Differences in forearm strength, endurance, and hemodynamic kinetics between male boulderers and lead rock climbers

Assessment of Microvascular Hemodynamic Adaptations in Finger Flexors of Climbers

Climbing performance is greatly dependent on the endurance of the finger flexors which, in turn, depends on the ability to deliver and use oxygen within the muscle. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) have provided new possibilities to explore these phenomena in the microvascular environment. The aim of the present study was to explore climbing-related microvascular adaptations through the comparison of the oxygen concentration and hemodynamics of the forearm between climbers and non-climber active individuals during a vascular occlusion test (VOT). Seventeen climbers and fifteen non-climbers joined the study. Through NIRS and DCS, the oxyhemoglobin (O2Hb) and deoxyhemoglobin (HHb) concentrations, tissue saturation index (TSI), and blood flow index (BFI) were obtained from the flexor digitorum profundus during the VOT. During the reactive hyperemia, climbers presented greater blood flow slopes (p = 0.043, d = 0.573), as well as greater O2Hb maximum values (p = 0.001, d = 1.263) and HHb minimum values (p = 0.009, d = 0.998), than non-climbers. The superior hemodynamics presented by climbers could indicate potential training-induced structural and functional adaptations that could enhance oxygen transportation to the muscle, and thus enhance muscle endurance and climbing performance.

Muscle Oximetry in Sports Science: An Updated Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

In the last 5 years since our last systematic review, a significant number of articles have been published on the technical aspects of muscle near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), the interpretation of the signals and the benefits of using the NIRS technique to measure the physiological status of muscles and to determine the workload of working muscles.

OBJECTIVES

Considering the consistent number of studies on the application of muscle oximetry in sports science published over the last 5 years, the objectives of this updated systematic review were to highlight the applications of muscle oximetry in the assessment of skeletal muscle oxidative performance in sports activities and to emphasize how this technology has been applied to exercise and training over the last 5 years. In addition, some recent instrumental developments will be briefly summarized.

METHODS

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews guidelines were followed in a systematic fashion to search, appraise and synthesize existing literature on this topic. Electronic databases such as Scopus, MEDLINE/PubMed and SPORTDiscus were searched from March 2017 up to March 2023. Potential inclusions were screened against eligibility criteria relating to recreationally trained to elite athletes, with or without training programmes, who must have assessed physiological variables monitored by commercial oximeters or NIRS instrumentation.

RESULTS

Of the identified records, 191 studies regrouping 3435 participants, met the eligibility criteria. This systematic review highlighted a number of key findings in 37 domains of sport activities. Overall, NIRS information can be used as a meaningful marker of skeletal muscle oxidative capacity and can become one of the primary monitoring tools in practice in conjunction with, or in comparison with, heart rate or mechanical power indices in diverse exercise contexts and across different types of training and interventions.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the feasibility and success of the use of muscle oximetry in sports science is well documented, there is still a need for further instrumental development to overcome current instrumental limitations. Longitudinal studies are urgently needed to strengthen the benefits of using muscle oximetry in sports science.

The Connection Between Resistance Training, Climbing Performance, and Injury Prevention

BACKGROUND

Climbing is an intricate sport composed of various disciplines, holds, styles, distances between holds, and levels of difficulty. In highly skilled climbers the potential for further strength-specific adaptations to increase performance may be marginal in elite climbers. With an eye on the upcoming 2024 Paris Olympics, more climbers are trying to maximize performance and improve training strategies. The relationships between muscular strength and climbing performance, as well as the role of strength in injury prevention, remain to be fully elucidated. This narrative review seeks to discuss the current literature regarding the effect of resistance training in improving maximal strength, muscle hypertrophy, muscular power, and local muscular endurance on climbing performance, and as a strategy to prevent injuries.

MAIN BODY

Since sport climbing requires exerting forces against gravity to maintain grip and move the body along the route, it is generally accepted that a climber`s absolute and relative muscular strength are important for climbing performance. Performance characteristics of forearm flexor muscles (hang-time on ledge, force output, rate of force development, and oxidative capacity) discriminate between climbing performance level, climbing styles, and between climbers and non-climbers. Strength of the hand and wrist flexors, shoulders and upper limbs has gained much attention in the scientific literature, and it has been suggested that both general and specific strength training should be part of a climber`s training program. Furthermore, the ability to generate sub-maximal force in different work-rest ratios has proved useful, in examining finger flexor endurance capacity while trying to mimic real-world climbing demands. Importantly, fingers and shoulders are the most frequent injury locations in climbing. Due to the high mechanical stress and load on the finger flexors, fingerboard and campus board training should be limited in lower-graded climbers. Coaches should address, acknowledge, and screen for amenorrhea and disordered eating in climbers.

