 2021; 6:e867. [PMID: 33981921 PMCID: PMC8108580 DOI: 10.1097/pr9.0000000000000867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Many common cancers such as breast, prostate, and lung cancer metastasize to bones at advanced stages, producing severe pain and functional impairment. At present, the current pharmacotherapies available for bone cancer pain are insufficient to provide safe and efficacious pain relief. In this narrative review, we discuss the mechanisms used by cancer cells within the bone tumor microenvironment (TME) to drive bone cancer pain. In particular, we highlight the reciprocal interactions between tumor cells, bone-resorbing osteoclasts, and pain-sensing sensory neurons (nociceptors), which drive bone cancer pain. We discuss how tumor cells present within the bone TME accelerate osteoclast differentiation (osteoclastogenesis) and alter osteoclast activity and function. Furthermore, we highlight how this perturbed state of osteoclast overactivation contributes to bone cancer pain through (1) direct mechanisms, through their production of pronociceptive factors that act directly on sensory afferents; and (2) by indirect mechanisms, wherein osteoclasts drive bone resorption that weakens tumor-bearing bones and predisposes them to skeletal-related events, thereby driving bone cancer pain and functional impairment. Finally, we discuss some potential therapeutic agents, such as denosumab, bisphosphonates, and nivolumab, and discuss their respective effects on bone cancer pain, osteoclast overactivation, and tumor growth within the bone TME.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda S. Andriessen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Translational Pain Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Christopher R. Donnelly
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Translational Pain Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Ru-Rong Ji
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Translational Pain Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
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5
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Clézardin P, Coleman R, Puppo M, Ottewell P, Bonnelye E, Paycha F, Confavreux CB, Holen I. Bone metastasis: mechanisms, therapies, and biomarkers. Physiol Rev 2020; 101:797-855. [PMID: 33356915 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00012.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Skeletal metastases are frequent complications of many cancers, causing bone complications (fractures, bone pain, disability) that negatively affect the patient's quality of life. Here, we first discuss the burden of skeletal complications in cancer bone metastasis. We then describe the pathophysiology of bone metastasis. Bone metastasis is a multistage process: long before the development of clinically detectable metastases, circulating tumor cells settle and enter a dormant state in normal vascular and endosteal niches present in the bone marrow, which provide immediate attachment and shelter, and only become active years later as they proliferate and alter the functions of bone-resorbing (osteoclasts) and bone-forming (osteoblasts) cells, promoting skeletal destruction. The molecular mechanisms involved in mediating each of these steps are described, and we also explain how tumor cells interact with a myriad of interconnected cell populations in the bone marrow, including a rich vascular network, immune cells, adipocytes, and nerves. We discuss metabolic programs that tumor cells could engage with to specifically grow in bone. We also describe the progress and future directions of existing bone-targeted agents and report emerging therapies that have arisen from recent advances in our understanding of the pathophysiology of bone metastases. Finally, we discuss the value of bone turnover biomarkers in detection and monitoring of progression and therapeutic effects in patients with bone metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Clézardin
- INSERM, Research Unit UMR_S1033, LyOS, Faculty of Medicine Lyon-Est, University of Lyon 1, Lyon, France.,Department of Oncology and Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Rob Coleman
- Department of Oncology and Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Margherita Puppo
- Department of Oncology and Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Penelope Ottewell
- Department of Oncology and Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Edith Bonnelye
- INSERM, Research Unit UMR_S1033, LyOS, Faculty of Medicine Lyon-Est, University of Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Frédéric Paycha
- Service de Médecine Nucléaire, Hôpital Lariboisière, Paris, France
| | - Cyrille B Confavreux
- INSERM, Research Unit UMR_S1033, LyOS, Faculty of Medicine Lyon-Est, University of Lyon 1, Lyon, France.,Service de Rhumatologie Sud, CEMOS-Centre Expert des Métastases Osseuses, Centre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Ingunn Holen
- Department of Oncology and Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
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D'Oronzo S, Coleman R, Brown J, Silvestris F. Metastatic bone disease: Pathogenesis and therapeutic options: Up-date on bone metastasis management. J Bone Oncol 2019; 15:004-4. [PMID: 30937279 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbo.2018.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Revised: 10/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone metastases negatively impact on patients’ quality of life (QoL). Skeletal related events have a detrimental effect on both QoL and survival. Both local and systemic treatments are often required to manage bone metastases. Bone turnover modulators reduce the risk of skeletal complications and improve pain. Novel agents may deserve further investigation for the management of bone metastases.
Bone metastases (BM) are a common complication of cancer, whose management often requires a multidisciplinary approach. Despite the recent therapeutic advances, patients with BM may still experience skeletal-related events and symptomatic skeletal events, with detrimental impact on quality of life and survival. A deeper knowledge of the mechanisms underlying the onset of lytic and sclerotic BM has been acquired in the last decades, leading to the development of bone-targeting agents (BTA), mainly represented by anti-resorptive drugs and bone-seeking radiopharmaceuticals. Recent pre-clinical and clinical studies have showed promising effects of novel agents, whose safety and efficacy need to be confirmed by prospective clinical trials. Among BTA, adjuvant bisphosphonates have also been shown to reduce the risk of BM in selected breast cancer patients, but failed to reduce the incidence of BM from lung and prostate cancer. Moreover, adjuvant denosumab did not improve BM free survival in patients with breast cancer, suggesting the need for further investigation to clarify BTA role in early-stage malignancies. The aim of this review is to describe BM pathogenesis and current treatment options in different clinical settings, as well as to explore the mechanism of action of novel potential therapeutic agents for which further investigation is needed.
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Key Words
- ActRIIA, activin-A type IIA receptor
- BC, breast cancer
- BM, bone metastases
- BMD, bone mineral density
- BMPs, bone morphogenetic proteins
- BMSC, bone marrow stromal cells
- BPs, bisphosphonates
- BTA, bone targeting agents
- BTM, bone turnover markers
- Bone metastases
- Bone targeting agents
- CCR, chemokine-receptor
- CRPC, castration-resistant PC
- CXCL-12, C–X–C motif chemokine-ligand-12
- CXCR-4, chemokine-receptor-4
- DFS, disease-free survival
- DKK1, dickkopf1
- EBC, early BC
- ECM, extracellular matrix
- ET-1, endothelin-1
- FDA, food and drug administration
- FGF, fibroblast growth factor
- GAS6, growth-arrest specific-6
- GFs, growth factors
- GnRH, gonadotropin-releasing hormone
- HER-2, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2
- HR, hormone receptor
- IL, interleukin
- LC, lung cancer
- MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase
- MCSF, macrophage colony-stimulating factor
- MCSFR, MCSF receptor
- MIP-1α, macrophage inflammatory protein-1 alpha
- MM, multiple myeloma
- MPC, malignant plasma cells
- N-BPs, nitrogen-containing BPs
- NF-κB, nuclear factor-κB
- ONJ, osteonecrosis of the jaw
- OS, overall survival
- Osteotropic tumors
- PC, prostate cancer