CONCLUSION

Structured low-volume high-resistance training, twice per week hanging from small ledges or a fingerboard, is a feasible approach for climbers. The current injury prevention training aims to increase the level of performance through building tolerance to performance-relevant load exposure and promoting this approach in the climbing field.

Comparing low volume of blood flow restricted to high-intensity resistance training of the finger flexors to maintain climbing-specific strength and endurance: a crossover study

Introduction

It is acknowledged that training during recovery periods after injury involves reducing both volume and intensity, often resulting in losses of sport-specific fitness. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the effects of high-intensity training (HIT) and low-intensity training with blood flow restriction (LIT + BFR) of the finger flexors in order to preserve climbing-specific strength and endurance.

Methods

In a crossover design, thirteen intermediate climbers completed two 5-week periods of isometric finger flexors training on a hangboard. The trainings consisted of ten LIT + BFR (30% of max) or HIT sessions (60% of max without BFR) and were undertaken in a randomized order. The training session consisted of 6 unilateral sets of 1 min intermittent hanging at a 7:3 work relief ratio for both hands. Maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), force impulse from the 4 min all out test (W), critical force (CF) and force impulse above the critical force (W') of the finger flexors were assessed before, after the first, and after the second training period, using a climbing-specific dynamometer. Forearm muscle oxidative capacity was estimated from an occlusion test using near-infrared spectroscopy at the same time points.

Results

Both training methods led to maintaining strength and endurance indicators, however, no interaction (P > 0.05) was found between the training methods for any strength or endurance variable. A significant increase (P = 0.002) was found for W, primarily driven by the HIT group (pretest-25078 ± 7584 N.s, post-test-27327 ± 8051 N.s, P = 0.012, Cohen's d = 0.29). There were no significant (P > 0.05) pre- post-test changes for MVC (HIT: Cohen's d = 0.13; LIT + BFR: Cohen's d = -0.10), CF (HIT: Cohen's d = 0.36; LIT + BFR = 0.05), W` (HIT: Cohen's d = -0.03, LIT + BFR = 0.12), and forearm muscle oxidative capacity (HIT: Cohen's d = -0.23; LIT + BFR: Cohen's d = -0.07).

Conclusions

Low volume of BFR and HIT led to similar results, maintaining climbing-specific strength and endurance in lower grade and intermediate climbers. It appears that using BFR training may be an alternative approach after finger injury as low mechanical impact occurs during training.

Physical performance testing in climbing-A systematic review

Due to the increasing popularity of climbing, the corresponding diagnostics are gaining in importance for both science and practice. This review aims to give an overview of the quality of different diagnostic testing- and measurement methods for performance, strength, endurance, and flexibility in climbing. A systematic literature search for studies including quantitative methods and tests for measuring different forms of strength, endurance, flexibility, or performance in climbing and bouldering was conducted on PubMed and SPORT Discus. Studies and abstracts were included if they a) worked with a representative sample of human boulderers and/or climbers, b) included detailed information on at least one test, and c) were randomized-controlled-, cohort-, cross-over-, intervention-, or case studies. 156 studies were included into the review. Data regarding subject characteristics, as well as the implementation and quality of all relevant tests were extracted from the studies. Tests with similar exercises were grouped and the information on a) measured value, b) unit, c) subject characteristics (sex and ability level), and d) quality criteria (objectivity, reliability, validity) were bundled and displayed in standardized tables. In total, 63 different tests were identified, of which some comprised different ways of implementation. This clearly shows that there are no uniform or standard procedures in climbing diagnostics, for tests on strength, endurance or flexibility. Furthermore, only few studies report data on test quality and detailed information on sample characteristics. This not only makes it difficult to compare test results, but at the same time makes it impossible to give precise test recommendations. Nevertheless, this overview of the current state of research contributes to the creation of more uniform test batteries in the future.