- PDGF, platelet-derived growth factor
- PFS, progression-free survival
- PIs, proteasome inhibitors
- PSA, prostate specific antigen
- PTH, parathyroid hormone
- PTH-rP, PTH related protein
- QoL, quality of life
- RANK-L, receptor activator of NF-κB ligand
- RT, radiation therapy
- SREs, skeletal-related events
- SSEs, symptomatic skeletal events
- Skeletal related events
- TGF-β, transforming growth factor β
- TK, tyrosine kinase
- TKIs, TK inhibitors
- TNF, tumornecrosis factor
- VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor
- VEGFR, VEGF receptor
- mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin
- non-N-BPs, non-nitrogen containing BPs
- v-ATPase, vacuolar-type H+ ATPase
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Delliaux C, Tian TV, Bouchet M, Fradet A, Vanpouille N, Flourens A, Deplus R, Villers A, Leroy X, Clézardin P, de Launoit Y, Bonnelye E, Duterque-Coquillaud M. TMPRSS2:ERG gene fusion expression regulates bone markers and enhances the osteoblastic phenotype of prostate cancer bone metastases. Cancer Lett 2018; 438:32-43. [PMID: 30201302 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2018.08.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2018] [Revised: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancers have a strong propensity to metastasize to bone and promote osteoblastic lesions. TMPRSS2:ERG is the most frequent gene rearrangement identified in prostate cancer, but whether it is involved in prostate cancer bone metastases is largely unknown. We exploited an intratibial metastasis model to address this issue and we found that ectopic expression of the TMPRSS2:ERG fusion enhances the ability of prostate cancer cell lines to induce osteoblastic lesions by stimulating bone formation and inhibiting the osteolytic response. In line with these in vivo results, we demonstrate that the TMPRSS2:ERG fusion protein increases the expression of osteoblastic markers, including Collagen Type I Alpha 1 Chain and Alkaline Phosphatase, as well as Endothelin-1, a protein with a documented role in osteoblastic bone lesion formation. Moreover, we determined that the TMPRSS2:ERG fusion protein is bound to the regulatory regions of these genes in prostate cancer cell lines, and we report that the expression levels of these osteoblastic markers are correlated with the expression of the TMPRSS2:ERG fusion in patient metastasis samples. Taken together, our results reveal that the TMPRSS2:ERG gene fusion is involved in osteoblastic lesion formation induced by prostate cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carine Delliaux
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Institut Pasteur de Lille, UMR 8161 - Mechanisms of Tumorigenesis and Target Therapies, F-59021, Lille, France; Montreal Clinical Research Institute (IRCM), QC H2W 1R7, Montreal, Canada
| | - Tian V Tian
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Institut Pasteur de Lille, UMR 8161 - Mechanisms of Tumorigenesis and Target Therapies, F-59021, Lille, France; Center for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Dr. Aiguader 88, S-08003, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mathilde Bouchet
- Unité INSERM U1033, F-69372, Lyon, France; Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, F-69008, Lyon, France
| | - Anais Fradet
- Unité INSERM U1033, F-69372, Lyon, France; Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, F-69008, Lyon, France
| | - Nathalie Vanpouille
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Institut Pasteur de Lille, UMR 8161 - Mechanisms of Tumorigenesis and Target Therapies, F-59021, Lille, France
| | - Anne Flourens
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Institut Pasteur de Lille, UMR 8161 - Mechanisms of Tumorigenesis and Target Therapies, F-59021, Lille, France
| | - Rachel Deplus
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Institut Pasteur de Lille, UMR 8161 - Mechanisms of Tumorigenesis and Target Therapies, F-59021, Lille, France
| | - Arnauld Villers
- Département d'Urologie, CHRU, Université de Lille, F-59037, Lille, France
| | - Xavier Leroy
- Institut de Pathologie-Centre de Biologie-Pathologie, Centre Hospitalier Régional et Universitaire, F-59037, Lille, France
| | - Philippe Clézardin
- Unité INSERM U1033, F-69372, Lyon, France; Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, F-69008, Lyon, France
| | - Yvan de Launoit
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Institut Pasteur de Lille, UMR 8161 - Mechanisms of Tumorigenesis and Target Therapies, F-59021, Lille, France
| | - Edith Bonnelye
- Unité INSERM U1033, F-69372, Lyon, France; Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, F-69008, Lyon, France
| | - Martine Duterque-Coquillaud
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Institut Pasteur de Lille, UMR 8161 - Mechanisms of Tumorigenesis and Target Therapies, F-59021, Lille, France.
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Abstract
Bone metastasis is the most advanced stage of many cancers and indicates a poor prognosis for patients due to resistance to anti-tumor therapies. The establishment of metastasis within the bone is a multistep process. To ensure survival within the bone marrow, tumor cells must initially colonize a niche in which they can enter dormancy. Subsequently, reactivation permits the proliferation and growth of the tumor cells, giving rise to a macro-metastasis displayed clinically as a bone metastatic lesion. Here, we review the evidences that suggest mesenchymal stromal cells play an important role in each of these steps throughout the development of bone metastasis. Similarities between the molecular mechanisms implicated in these processes and those involved in the homeostasis of the bone indicate that the metastatic cells may exploit the homeostatic processes to their own advantage. Identifying the molecular interactions between the mesenchymal stromal cells and tumor cells that promote tumor development may offer insight into potential therapeutic targets that could be utilized to treat bone metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Graham
- Centre for Reproductive Health, Queens Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK.
| | - Bin-Zhi Qian
- Centre for Reproductive Health, Queens Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK.
- Edinburgh Cancer Research UK Centre, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH4 2XR, UK.
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Chang AC, Chen PC, Lin YF, Su CM, Liu JF, Lin TH, Chuang SM, Tang CH. Osteoblast-secreted WISP-1 promotes adherence of prostate cancer cells to bone via the VCAM-1/integrin α4β1 system. Cancer Lett 2018; 426:47-56. [PMID: 29627497 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2018.03.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2017] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Bone metastasis is a frequent occurrence in prostate cancer (PCa) that is associated with severe complications such as fracture, bone pain and hypercalcemia. The cross-talk between metastatic cancer cells and bone is critical to the development and progression of bone metastases. In our previous data, we have described how the involvement of the Wnt-induced secreted protein-1/vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (WISP-1/VCAM-1) system in this tumor-bone interaction contributes to human PCa cell motility. In this study, we found that WISP-1 regulates bone mineralization by inducing bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP2), BMP4 and osteopontin (OPN) expression in osteoblasts. We also found that WISP-1 inhibited RANKL-dependent osteoclastogenesis. Moreover, osteoblast-derived WISP-1 enhanced VCAM-1 expression in PCa cells and subsequently promoted the adherence of cancer cells to osteoblasts. Furthermore, endothelin-1 (ET-1) expression in PCa cells was regulated by osteoblast-derived WISP-1, which promoted integrin α4β1 expression in osteoblasts via the MAPK pathway. Pretreatment of PCa cells with VCAM-1 antibody or osteoblasts with integrin α4β1 antibody attenuated the adherence of PCa cells to osteoblasts, suggesting that integrin α4β1 serves as a ligand that captures VCAM-1+ metastatic tumor cells adhering to osteoblasts. Our findings reveal that osteoblast-derived WISP-1 plays a key role in regulating the adhesion of PCa cells to osteoblasts via the VCAM-1/integrin α4β1 system. Osteoblast-derived WISP-1 is a promising target for the prevention and inhibition of PCa-bone interaction.
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Molla MS, Katti DR, Katti KS. In vitro design of mesenchymal to epithelial transition of prostate cancer metastasis using 3D nanoclay bone-mimetic scaffolds. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2017; 12:727-737. [PMID: 28603879 DOI: 10.1002/term.2492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Revised: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Nanocomposite scaffolds show extensive applications in regenerative medicine and have shown promise as in vitro analogues of human tissue that can be used for the study of diseases. The complex nature of cancer metastasis is recently investigated using several 3D scaffold models. Herein, we report a polymer-nanoclay-based in vitro tumour model that recapitulates early stage of prostate cancer (PCa) colonization during skeletal metastasis on bone mimetic scaffolds. A unique cell culture system termed as "sequential culture (SC)" has been applied to create a bone-mimetic niche for colonization of PCa cells. Human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) were seeded on the bone-mimetic scaffolds, where they differentiated into bone cells and then formed mineralized bone matrix without osteogenic supplements. Further, PCa was seeded on MSCs-seeded scaffolds. Sequentially cultured PCa cells with MSCs formed self-organized multicellular tumoroids with distinct tight cellular junctions and hypoxic core regions. Extensive quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction experiments were performed to evaluate the expressions of genes related to osteotropic bone metastasis of PCa. On the nanoclay scaffolds, the MSCs differentiated to mature osteoblasts and epithelial to mesenchymal transition was inhibited whereas mesenchymal to epithelial transition was enhanced, as also the hypoxia increased angiogenesis, and finally, PCa cells initiated osteoblastic lesion. Further, the SC technique has significant effects on expression of key metastasis-related genes. Therefore, the SC-based tumour model can be applied to recapitulate more consistent osteotropic cancer cell behavior in understanding tumour biology. This model also can be implemented for drug screening to target colonization stage of PCa cells in the bone microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Shahjahan Molla
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA
| | - Dinesh R Katti
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA
| | - Kalpana S Katti
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA
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11
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Miles FL, Kurtoglu S, Ahmer C, Soori M, Favate JS, Sikes RA. Transforming growth factor-β signaling induced during prostate cancer cell death and neuroendocrine differentiation is mediated by bone marrow stromal cells. Prostate 2015; 75:1802-13. [PMID: 26392321 DOI: 10.1002/pros.23060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Prostate cancer that has metastasized to bone undergoes critical interactions with bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs), ultimately promoting tumor survival. Previous studies have shown that BMSCs secrete factors that promote prostate cancer apoptosis or neuroendocrine differentiation. Because of the significance of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) family cytokines in cytostasis and bone metastasis, the role of TGF-β signaling in the context of prostate cancer-BMSC interactions was investigated. METHODS The role of TGF-β family signaling in BMSC-induced apoptosis of lineage-related prostate cancer cells was investigated in live/dead assays. SMAD phosphorylation or activity during apoptosis and neuroendocrine differentiation was investigated using immunofluorescence, Western blotting, and luciferase reporter assays, along with the ALK-4, -5, -7 kinase inhibitor, SB-431542. RESULTS Treatment of castration-resistant prostate cancer cells with SB-431542 resulted in significant reduction of apoptosis mediated by HS-5 BMSCs, supporting the involvement of TGF-β/SMAD signaling during this event. Interestingly, however, pre-treatment of BMSCs with TGF-β1 (5 ng/mL) yielded a conditioned medium that elicited a marked reduction in prostate cancer death. Phosphorylated-SMAD2 (P-SMAD2) was activated in BMSC-triggered transdifferentiated prostate cancer cells, as demonstrated through immunoblotting and luciferase reporter assays. However, SB-431542 did not restore androgen receptor and prostate specific antigen levels down-regulated by BMSC-secreted factors. Prostate cancer cells induced to undergo neuroendocrine differentiation in a BMSC-independent mechanism also showed elevated levels of P-SMAD2. DISCUSSION Collectively, our findings indicate that: (1) TGF-β family cytokines or regulated factors secreted from BMSCs are involved in prostate cancer apoptosis; (2) TGF-β signaling in prostate cancer cells is induced during neuroendocrine differentiation; and (3) TGF-β1 stimulation of BMSCs alters paracrine signaling to create a permissive environment for prostate cancer survival, suggesting a mechanism for prostate cancer-mediated colonization of bone. CONCLUSIONS TGF-β signaling resulting in activation of SMAD2 in prostate cancer may be an indicator of cellular stress in the presence of toxic paracrine factors released from the bone marrow stroma, ultimately fostering prostate cancer colonization of bone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fayth L Miles
- Laboratory for Cancer Ontogeny and Therapeutics, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
- Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Translational Cancer Research, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
- Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Senem Kurtoglu
- Laboratory for Cancer Ontogeny and Therapeutics, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
- Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Translational Cancer Research, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
| | - Chris Ahmer
- Laboratory for Cancer Ontogeny and Therapeutics, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
| | - Mehrnoosh Soori
- Laboratory for Cancer Ontogeny and Therapeutics, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
| | - John S Favate
- Laboratory for Cancer Ontogeny and Therapeutics, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
| | - Robert A Sikes
- Laboratory for Cancer Ontogeny and Therapeutics, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
- Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Translational Cancer Research, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
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12
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Rachner TD, Jakob F, Hofbauer LC. Cancer-targeted therapies and radiopharmaceuticals. Bonekey Rep 2015; 4:707. [PMID: 26131359 DOI: 10.1038/bonekey.2015.76] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2015] [Accepted: 04/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The treatment of bone metastases remains a clinical challenge. Although a number of well-established agents, namely bisphosphonates and denosumab, are available to reduce the occurrence of skeletal-related events, additional cancer-targeted therapies are required to improve patients' prognosis and quality of life. This review focuses on novel targets and agents that are under clinical evaluation for the treatment of malignant bone diseases such as activin A, src and endothelin-1 inhibition or agents that are clinically approved and may positively influence bone, such as the mTOR inhibitor everolimus. In addition, the potential of alpharadin, a novel radiopharmaceutical approved for the treatment of prostatic bone disease, is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tilman D Rachner
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Bone Diseases, Department of Medicine III, Dresden University Medical Center , Dresden, Germany
| | - Franz Jakob
- Orthopedic Center for Musculoskeletal Research, University Hospital Wuerzburg , Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Lorenz C Hofbauer
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Bone Diseases, Department of Medicine III, Dresden University Medical Center , Dresden, Germany ; Center for Regenerative Therapies, Dresden Technical University , Dresden, Germany
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13
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Krzeszinski JY, Wan Y. New therapeutic targets for cancer bone metastasis. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2015; 36:360-73. [PMID: 25962679 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2015.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2015] [Revised: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Bone metastases are dejected consequences of many types of tumors including breast, prostate, lung, kidney, and thyroid cancers. This complicated process begins with the successful tumor cell epithelial-mesenchymal transition, escape from the original site, and penetration into the circulation. The homing of tumor cells to the bone depends on both tumor-intrinsic traits and various molecules supplied by the bone metastatic niche. The colonization and growth of cancer cells in the osseous environment, which awaken their dormancy to form micro- and macro-metastasis, involve an intricate interaction between the circulating tumor cells and local bone cells including osteoclasts, osteoblasts, adipocytes, and macrophages. We discuss the most recent advances in the identification of new molecules and novel mechanisms during each step of bone metastasis that may serve as promising therapeutic targets.
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14
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Ganguly SS, Li X, Miranti CK. The host microenvironment influences prostate cancer invasion, systemic spread, bone colonization, and osteoblastic metastasis. Front Oncol 2014; 4:364. [PMID: 25566502 PMCID: PMC4266028 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2014.00364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 11/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is the second leading cause of cancer death in men worldwide. Most PCa deaths are due to osteoblastic bone metastases. What triggers PCa metastasis to the bone and what causes osteoblastic lesions remain unanswered. A major contributor to PCa metastasis is the host microenvironment. Here, we address how the primary tumor microenvironment influences PCa metastasis via integrins, extracellular proteases, and transient epithelia-mesenchymal transition (EMT) to promote PCa progression, invasion, and metastasis. We discuss how the bone-microenvironment influences metastasis; where chemotactic cytokines favor bone homing, adhesion molecules promote colonization, and bone-derived signals induce osteoblastic lesions. Animal models that fully recapitulate human PCa progression from primary tumor to bone metastasis are needed to understand the PCa pathophysiology that leads to bone metastasis. Better delineation of the specific processes involved in PCa bone metastasize is needed to prevent or treat metastatic PCa. Therapeutic regimens that focus on the tumor microenvironment could add to the PCa pharmacopeia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourik S Ganguly
- Program for Skeletal Disease and Tumor Metastasis, Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Metastasis, Center for Cancer and Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute , Grand Rapids, MI , USA ; Program for Skeletal Disease and Tumor Metastasis, Laboratory of Integrin Signaling and Tumorigenesis, Center for Cancer and Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute , Grand Rapids, MI , USA
| | - Xiaohong Li
- Program for Skeletal Disease and Tumor Metastasis, Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Metastasis, Center for Cancer and Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute , Grand Rapids, MI , USA
| | - Cindy K Miranti
- Program for Skeletal Disease and Tumor Metastasis, Laboratory of Integrin Signaling and Tumorigenesis, Center for Cancer and Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute , Grand Rapids, MI , USA
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15
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Johnson MG, Kristianto J, Yuan B, Konicke K, Blank R. Big endothelin changes the cellular miRNA environment in TMOb osteoblasts and increases mineralization. Connect Tissue Res 2014; 55 Suppl 1:113-6. [PMID: 25158193 PMCID: PMC4640685 DOI: 10.3109/03008207.2014.923866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Endothelin (ET1) promotes the growth of osteoblastic breast and prostate cancer metastases. Conversion of big ET1 to mature ET1, catalyzed primarily by endothelin converting enzyme 1 (ECE1), is necessary for ET1's biological activity. We previously identified the Ece1, locus as a positional candidate gene for a pleiotropic quantitative trait locus affecting femoral size, shape, mineralization, and biomechanical performance. METHODS We exposed TMOb osteoblasts continuously to 25 ng/ml big ET1. Cells were grown for 6 days in growth medium and then switched to mineralization medium for an additional 15 days with or without big ET1, by which time the TMOb cells form mineralized nodules. We quantified mineralization by alizarin red staining and analyzed levels of miRNAs known to affect osteogenesis. Micro RNA 126-3p was identified by search as a potential regulator of sclerostin (SOST) translation. RESULTS TMOb cells exposed to big ET1 showed greater mineralization than control cells. Big ET1 repressed miRNAs targeting transcripts of osteogenic proteins. Big ET1 increased expression of miRNAs that target transcripts of proteins that inhibit osteogenesis. Big ET1 increased expression of 126-3p 121-fold versus control. To begin to assess the effect of big ET1 on SOST production we analyzed both SOST transcription and protein production with and without the presence of big ET1 demonstrating that transcription and translation were uncoupled. CONCLUSION Our data show that big ET1 signaling promotes mineralization. Moreover, the results suggest that big ET1's osteogenic effects are potentially mediated through changes in miRNA expression, a previously unrecognized big ET1 osteogenic mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael G. Johnson
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology University of Wisconsin-Madison,Geriatrics Research, Education, and Clinical Center, William S. Middleton Veterans Hospital, Madison, Wisconsin,Corresponding Author: Michael Johnson, William S. Middleton Veterans Hospital, GRECC D5209, 2500 Overlook Terrace, Madison WI 53719 USA. Phone: 1-608-256-1901 X11595.