Body Composition, Anthropometric Parameters, and Strength-Endurance Characteristics of Sport Climbers: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT

Ginszt, M, Saito, M, Zięba, E, Majcher, P, and Kikuchi, N. Body composition, anthropometric parameters, and strength-endurance characteristics of sport climbers: a systematic review. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2023-Sport climbing was selected to be part of the Summer Olympic Games in Tokyo 2021 with 3 subdisciplines: lead climbing, speed climbing, and bouldering. The nature of physical effort while speed climbing, lead climbing, and bouldering performance is different. This literature review aimed to describe differences between body composition, anthropometric parameters, and upper-limb strength-endurance variables between sport climbers with different ability levels and nonclimbers. The following databases were searched: PubMed and Scopus. The following keywords were used: "sport climbing," "rock climbing," "lead climbing," and "bouldering." Articles were considered from January 2000 to October 2021 if they concerned at least one of the following parameters: body composition (mass, body mass index, body fat, lean muscle mass, bone mineral density), anthropometric parameters (height, ape index), muscle strength (MVC finger strength in half-crimp grip, MVC finger strength to body mass, handgrip strength), and muscle endurance (force time integral, pull-ups). A review shows that body mass and body fat content were lower in the sport climbers compared with controls and in elite sport climbers compared with those less advanced. Sport climbers presented higher values of MVC finger strength in half-crimp grip, MVC finger strength to body mass, handgrip strength, and force time integral parameter than control subjects. Significantly higher MVC values in half-crimp grip were observed in elite sport climbers than in advanced athletes. None of the analyzed work showed differences between sport climber groups in the ape index. The abovementioned parameters may be a key factor in elite sport climbing performance.

Strength Training in Climbing: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT

Langer, K, Simon, C, and Wiemeyer, J. Strength training in climbing: A systematic review. J Strength Cond Res 37(3): 751-767, 2023-The aim of this review was to provide an overview of the state of research on strength training in climbing and to answer the question how climbing performance, maximum grip strength, upper-limb strength endurance, maximum upper-limb strength, and upper-limb power as dependent variables are affected by different types of training. Moreover, we addressed the question which training methods and training parameters are most effective in increasing climbing and bouldering performance. Searches of MEDLINE (PubMed), SPORTDiscus, ProQuest, and Google Scholar were conducted for studies that met the following criteria: (a) examining effects of training on at least one of the dependent variables, (b) controlled longitudinal design with pretest and posttest, and (c) detailed information on training parameters and subjects. Twelve studies were included into the review. The quality of the studies was rated according to the PEDro scale, and the training interventions were classified according to training method (maximum strength [MS], hypertrophy [HYP], and endurance [END]), specificity (specific, semispecific, and unspecific), and static or dynamic exercises. For 9 of the 12 studies, effect sizes were calculated and the treatments compared. The results showed (a) positive effects of strength training on all variables, (b) a trend toward a mixture of MS and HYP or END training, (c) a trend toward semispecific exercise, and (d) similar effects for dynamic and static exercise with a trend toward a mixture of both. Coaches and athletes are recommended to combine static and dynamic semispecific exercises in a HYP and MS or END training.

The Load Structure in International Competitive Climbing

The analysis of the load structure in competitions is essential to develop performance structure models from which sport-specific testing and training protocols can be derived. The aim of this study was to characterize the external load structure of competitive climbing at an international level in the disciplines of speed, bouldering, lead, and Olympic combined based on video recordings of top athletes. In speed, the route was completed by women with a median of 11 moves and by men with 9 moves that required 0.73 and 0.60 s per move, respectively. Bouldering competitions are characterized by various bouts of activity with resting periods in between. Athletes attempted a boulder problem, a median of 3 times in the qualification and semi-final rounds and 4 times in the final round with an average attempt duration of 27.0 s. In lead, the load structure is characterized by an average climbing time of 4:09 min and 4:18 min, 31.6 and 30.0 actions, contact times of 6.4 s and 6.2 s, and reach times of 1.4 s and 1.6 s for women and men, respectively. Olympic combined competitions combine all 3 single disciplines starting with speed followed by bouldering and lead and are characterized by high competition loads, long durations of almost 3 h, and relatively short resting periods in between.