| | - Jasmin Kristianto
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology University of Wisconsin-Madison,Geriatrics Research, Education, and Clinical Center, William S. Middleton Veterans Hospital, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Baozhi Yuan
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology University of Wisconsin-Madison,Geriatrics Research, Education, and Clinical Center, William S. Middleton Veterans Hospital, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Kathryn Konicke
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Medical College of Wisconsin
| | - Robert Blank
- Geriatrics Research, Education, and Clinical Center, William S. Middleton Veterans Hospital, Madison, Wisconsin,Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Medical College of Wisconsin,Medical Service, Clement J. Zablocki VAMC, Milwaukee, WI
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16
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Rucci N, Angelucci A. Prostate cancer and bone: the elective affinities. Biomed Res Int 2014; 2014:167035. [PMID: 24971315 DOI: 10.1155/2014/167035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Revised: 04/17/2014] [Accepted: 05/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The onset of metastases dramatically changes the prognosis of prostate cancer patients, determining increased morbidity and a drastic fall in survival expectancy. Bone is a common site of metastases in few types of cancer, and it represents the most frequent metastatic site in prostate cancer. Of note, the prevalence of tumor relapse to the bone appears to be increasing over the years, likely due to a longer overall survival of prostate cancer patients. Bone tropism represents an intriguing challenge for researchers also because the preference of prostate cancer cells for the bone is the result of a sequential series of targetable molecular events. Many factors have been associated with the peculiar ability of prostate cancer cells to migrate in bone marrow and to determine mixed osteoblastic/osteolytic lesions. As anticipated by the success of current targeted therapy aimed to block bone resorption, a better understanding of molecular affinity between prostate cancer and bone microenvironment will permit us to cure bone metastasis and to improve prognosis of prostate cancer patients.
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17
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Herrmann E, Bögemann M, Bierer S, Eltze E, Hertle L, Wülfing C. The endothelin axis in urologic tumors: mechanisms of tumor biology and therapeutic implications. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2014; 6:73-81. [PMID: 16375646 DOI: 10.1586/14737140.6.1.73] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Endothelin (ET)-1 and its receptors ET-A and ET-B, referred to commonly as the endothelin axis, have been identified in various human cancers, especially gynecologic tumors, such as breast cancer or ovarian cancer, but also including urologic tumor entities. They play a key role in tumor growth and progression by influencing critical cancer pathways, such as apoptosis, angiogenesis and proliferation. In prostate cancer, overexpression of the ET-A receptor increases with tumor progression, and clinical trials with selective ET-A receptor antagonists, such as atrasentan (ABT-627), have shown promising early results. In preclinical models of bladder cancer, overexpression of the ET axis has been demonstrated and ET-targeting agents are under investigation. This paper reviews the role of the ET axis in human cancers and focuses on preclinical and clinical studies in urologic tumor entities to further define the role of ET-targeting agents as targeted molecular therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin Herrmann
- Department of Urology, University of Münster, Albert-Schweitzer Strasse 33, 48149 Münster, Germany.
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18
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Irani S, Salajegheh A, Smith RA, Lam AKY. A review of the profile of endothelin axis in cancer and its management. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2013; 89:314-21. [PMID: 24035584 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2013.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2013] [Revised: 08/18/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The endothelins and their associated receptors are important controllers of vascular growth, inflammation and vascular tone. In cancer, they have roles in the control of numerous factors in cancer development and progression, including angiogenesis, stromal reaction, epithelial mesenchymal transitions, apoptosis, invasion, metastases and drug resistance. Also, we consider current information on the role of this signalling system in cancer and examine the state of the current cell, animal and clinical trials utilizing endothelin targeted drugs for cancer management. Although targeting the endothelin axis in cell lines and xenografts show some promise in retarding cellular growth, results from limited clinical trials in prostatic cancer are less encouraging and did not offer significant survival benefit. The ability to target both cancer cells and vasculature via endothelin is an important consideration that necessitates the further refining of therapeutic strategies as we continue to explore the possibilities of the endothelin axis in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soussan Irani
- Cancer Molecular Pathology, School of Medicine and Griffith Health Institute, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Ali Salajegheh
- Cancer Molecular Pathology, School of Medicine and Griffith Health Institute, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Robert Anthony Smith
- Cancer Molecular Pathology, School of Medicine and Griffith Health Institute, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Alfred King-Yin Lam
- Cancer Molecular Pathology, School of Medicine and Griffith Health Institute, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia.
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19
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Larson S, Zhang X, Dumpit R, Coleman I, Lakely B, Roudier M, Higano C, True LD, Lange PH, Montgomery B, Corey E, Nelson PS, Vessella RL, Morrissey C. Characterization of osteoblastic and osteolytic proteins in prostate cancer bone metastases. Prostate 2013; 73:932-40. [PMID: 23334979 PMCID: PMC4214278 DOI: 10.1002/pros.22639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2012] [Accepted: 12/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Approximately 90% of patients who die of Prostate Cancer (PCa) have bone metastases, which promote a spectrum of osteoblastic, osteolytic or mixed bone responses. Numerous secreted proteins have been reported to promote osteoblastic or osteolytic bone responses. We determined whether previously identified and/or novel proteins were associated with the osteoblastic or osteolytic response in clinical specimens of PCa bone metastases. METHODS Gene expression was analyzed on 14 PCa metastases from 11 patients by microarray profiling and qRT-PCR, and protein expression was analyzed on 33 PCa metastases from 30 patients by immunohistochemistry on highly osteoblastic and highly osteolytic bone specimens. RESULTS Transcript and protein levels of BMP-2, BMP-7, DKK-1, ET-1, and Sclerostin were not significantly different between osteoblastic and osteolytic metastases. However, levels of OPG, PGK1, and Substance P proteins were increased in osteoblastic samples. In addition, Emu1, MMP-12, and sFRP-1 were proteins identified with a novel role of being associated with either the osteoblastic or osteolytic bone response. CONCLUSIONS This is the first detailed analysis of bone remodeling proteins in human specimens of PCa bone metastases. Three proteins not previously shown to be involved may have a role in the PCa bone response. Furthermore, our data suggests that the relative expression of numerous, rather than a single, bone remodeling proteins determine the bone response in PCa bone metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandy Larson
- Department of Urology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Xiaotun Zhang
- Department of Urology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Ruth Dumpit
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA
| | - Ilsa Coleman
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA
| | - Bryce Lakely
- Department of Urology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Martine Roudier
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Celestia Higano
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | | | - Paul H. Lange
- Department of Urology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
- Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Seattle, WA
| | | | - Eva Corey
- Department of Urology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Peter S. Nelson
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Robert L. Vessella
- Department of Urology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
- Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Seattle, WA
| | - Colm Morrissey
- Department of Urology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
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20
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Roato I. Interaction among cells of bone, immune system, and solid tumors leads to bone metastases. Clin Dev Immunol 2013; 2013:315024. [PMID: 23710201 DOI: 10.1155/2013/315024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2013] [Accepted: 04/08/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Bone metastases are a dismal consequence for different types of solid tumors, such as breast, prostate, lung, and kidney cancer. The mechanisms regulating the interactions among bone, immune system, and tumor cells have been deeply investigated, and many studies are ongoing to define the specific role of the different cells in the bone metastatic process. The affinity of some tumors to growth in bone results from the special microenvironment provided by bone. Moreover, immune system and bone have a bidirectional relationship: bone cells express surface molecules ruling the expansion of hemopoietic stem cells from which all cells of the mammalian immune system derive, and various immunoregulatory cytokines influence the fate of bone cells. The last findings allow to extend the concept of vicious cycle and add T cells as mediators of the tumor growth in bone.