Tests and Procedures for Measuring Endurance, Strength, and Power in Climbing—A Mini-Review

The interest in climbing is rapidly growing among professional and recreational athletes and will for the first time be included in the 2021 Tokyo Olympics. The sport has also gained increased scientific attention in the past decades. Still, recommendations for testing procedures to predict climbing performance and measure training effects are limited. Therefore, the aim of this mini-review is to provide an overview of the climbing-specific tests, procedures and outcomes used to examine climbing performance. The available literature presents a variety of tests and procedures. While the reliability of some tests has been examined, measures of validity are scarce, especially for climbing-specific endurance tests. Moreover, considering the possible combinations of climbing performance levels, disciplines, and tests, substantial gaps in the literature exist. Vague descriptions of the participants in many studies (e.g., not specifying preferred discipline, performance level, experience, and regular climbing and training volume) further limit the current knowledge and challenge comparisons across studies. Regarding contraction types, dynamic strength- and power-tests are underrepresented in the literature compared to isometric tests. Studies exploring and reporting the validity and reliability of climbing-specific tests are warranted, and researchers should strive to provide a detailed description of the study populations in future research.

Relative Contributions of Handgrip and Individual Finger Strength on Climbing Performance in a Bouldering Competition

PURPOSE

To determine the relative contributions of handgrip and individual finger strength for the prediction of climbing performance in a bouldering competition. A secondary aim was to examine the influence of body size, bouldering experience, and training habits.

METHODS

Sixty-seven boulderers (mean [SD], age = 21.1 [4.0] y; body mass = 69.5 [9.8] kg) volunteered for this study. Data collection occurred immediately before an indoor bouldering competition and involved the assessment of handgrip and individual finger maximal force production using an electronic handheld dynamometer. The bouldering competition consisted of 70 routes graded V0 to V8, with higher point values awarded for completing more difficult routes. Stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to examine the relative contributions of handgrip and individual finger strengths, body mass, height, bouldering experience, and bouldering frequency to the prediction of performance scores in the competition.

RESULTS

Ring finger pinch strength, bouldering experience, and bouldering frequency significantly (P < .05) contributed to the model (R2 = .373), whereas body mass; height; full handgrip strength, as well as index, middle, and little finger pinch strengths did not. The β weights showed that ring finger pinch strength (β = .430) was the most significant contributor, followed by bouldering experience (β = .331) and bouldering frequency (β = .244).

CONCLUSIONS

The current findings indicated that trainable factors contributed to the prediction of bouldering performance. These results suggest greater bouldering frequency and experience likely contribute to greater isolated individual finger strength, thereby optimizing preparation for the diverse handholds in competitive rock climbing.

The Estimation of Critical Angle in Climbing as a Measure of Maximal Metabolic Steady State

Purpose: Sport climbing is a technical, self-paced sport, and the workload is highly variable and mainly localized to the forearm flexors. It has not proved effective to control intensity using measures typical of other sports, such as gas exchange thresholds, heart rate, or blood lactate. Therefore, the purposes of the study were to (1) determine the possibility of applying the mathematical model of critical power to the estimation of a critical angle (CA) as a measure of maximal metabolic steady state in climbing and (2) to compare this intensity with the muscle oxygenation breakpoint (MOB) determined during an exhaustive climbing task.

Materials and Methods: Twenty-seven sport climbers undertook three to five exhaustive ascents on a motorized treadwall at differing angles to estimate CA, and one exhaustive climbing test with a progressive increase in angle to determine MOB, assessed using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS).

Results: Model fit for estimated CA was very high (R² = 0.99; SEE = 1.1°). The mean peak angle during incremental test was −17 ± 5°, and CA from exhaustive trials was found at −2.5 ± 3.8°. Nine climbers performing the ascent 2° under CA were able to sustain the task for 20 min with perceived exertion at 12.1 ± 1.9 (RPE). However, climbing 2° above CA led to task failure after 15.9 ± 3.0 min with RPE = 16.4 ± 1.9. When MOB was plotted against estimated CA, good agreement was stated (ICC = 0.80, SEM = 1.5°).

Conclusion: Climbers, coaches, and researchers may use a predefined route with three to five different wall angles to estimate CA as an analog of critical power to determine a maximal metabolic steady state in climbing. Moreover, a climbing test with progressive increases in wall angle using MOB also appears to provide a valid estimate of CA.

The Effects of Prioritizing Lead or Boulder Climbing Among Intermediate Climbers

This study compared the effects of prioritizing lead climbing or boulder climbing on climbing-specific strength and endurance, as well as climbing performance. Fourteen active climbers were randomized to a boulder climbing training group (BCT: age = 27.2 ± 4.4 years, body mass = 65.8 ± 5.5 kg, height = 173.3 ± 3.8 cm) or a lead-climbing training group (LCT: age = 27.7 ± 6.1 years, body mass = 70.2 ± 4.4 kg, height = 177.7 ± 4.4 cm). The groups participated in a 5-week training period consisting of 15 sessions, performing either two weekly bouldering sessions and one maintenance-session of lead-climbing (BCT) or two weekly lead-climbing sessions and one maintenance-session of bouldering (LCT). Pre- and post-training, maximal force and rate of force development (RFD) were measured during isometric pull-ups performed on a jug hold and a shallow rung, and during an isolated finger-strength test. Lead-climbing and bouldering performance were also measured, along with an intermittent forearm endurance test. The pre-to-post changes were not significantly different between the groups for any of the parameters (P = 0.062-0.710). However, both the BCT (ES = 0.30, P = 0.049) and LCT (ES = 0.41, P = 0.046) groups improved strength in the isometric pull-up performed using the jug, whereas neither group improved force in the rung condition (P = 0.054 and P = 0.084) or RFD (P = 0.060 and P = 0.070). Furthermore, climbing and bouldering performance remained unchanged in both groups (P = 0.210-0.895). The LCT group improved forearm endurance (ES = 0.55, P = 0.007), while the BCT group improved isolated finger strength (ES = 0.35, P = 0.015). In addition to isometric pull-up strength, bouldering can increase isolated finger strength while lead-climbing may improve forearm endurance. A 5-week period prioritizing one discipline can be safely implemented for advanced to intermediate climbers without risking declined performance in the non-prioritized discipline.

An All-Out Test to Determine Finger Flexor Critical Force in Rock Climbers

PURPOSE

The fatigue resistance of the finger flexors is known to be a key determinant of climbing performance. This study set out to establish the association between the single all-out assessment of finger flexor critical force (ff-CF) and the impulse above CF (W') on climbing performance (self-reported sport and boulder climbing ability).

METHODS

A total of 129 subjects completed an assessment of dominant arm ff-CF, comprised of a series of rhythmic isometric maximum voluntary contractions (CF defined as mean end-test force [in kilograms]; W' impulse above CF [in kilogram second]).

RESULTS

The ff-CF protocol resulted in the same force decay to a plateau seen in previous isometric critical torque and critical force tests. Linear regression analysis, adjusting for sex, revealed that CF percentage of body mass explained 61% of sport and 26% of bouldering performance and W' per kilogram body mass explained 7% sport and 34% bouldering performance. A combined model of CF as a percentage of body mass and W' per kilogram body mass, after adjustment for sex differences, was able to explain 66% of sport climbing and 44% of bouldering performance.

CONCLUSIONS

The results illustrate the relevance of the CF threshold in describing the fatigue resistance of the finger flexors of rock climbers. Given ff-CF ability to describe a considerable proportion of variance in sport climbing and bouldering ability, the authors expect it to become a common test used by coaches for understanding exercise tolerance and for determining optimal training prescription.

New Zealand blackcurrant extract enhances muscle oxygenation during repeated intermittent forearm muscle contractions in advanced and elite rock climbers

Anthocyanin-rich New Zealand blackcurrant (NZBC) may improve forearm muscle oxygenation and enhance performance in high-level rock climbers. As such, using a double-blind, randomised, cross-over design study, twelve participants performed an oxidative capacity assessment, and two successive exhaustive exercise trials (submaximal forearm muscle contractions at 60% of their maximal volitional contraction). Each visit was conducted following 7-days intake of 600 mg·day^-1 NZBC extract or placebo. Oxidative capacity was estimated by calculating the oxygen half time recovery using near infrared spectroscopy. Time to exhaustion (s), impulse (kg·s), and minimum tissue saturation index (min-TSI %) were assessed during both the exercise trials. Muscle oxidative capacity was greater with NZBC (mean difference [MD] = 5.3 s, 95% confidence intervals [95% CI] = 0.4-10.2 s; p = 0.036; Cohen's d = 0.94). During the exercise trials, there was an interaction for min-TSI % (time x condition, p = 0.046; ηp2= 0.372), which indicated a greater level of oxygen extraction during trial two with NZBC extract (MD = 9%, 95% CI = 2-15%) compared to the placebo (MD = 2%, 95% CI = 1-7%). There was a decrease in time to exhaustion (p <0.001, ηp2 = 0.693) and impulse (p = 0.001, ηp2 = 0.672) in exercise trial two, with no effect of NZBC extract. In high-level rock climbers 7-days NZBC extract improves forearm muscle oxygenation with no effect on isolated forearm muscle performance.