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21
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Lazarini M, Traina F, Machado-Neto JA, Barcellos KSA, Moreira YB, Brandão MM, Verjovski-Almeida S, Ridley AJ, Saad STO. ARHGAP21 is a RhoGAP for RhoA and RhoC with a role in proliferation and migration of prostate adenocarcinoma cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 2013; 1832:365-74. [PMID: 23200924 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2012.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2012] [Revised: 10/15/2012] [Accepted: 11/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several Rho GTPase-activating proteins (RhoGAPs) are implicated in tumor progression through their effects on Rho GTPase activity. ARHGAP21 is a RhoGAP with increased expression in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma and with a possible role in glioblastoma tumor progression, yet little is known about the function of ARHGAP21 in cancer cells. Here we studied the role of ARHGAP21 in two prostate adenocarcinoma cell lines, LNCaP and PC3, which respectively represent initial and advanced stages of prostate carcinogenesis. RESULTS ARHGAP21 is located in the nucleus and cytoplasm of both cell lines and its depletion resulted in decreased proliferation and increased migration of PC3 cells but not LNCaP cells. In PC3 cells, ARHGAP21 presented GAP activity for RhoA and RhoC and induced changes in cell morphology. Moreover, its silencing altered the expression of genes involved in cell proliferation and cytoskeleton organization, as well as the endothelin-1 canonical pathway. CONCLUSIONS Our results reveal new functions and signaling pathways regulated by ARHGAP21, and indicate that it could contribute to prostate cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Lazarini
- Hematology and Hemotherapy Center, University of Campinas/Hemocentro-Unicamp, Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia do Sangue, INCTS, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.
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22
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Said N, Theodorescu D. Permissive role of endothelin receptors in tumor metastasis. Life Sci 2012; 91:522-7. [PMID: 22846215 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2012.03.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2011] [Revised: 02/24/2012] [Accepted: 03/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Metastasis remains the major driver of mortality in patients with cancer. The multistep metastatic process requires the concerted actions of several genes and involves tumor cell invasion, epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), shedding from primary tumor, intravasation, arrest, extravasation and colonization at a preferential site. Understanding this complex process would provide the basis for the development of molecularly targeted therapeutics aimed at the tumor cell or its interaction with the host microenvironment. The neuropeptide hormones endothelins (specially, ET-1) have been correlated with invasiveness and metastasis of several cancers and high ET-1 levels are associated with decreased disease-specific survival. The mechanism(s) by which ET-1 promotes metastasis are being gradually unraveled. Through preferential binding to cognate receptors (ET(A)R or ET(B)R), ET-1 triggers autocrine and paracrine signaling cascades in tumor, immune and stromal cells, at both primary and distant sites, supporting cancer progression and metastasis. In this review, we will summarize the role of the ET axis in metastasis of different cancers and potential targeting of ET receptors in the therapeutic setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neveen Said
- Department of Urology, University of Virginia, USA
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23
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Abstract
Starting first from Paget's "seed and soil" to the latest hypothesis about metastatic process involving the concept of a premetastatic niche, a large amount of data suggested the idea that metastatization is a multistep coordinated process with a high degree of efficiency. A specific subpopulation of cells with tumor-initiating and migratory capacity can selectively migrate toward sites that are able to promote survival, and/or proliferation of metastatic tumor cells through a microenvironment modification. Bone plays a pivotal role in this process, acting not only as a preferential site for cancer cells' homing and proliferation, due to a complex interplay between different cellular phenotypes such as osteoblasts and osteoclasts, but also as a source of bone marrow precursors that are able to facilitate the metastatic process in extra-skeletal disease. Moreover, bone microenvironment has the unique capacity to retain cancer stem cells in a quiescent status, acting as a reservoir that is able to cause a metastatic spread also many years after the resection of the primary tumor. To add a further level of complexity, these mechanisms are strictly regulated through the signalling through several soluble factors including PTH, vitamin D or calcium concentration. Understanding this complexity represents a major challenge in anti-cancer research and a mandatory step towards the development of new drugs potentially able not only to reduce the consequences of bone lesions but also to target the metastatization process from the "bone pre-neoplastic niche" to "visceral pre-neoplastic niches".
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Santini
- University Campus Bio-Medico, Via Alvaro del Portillo, Rome, Italy.
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24
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Abstract
Recent advances in tumor biology have made remarkable achievements in the development of therapy for metastatic castrate-resistant prostate cancer. These advances reflect a growing appreciation for the role of the tumor microenvironment in promoting prostate cancer progression. Prostate cancer is no longer viewed predominantly as a disease of abnormally proliferating epithelial cells but rather as a disease of complex interactions between prostate cancer epithelial cells (epithelial compartment) and the surrounding tissues (stromal compartment) in which they reside. For example, prostate cancers frequently metastasize to bone, an organ that contains a microenvironment rich in extracellular matrix proteins and stromal cells including hematopoietic cells, osteoblasts, osteoclasts fibroblasts, endothelial cells, adipocytes, immune cells, and mesenchymal stem cells. Multiple signaling pathways provide crosstalk between the epithelial and the stromal compartments to enhance tumor growth, including androgen receptor signaling, tyrosine kinase receptor signaling, and immune surveillance. The rationale to disrupt this "two-compartment" crosstalk has led to the development of drugs that target tumor stromal elements in addition to the cancer epithelial cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farshid Dayyani
- Department of Genitourinary Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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25
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Maccauro G, Spinelli MS, Mauro S, Perisano C, Graci C, Rosa MA. Physiopathology of spine metastasis. Int J Surg Oncol. 2011;2011:107969. [PMID: 22312491 PMCID: PMC3265280 DOI: 10.1155/2011/107969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2011] [Accepted: 06/01/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The metastasis is the spread of cancer from one part of the body to another. Two-thirds of patients with cancer will develop bone metastasis. Breast, prostate and lung cancer are responsible for more than 80% of cases of metastatic bone disease. The spine is the most common site of bone metastasis. A spinal metastasis may cause pain, instability and neurological injuries. The diffusion through Batson venous system is the principal process of spinal metastasis, but the dissemination is possible also through arterial and lymphatic system or by contiguity. Once cancer cells have invaded the bone, they produce growth factors that stimulate osteoblastic or osteolytic activity resulting in bone remodeling with release of other growth factors that lead to a vicious cycle of bone destruction and growth of local tumour.
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26
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Neubecker K, Adams-Huet B, Farukhi IM, Delapena RC, Gruntmanis U. Predictors of fracture risk and bone mineral density in men with prostate cancer on androgen deprivation therapy. J Osteoporos 2011; 2011:924595. [PMID: 21826255 PMCID: PMC3150775 DOI: 10.4061/2011/924595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2011] [Revised: 04/26/2011] [Accepted: 05/09/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Decrease of bone mineral density (BMD) and fracture risk is increased in men with prostate cancer receiving androgen deprivation therapy (ADT). We looked at possible predictors of decreased BMD and increased fracture risk in men with prostate cancer; most of whom were on ADT. In a retrospective study, we analyzed serum, BMD, and clinical risk factors used in the Fracture Risk Assessment (FRAX) tool and others in 78 men with prostate cancer with reported height loss. The subjects were divided in two groups: 22 men with and 56 without vertebral fractures. 17 of the 22 men with vertebral fractures on spine X-rays did not know they had a vertebral fracture. Of those 17 men, 9 had not previously qualified for treatment based on preradiograph FRAX score calculated with BMD, and 6 based on FRAX calculated without BMD. Performing spine films increased the predictive ability of FRAX for vertebral fracture. Vertebral fracture was better predicted by FRAX for other osteoporotic fractures than FRAX for hip fractures. The inclusion of BMD in FRAX calculations did not affect the predictive ability of FRAX. The PSA level showed a positive correlation with lumbar spine BMD and accounted for about 9% of spine BMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Neubecker
- Department of Medicine, University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Beverley Adams-Huet
- Departments of Clinical Sciences and Medicine, University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Irfan M. Farukhi
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Dallas Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75216, USA
| | - Rosinda C. Delapena
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Dallas Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75216, USA
| | - Ugis Gruntmanis
- Department of Medicine, Dallas Veterans Affairs Medical Center and University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75216, USA,*Ugis Gruntmanis:
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27
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Sottnik JL, Zhang J, Macoska JA, Keller ET. The PCa Tumor Microenvironment. Cancer Microenviron 2011; 4:283-97. [PMID: 21728070 DOI: 10.1007/s12307-011-0073-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2011] [Accepted: 06/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a very complex niche that consists of multiple cell types, supportive matrix and soluble factors. Cells in the TME consist of both host cells that are present at tumor site at the onset of tumor growth and cells that are recruited in either response to tumor- or host-derived factors. PCa (PCa) thrives on crosstalk between tumor cells and the TME. Crosstalk results in an orchestrated evolution of both the tumor and microenvironment as the tumor progresses. The TME reacts to PCa-produced soluble factors as well as direct interaction with PCa cells. In return, the TME produces soluble factors, structural support and direct contact interactions that influence the establishment and progression of PCa. In this review, we focus on the host side of the equation to provide a foundation for understanding how different aspects of the TME contribute to PCa progression. We discuss immune effector cells, specialized niches, such as the vascular and bone marrow, and several key protein factors that mediate host effects on PCa. This discussion highlights the concept that the TME offers a potentially very fertile target for PCa therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph L Sottnik
- Department of Urology, University of Michigan, RM 5308 CC, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-8940, USA
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28
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Abstract
Prostate cancer is a complex disease in which metastasis to the bone is the main cause of death. Initial stages of metastasis are generally similar to those for most solid tumors; however, the mechanisms that underlie the homing of prostate tumor cells to the bone are not completely understood. Prostate cancer bone metastasis is also a microenvironment-driven disease, involving bidirectional interactions between the tumor and the bone microenvironment. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the biologic processes and regulatory factors involved in the metastasis of prostate cancer cells, and their specific properties that promote growth in bone. Although many of these processes still need to be fully elucidated, a better understanding of the complex tumor/microenvironment interplay is slowly leading to more effective therapies for patients with prostate cancer bone metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Kang Jin
- Department of Genitourinary Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX
- The University of Texas Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences at Houston, Houston, TX
| | - Farshid Dayyani
- Department of Genitourinary Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX
| | - Gary E. Gallick
- Department of Genitourinary Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX
- The University of Texas Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences at Houston, Houston, TX
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Chappard D, Bouvard B, Baslé MF, Legrand E, Audran M. Bone metastasis: histological changes and pathophysiological mechanisms in osteolytic or osteosclerotic localizations. A review. Morphologie 2011; 95:65-75. [PMID: 21620753 DOI: 10.1016/j.morpho.2011.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The development of a bone metastasis involves interactions between the tumor cells, the bone marrow microenvironment and the bone cells themselves. A better understanding of the pathophysiological changes occurring in bone metastasis can be obtained from histopathological examination of invaded specimens. This review focuses on the main molecular mechanisms implied in the localization and growth of malignant cells in the bone marrow. The corresponding histologic developmental stages are illustrated both in osteolytic (or mixed metastasis) or in the osteosclerotic forms by histological analysis, immunohistochemistry and microcomputed tomographic analysis of bone samples. In both cases, the malignant cells find a "fertile soil" in the bone marrow microenvironment. They use the growth factors released by bone cells for the coupling between osteoclasts/osteoblasts to promote their own development. In turn, they elaborate a variety of cytokines that can promote osteoclastogenesis (PTHrP, IL-1, IL-6…) or on the contrary, other growth factors that can boost the osteoblastic activity (ET1, IGFs). A "vicious circle" occurs between the malignant cells and the bone cells leading to the radiological expression of the metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Chappard
- U922-LHEA, Inserm, IRIS-IBS institut de biologie en santé, CHU d'Angers, 49933 Angers cedex, France.
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Liu L, Sun B, Pedersen JN, Aw Yong KM, Getzenberg RH, Stone HA, Austin RH. Probing the invasiveness of prostate cancer cells in a 3D microfabricated landscape. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:6853-6. [PMID: 21474778 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1102808108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The metastatic invasion of cancer cells from primary tumors to distant ecological niches, rather than the primary tumors, is the cause of much cancer mortality [Zhang QB, et al. (2010) Int J Cancer 126:2534-2541; Chambers AF, Goss PE (2008) Breast Cancer Res 10:114]. Metastasis is a three-dimensional invasion process where cells spread from their site of origin and colonize distant microenvironmental niches. It is critical to be able to assess quantitatively the metastatic potential of cancer cells [Harma V, et al. (2010) PLoS ONE 5:e10431]. We have constructed a microfabricated chip with a three-dimensional topology consisting of lowlands and isolated square highlands (Tepuis), which stand hundreds of microns above the lowlands, in order to assess cancer cell metastatic potential as they invade the highlands. As a test case, the invasive ascents of the Tepui by highly metastatic PC-3 and noninvasive LNCaP prostate cancer cells were used. The vertical ascent by prostate cancer cells from the lowlands to the tops of the Tepui was imaged using confocal microscopy and used as a measure of the relative invasiveness. The less-metastatic cells (LNCaP) never populated all available tops, leaving about 15% of them unoccupied, whereas the more metastatic PC-3 cells occupied all available Tepuis. We argue that this distinct difference in invasiveness is due to contact inhibition.
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Abstract
Androgen deprivation treatment in prostate cancer patients is well established; however, resistance to such treatment manifests itself by progression to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Despite significant advances in treatment options for patients with CRPC, their prognosis remains poor. Resistance results from multiple processes that facilitate cancer cell growth and survival. Mechanisms underlying the shift to castrate resistance have been attributed to a complex interplay of clonal selection, reactivation of the androgen receptor axis despite castrate levels of serum testosterone, stress-induced prosurvival genes and cytoprotective chaperone networks and alternative mitogenic growth factor pathways. This article discusses several pathways involved in the development of CRPC, with a particular focus on those mechanisms that have led to the development of new targeted therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Koupparis
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre & Department of Urological Sciences, 2775 Laurel St., Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Rowan Casey
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre & Department of Urological Sciences, 2775 Laurel St., Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Michael Robinson
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre & Department of Urological Sciences, 2775 Laurel St., Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
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33
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Abstract
Ongoing and breakthrough pain is a primary concern for the cancer patient. Although the etiology of cancer pain remains unclear, animal models of cancer pain have allowed investigators to unravel some of the cancer-induced neuropathologic processes that occur in the region of tumor growth and in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Within the cancer microenvironment, cancer and immune cells produce and secrete mediators that activate and sensitize primary afferent nociceptors. Pursuant to these peripheral changes, nociceptive secondary neurons in spinal cord exhibit increased spontaneous activity and enhanced responsiveness to three modes of noxious stimulation: heat, cold, and mechanical stimuli. As our understanding of the peripheral and central mechanisms that underlie cancer pain improves, targeted analgesics for the cancer patient will likely follow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian L Schmidt
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Dentistry, University of California San Francisco, USA.