Forearm isometric fatigue-resistance is enhanced in rock climbers compared to power lifters and aerobically-trained athletes

BACKGROUND

Rock climbers are characterized by enhanced forearm fatigue resistance. This study compared the forearm isometric force of rock climbers (RC), strength-matched power lifters (PL) and aerobically trained (AT) athletes to determine the contribution of muscle oxygen desaturation during ischemia.

METHODS

Aerobically trained athletes (N.=6, 23±1 years, 77±1 kg), power lifters (N.=7, 24±1 years, 80±3 kg) and rock climbers (N.=8, 25±2 years, 74±2 kg) took part in a controlled forearm ischemic occlusion (5 min) assessment using near infrared spectroscopy. In addition, three fatigue protocols were completed: protocol 1, sustained maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) until exhaustion; protocol 2, sustained 40% MVC for 3 mins duration; protocol 3, an intermittent 40% MVC (5-s contraction, 5-s recovery) for a duration of 3 mins. Forearm contractile fatigue was quantified as the reduction in MVC.

RESULTS

MVC was equivalent between groups (P>0.05). Sustained MVC force (time to decline 50% MVC) was longer in the RC versus AT (AT: 35±5, PL: 46±6, RC: 54±4 s, P<0.05) and both AT and PL for sustained 40% MVC (AT: 56±9, RT: 62±8, RC: 87±7 s, P<0.05). Reduction in MVC was less in RC post intermittent 40% contractions (P<0.05). Oxygen desaturation half-time was longer in the RC versus AT (AT: 65±9, RT: 86±7, RC: 99±7 s, P<0.05) and this was associated with time to 50% MVC (P<0.05, r²=0.53) and time to 40% MVC task failure (P<0.05, r²=0.32).

CONCLUSIONS

Rock climbers' enhanced isometric fatigue-resistance and ability to maintain MVC was associated with a lower oxygen consumption of the forearm flexors during the ischemic state. This suggests a training adaptation involving intracellular oxygen consumption.

Association between MCT1 T1470A polymorphism and climbing status in Polish and Japanese climbers

Sport climbing will become an official event at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics; it is a popular wilderness sport among athletes and amateurs. Our previous study suggested that the T1470A polymorphism (rs1049434) of the monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1) gene is associated with athletic performance and physiological phenotypes. The purpose of this study was to investigate the frequency of MCT1 T1470A polymorphism in Polish and Japanese climbers using a case-control study. Our sample consisted of 226 climbers (Japanese: n = 100, 64 male and 36 female; Polish: n = 126, 97 male and 29 female) and 1028 non-athletic controls (Japanese, n = 407; Polish = 621) who were genotyped for the MCT1 T1470A polymorphism (rs1049434) using the TaqMan SNP genotyping assay or restriction enzyme. The frequency of the TT genotype and T allele was significantly higher in climbers than in controls among the Polish subjects (genotype: p = 0.030, allele: p = 0.010); however, there were no significant differences in the genotype and allelic frequencies between the Japanese climbers and controls (genotype: p = 0.968; allele: p = 0.803). Our results suggested that the frequency of the T allele (TT+TA genotype) in the MCT1 T1470A polymorphism is over-represented in Polish climbers but not in Japanese climbers. In addition, the frequency of the T allele and TT genotype in Polish lead climbers is higher than that in controls.

A Novel Tool for the Assessment of Sport Climbers' Movement Performance

PURPOSE

To assess the validity and reliability of a novel movement-performance assessment tool for climbing/sport climbing.

METHODS

First, salient climbing movement-performance factors were identified through an iterative consultation process with 10 expert climbing coaches; the resulting Climber's Movement Performance Assessment Tool (CM-PAT) contained 14 items in 5 categories. Second, 61 intermediate to advanced climbers ascended a single route, which was video recorded. Subsequently, 4 experienced (>10 y coaching) coaches used the CM-PAT to observe and score the climbers' performance. Interrater reliability and comparisons with existing measures of climbing performance (6-mo self-reported ability, success and failure, climbing pace [m·min-1], and geometric entropy) were made.