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Abstract
IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD Patients with prostate cancer who have progression of their disease while on androgen deprivation therapy have limited therapeutic options. Docetaxel is currently the only agent that increases overall survival in patients with metastatic, castration-resistant prostate cancer; additional agents are needed. AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW This review will describe the importance of endothelin-1 (ET-1) for growth of prostate cancer cells, development of bone metastases, and pain responses; the preclinical data for zibotentan, a specific inhibitor of the ET(A) receptor; and the clinical development of atrasentan, a first-generation ET receptor inhibitor, and zibotentan, a more selective inhibitor of the ET(A) receptor. WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN Readers will understand the importance of ET-1 as a novel pathway to target for patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer due to its association with prostate cancer growth, metastases to bone, and pain. Readers will learn about the preclinical and clinical development of zibotentan, including the promising Phase II results that have resulted in an extensive Phase III clinical trials program. TAKE HOME MESSAGE Modulating the activity of ET-1 through the ET(A) receptor is a novel target for treating patients with metastatic, castration-resistant prostate cancer. There are currently three ongoing Phase III trials with zibotentan, a selective ET(A) inhibitor, to determine the effect of this agent on overall survival in these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale R Shepard
- Cleveland Clinic, Taussig Cancer Institute, Department of Solid Tumor Oncology, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
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35
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Abstract
It has been long recognized that skeleton represents one of the most favored metastatic sites for common cancers like breast and prostate. During the last decade the molecular mechanisms that are responsible for the development of bone metastasis have been gradually illuminated. It appears that the bone microenvironment has a pivotal role in this process. Metastatic tumor cells interact with bone triggering a cascade of molecular events that produce osteolytic and/or osteoblastic phenomena. In this review, we summarize and discuss the most significant factors and signaling pathways implicated in bone colonization. Moreover, based on the recent literature and data, we foresee the need for designing novel agents that will efficiently disrupt these interactions among cancer cells and bone microenvironment, bringing hope for more effective treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dionysios J Papachristou
- Department of Anatomy-Histology-Embryology, University of Patras School of Medicine, 26500, Patras, Greece
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36
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Abstract
The metastasis of tumor cells to distant organs is the primary cause of cancer-related mortality in most cancers. The interaction of tumor cells with local stroma at the metastatic site plays a critical role in metastatic dissemination and the establishment of metastases. These tumor-stromal interactions regulate several important steps including degradation of extracellular matrix, release of sequestered growth factors, and expression of chemokines, cytokines, and receptors on tumor cells and the interacting stromal cells. Breast, prostate, and lung cancers preferentially metastasize to bone. Tumor cell interactions with the bone microenvironment initiate a series of complex cellular interactions that promotes establishment of osteoclastic and/or osteoblastic metastasis. Understanding the interactions between tumor cells and the stroma is important to identify molecular targets to develop novel therapies aimed at reducing metastasis formation. In this article, we review the important mechanisms of tumor-stromal interaction in the development of bone metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kalyan C Nannuru
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 985900 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-5900, USA
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Vaňhara P, Lincová E, Kozubík A, Jurdic P, Souček K, Šmarda J. Growth/differentiation factor-15 inhibits differentiation into osteoclasts—A novel factor involved in control of osteoclast differentiation. Differentiation 2009; 78:213-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2009.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2009] [Revised: 07/03/2009] [Accepted: 07/30/2009] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Schelman WR, Liu G, Wilding G, Morris T, Phung D, Dreicer R. A phase I study of zibotentan (ZD4054) in patients with metastatic, castrate-resistant prostate cancer. Invest New Drugs 2009; 29:118-25. [PMID: 19763400 DOI: 10.1007/s10637-009-9318-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2009] [Accepted: 09/02/2009] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess the maximum well-tolerated dose (MWTD), dose limiting toxicity (DLT), pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics of zibotentan, a novel specific endothelin-A receptor antagonist, in patients with metastatic prostate cancer. METHODS Patients with metastatic, castrate-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) were treated with escalating doses of oral zibotentan (ZD4054) 10-200 mg once daily. The initial cohort received 28 daily doses (Period 1). Patients who had evidence of clinical benefit and who had not met any of the criteria for withdrawal were allowed to receive zibotentan at their current dose level until they no longer derived clinical benefit (Period 2). PK of zibotentan and changes in prostate-specific antigen and bone markers were also assessed. RESULTS Sixteen patients were evaluable for the safety and single-dose PK analyses. Eleven patients completed Period 1, and nine patients proceeded to Period 2. DLTs were encountered at 22.5 mg; one patient had grade 3 dyspnea and peripheral edema and a second patient had grade 3 headache and intraventricular hemorrhage. Enrollment was expanded at the 15 mg dose level to further determine the safety and tolerability of zibotentan. No DLTs were seen at 15 mg, and the most frequent adverse events were headache, peripheral edema, fatigue, nasal congestion and nausea. CONCLUSIONS The MWTD for zibotentan was 15 mg orally daily. The predominant adverse events observed were consistent with those reported for this class of drugs, and prolonged stable disease was noted in some patients. Phase III studies with zibotentan in men with metastatic CRPC are ongoing.
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Affiliation(s)
- William R Schelman
- University of Wisconsin Paul P. Carbone Comprehensive Cancer Center, 600 Highland Avenue, K6/534 CSC, Madison, WI 53792, USA.
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Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) preferentially metastasizes to the bone marrow stroma of the axial skeleton. This activity is the principal cause of PCa morbidity and mortality. The exact mechanism of PCa metastasis is currently unknown, although considerable progress has been made in determining the key players in this process. In this review, we present the current understanding of the molecular processes driving PCa metastasis to the bone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noel W Clarke
- Genito-Urinary Cancer Research Group, School of Cancer and Imaging Sciences, Paterson Institute for Cancer Research, Christie Hospital, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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Sprogar S, Vaupotic T, Cör A, Drevensek M, Drevensek G. The endothelin system mediates bone modeling in the late stage of orthodontic tooth movement in rats. Bone 2008; 43:740-7. [PMID: 18656564 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2008.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2008] [Revised: 06/06/2008] [Accepted: 06/16/2008] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The endothelin system is involved in orthodontic tooth movement (OTM). The aim of the study was to examine the role of ET-1, ET(A) and ET(B) in bone modeling during OTM in rats. Male Wistar rats (n=62) were divided into three groups: control animals (n=10; control group) without appliance, and two groups of experimental animals, which were applied a super-elastic closed-coil spring between the first left maxillary molar and the incisors and were treated daily with either TBC3214 (n=10; TBC3214 group) or with saline (n=42; appliance only group). TBC3214 is a highly selective antagonist on ET(A) receptors. The distance between teeth was measured on days 0 and 42. On days 0, 14, 28 and 42 animals of the appliance only group (n=8) were sacrificed and tissue samples were taken. Total RNA and protein contents were isolated. Gene expression levels of ET-1, ET(A) and ET(B) were assessed by means of relative RT-PCR. Protein levels of ET(A) and ET(B) were examined by immunoblotting. Ten animals of each group were sacrificed on day 42 and tissue samples were prepared for histological analysis. Alveolar bone volume, osteoblast and osteoclast volume were determined histomorphometrically. Gene expression levels of ET-1, ET(A) and ET(B) varied throughout the experiment and were significantly up-regulated on day 42 (p<0.001). The immunoreactivity of ET(A) and ET(B) significantly decreased on day 14 (p<0.001) and increased on day 28 (p<0.001). Alveolar bone volume was significantly higher in the TBC3214 group compared to the appliance only group (p<0.001). Osteoclast volume was significantly lower in the TBC3214 group compared to the appliance only group (p<0.05). Gene and protein expression levels of ET-1, ET(A) and ET(B) varied significantly during OTM, suggesting their different roles in the various stages of OTM. TBC3214 significantly increased alveolar bone volume and significantly decreased osteoclast volume, indicating that it decreased bone resorption in stage three of OTM. These data suggest that ET-1 increases osteoclastic bone resorption via ET(A) in the late stage of OTM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spela Sprogar
- Institute of Pharmacology and Experimental Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Korytkova 2, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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42
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Warren R, Liu G. ZD4054: a specific endothelin A receptor antagonist with promising activity in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2008; 17:1237-45. [PMID: 18616419 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.17.8.1237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Overexpression of the endothelin A (ET(A)) receptor has been found in a number of human cancer cell lines. Activation of the ET(A) receptor by endothelin-1 (ET-1) promotes cell proliferation and survival in these tumors, whereas activation of the endothelin B (ET(B)) receptor results in an opposing effect. Therefore, blockade of ET(A) may have antitumor effects, while sparing ET(B)-mediated effects such as induction of apoptosis and clearance of ET-1. OBJECTIVE ZD4054 is an orally bioavailable, specific ET(A) antagonist currently being investigated in prostate cancer. In receptor-binding studies, ZD4054 only bound to ET(A), with no binding detected towards ET(B). Prostate cancer cell lines are known to produce ET-1 and there is a relative increase in expression of ET(A) to ET(B) in these cancers. There is also an association of greater ET(A) expression in higher grade versus lower grade tumors, suggesting that ET(A) may be involved in the malignant transformation process. As ET-1 may also mediate nociceptive effects and osteoblastic effects, there is much interest in clinically assessing ZD4054 in prostate cancer. METHODS The data describing the endothelin axis, the role of ET(A) and ET(B) in malignancy, and the effects of ET(A) antagonist ZD4054 in prostate cancer, as demonstrated in preclinical and clinical studies, are reviewed. RESULTS Further investigation of ZD4054 in prostate cancer is warranted, and Phase III trials are already planned in patients with non-metastatic castrate-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) with rising prostate specific antigen values, metastatic (asymptomatic) CRPC, and in metastatic CRPC in combination with docetaxel, assessing either differences in progression-free survival and overall survival or overall survival alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Warren
- University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Health Sciences Learning Center, 750 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705, USA
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Wilson TJ, Singh RK. Proteases as modulators of tumor-stromal interaction: primary tumors to bone metastases. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2007; 1785:85-95. [PMID: 18082147 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2007.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2007] [Revised: 11/12/2007] [Accepted: 11/13/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
As cells undergo oncogenic transformation and as malignant cells arrive at metastatic sites, a complex interplay occurs with the surrounding stroma. This dialogue between the tumor and stroma ultimately dictates the success of the tumor cells in the given microenvironment. As a result, understanding the molecular mechanisms at work is important for developing new therapeutic modalities. Proteases are major players in the interaction between tumor and stroma. This review will focus on the role of proteases in modulating tumor-stromal interactions of both primary breast and prostate tumors as well as at bone metastatic sites in a way that favors tumor growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J Wilson
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, The University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-5845, USA
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Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) epithelial cells require a number of factors to facilitate their establishment and growth at a distant site of metastasis. Their ability to adapt to their microenvironment, proliferate and recruit an underlying stroma is integral to the survival and growth of the metastasis. PCa predominantly metastasizes to the bone, and bone metastases are the main cause of morbidity. The bone marrow provides a permissive environment for the formation of a metastasis. In some cases, the cells may remain dormant for some time, eventually proliferating in response to an unknown "trigger." The marrow is rich in progenitor cells that differentiate into numerous cell types, producing new blood vessels, supporting fibroblasts, and an underlying extracellular matrix (ECM) that form the reactive stroma. By secreting a number of cytokines, growth factors and proteases they recruit auxiliary cells required to produce a functional stroma. These components are involved in a reciprocal interaction between the stroma and the PCa cells, allowing for the growth and survival of the tumor. Left unchecked, once a PCa tumor has established itself in the bone marrow it will eventually replace the marrow, interrupting bone homeostasis and typically promoting an osteoblastic response in the bone including osteoclastic events. The abundant deposition of new woven bone results in nerve compression, bone pain and an increase in fractures in patients with PCa bone metastases. This review will examine the tumor microenvironment, its role in facilitating tumor dissemination, growth and the resultant pathologies associated with PCa bone metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colm Morrissey
- Department of Urology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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Tavassoli P, Snoek R, Ray M, Rao LG, Rennie PS. Rapid, non-destructive, cell-based screening assays for agents that modulate growth, death, and androgen receptor activation in prostate cancer cells. Prostate 2007; 67:416-26. [PMID: 17219378 DOI: 10.1002/pros.20532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We developed non-invasive, cell-based screening assays to rapidly and biologically assess factors that modulate prostate cancer growth and affect androgen receptor (AR) activity. METHODS LNCaP cells, which stably express enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) either constitutively or upon AR activation, were treated with a variety of agents, and then monitored by fluorescence and MTS assays for dose-dependent changes in cell number and AR activity. RESULTS The assays were validated for rapid, fluorescence-based, quantitative measurement for the presence of growth and AR modulators. Using these assays, we found that osteoblast conditioned media (CM) enhanced prostate cancer cell growth, but not AR activity. After priming with androgen (<1 nM R1881), forskolin or the pesticide dichlorvos enhanced AR activation, whereas interleukin-6 (IL-6) inhibited it. CONCLUSION These non-destructive, cell-based assays enable rapid systematic monitoring of the effects of drugs or complex mixtures on prostate cancer cell growth and/or AR activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peyman Tavassoli
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Abstract
Recent advances in the understanding of prostate cancer biology and its progression to bone metastasis have led to the development of drugs directed against precise molecular alterations in the prostate tumor cell and host cells in the normal bone environment such as osteoclasts and osteoblasts. Endothelins (ETs) and their receptors have emerged as a potential target in prostate cancer bone metastasis. By activating the ETA receptor, ET-1 is pathogenically involved in facilitating several aspects of prostate cancer progression, including proliferation, escape from apoptosis, invasion, and new bone formation, processes that are general to many malignancies. Notwithstanding, there are a number of features specifically driven by the ET axis in prostate cancer, such as creating and perpetuating a unique interaction between the metastatic prostate cancer cell and the bone microenvironment (osteoblast, osteoclast, and stroma) or altering the equilibrium in pain modulation. These features have led to the preferential clinical evaluation of atrasentan (ABT-627) as a biological therapy in prostate carcinoma, first in hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Biological activity of atrasentan in patients with prostate cancer has been shown by the suppression of biochemical markers of prostate cancer progression in bone, and clinical activity is evidenced by a consistent trend demonstrating a delay in time to disease progression when compared with placebo, especially in patients with bone metastases. Further studies of atrasentan and other selective ET-1 antagonists (ZD4054) are ongoing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A Carducci
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, Maryland 21231-1000, USA.
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47
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Abstract
Endothelin-1 (ET-1) and angiotensin II (AngII), two potent vasoactive peptides involved in the regulation of cardiovascular homeostasis, also induce mitogenic and pro-angiogenic responses in vitro and in vivo. Both peptides are produced by cleavage of inactive precursors by metalloproteases (endothelin-converting enzyme and angiotensin-converting enzyme, respectively) and activate two subtypes of membrane receptors (ETA-R and ETB-R for ET-1, AT1R and AT2R for AngII) that all belong to the superfamily of G-protein coupled receptors. There is increasing evidence that ETA-R, ETB-R and AT1R are expressed in a variety of cancer cells and tissues, and may play a role on tumor growth, angiogenesis and invasion in vivo. This review summarizes the similarities and differences between the ET-1 and AngII systems with regard to their reported effects on various aspects of cancer. In addition to being expressed on vascular endothelium, ET-1 and AngII receptors participate in tumor angiogenesis through the production of the angiogenic factor VEGF. Furthermore, recent clinical studies indicate that a selective ETA-R antagonist has beneficial effects in prostate cancer, suggesting that a similar approach using ETB-R and AT1R blockers might be envisioned. Experimental data presented here suggest that a combined therapy targeting both ET-1 and AngII systems may prove valuable for future treatments of highly angiogenic tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvie Cazaubon
- Institut Cochin, Département de Biologie Cellulaire, 22, rue Méchain, 75014 Paris, France.
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48
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Abstract
Although bone metastases from prostate cancer are described as osteoblastic, markers of both osteoblastic and osteoclastic activity are strikingly elevated in men with metastatic prostate cancer. Elevated markers of osteoblastic and osteoclastic activity are associated with adverse clinical outcomes in men with prostate cancer--outcomes including shorter time to skeletal complications, disease progression, and death. Bone marker measurement appears to be a promising method for monitoring the efficacy of bone-targeted therapy. Additional studies are needed to assess the potential role of bone markers in identifying men at highest risk for development of bone metastases.
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Abstract
Endothelin axis deregulation triggers a series of events that lead to a profound deregulation in cancer cells, including key tumorigenic cellular events such as proliferation, invasion, escape from programmed cell death, new vessel formation, abnormal osteogenesis and the alteration of nociceptive stimuli. Atrasentan is a novel agent that effectively targets this pathway and is able to inhibit and/or reverse several of those events. Biological and clinical activity in patients with prostate cancer has been demonstrated in a Phase III clinical setting by the suppression of markers of biochemical and clinical prostate cancer progression, and by a delay in time to disease progression, especially in patients with bone disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Jimeno
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins University, Bunting-Blaustein Cancer Research Building, Room 1M89, 1650 Orleans Street, Baltimore, MD 21231-1000, USA
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50
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Abstract
Endothelin axis deregulation triggers a series of events that ultimately activate proliferation, invasion, escape from programmed cell death, new vessel formation, abnormal osteogenesis and alteration of nociceptive stimuli. Atrasentan is a novel agent that effectively targets this pathway and is able to inhibit and/or reverse several of those events. Biologic and clinical activity in patients with prostate cancer has been demonstrated in a Phase III, placebo-controlled setting by the suppression of markers of biochemical prostate cancer progression and a delay in time to disease progression. Atrasentan represents a new therapeutic option in the management of prostate cancer, especially in those patients with bone metastases. However, its precise role in other diseases such as ovarian cancer is yet to be defined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Jimeno
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, John Hopkins University, Bunting-Blaustein Cancer Research Building, Room 162A, 1650 Orleans Street, Baltimore, MD 21231-1000, USA.
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