RESULTS

Intraclass correlation coefficient (2,k) for the 4 raters demonstrated excellent reliability (>.81) between observers and good to excellent test-retest reliability (.71-.91). Pearson correlations between self-reported ability and CM-PAT scores explained 61% of the variance in self-reported climbing performance compared with 16% for geometric entropy and 52% for climbing pace. Considering differences in successful and unsuccessful climbers, the CM-PAT (P < .0005; d = 2.14), geometric entropy (P = .014; d = 0.67), and pace (P < .0005; d = 1.88) were able to differentiate between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The CM-PAT is the first sport climbing performance observational instrument to be developed through a thorough iterative process with expert coaches. Excellent interrater and test-retest reliability and excellent agreement with self-reported ability and with existing quantitative measures of performance support its recommendation for use in coaching and research contexts. Notably, a key advantage over existing measures is the identification of coachable elements of performance.

Reliability and Validity of a Method for the Assessment of Sport Rock Climbers' Isometric Finger Strength

Torr, O, Randall, T, Knowles, R, Giles, D, and Atkins, S. The reliability and validity of a method for the assessment of sport rock climbers' isometric finger strength. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-Isometric strength of the finger flexors is considered to be one of the main physical determinants of sport rock climbing performance. We set out to determine the test-retest reliability and criterion validity of a low resource maximal isometric finger strength (MIFS) testing protocol that uses a pulley system to add or remove weight to/from a climber's body. To determine test-retest reliability, 15 subjects' MIFS was assessed on 2 occasions, separated by a minimum of 48 hours. Body mass and maximum load were recorded on both occasions. Intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs) between visits for all variables were very good (ICC > 0.91), with small bias and effect sizes-particularly when expressed as a percentage of body mass (ICC = 0.98, 95% confidence interval 0.93-0.99). To determine the criterion validity of MIFS and climbing ability, data of 229 intermediate to higher elite climbers were compared. Pearson's product moment correlations demonstrated good agreement, again particularly between total load when expressed as a percentage of body mass and climbing performance (r = 0.421-0.503). The results illustrate the sensitivity of a simple test for the determination of MIFS in intermediate to height elite climbers from an ecologically valid, climbing specific test that only requires equipment found at most climbing walls. This low resource test protocol for the assessment of isometric finger strength has wide-reaching utility, for instance when assessing strength before and after a training intervention or when prescribing load intensities for exercises aimed at improving maximal finger strength.

Masticatory Muscles Activity in Sport Climbers

Masticatory muscle activity during teeth clenching is associated with changes in many physiological parameters throughout the body. Clenching can improve muscle activity, force production, rate of force development, and joint fixation. Hence, teeth clenching and masticatory muscle activity can be important in competitive sports activities. Sport climbing is becoming increasingly popular and will be included for the first time in the Summer Olympic Games, Tokyo, 2020. However, masticatory muscle activity in sport climbers has not yet been studied. The aim of the presented study is to compare the bioelectrical activity of the masticatory muscles in sport climbers and non-climbers in order to determine the relationship between these muscles and climbing activity. 44 subjects without masticatory system disorders (16 women and 28 men, average age 26.3) were divided into two groups of 22 sport climbers (8 women, 14 men, climbing experience >4 years), while 22 people (8 women, 14 men, with no regular sports activity) were assigned to the control group. Electromyographic examination of temporalis anterior (TA) and masseter muscle (MM) was evaluated in three conditions: during resting mandibular position, during maximum intercuspation clenching, and during maximum voluntary clenching with cotton rolls between teeth. For statistical analysis, the W Shapiro-Wilk test and the Mann-Whitney U test were used. Sport climbers showed significantly higher bioelectrical activities of MM during maximum intercuspation clenching (238.45 μV vs. 83.87 μV, p = 0.002), and during maximum voluntary clenching with cotton rolls between teeth (300.01 μV vs. 101.38 μV, p = 0.001) compared to controls. The differences between groups in relation to the resting bioelectrical activity of the MM muscles, and TA muscles in all conditions were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Higher bioelectrical activity of masseter muscles during clenching in climbers can be associated with this sports activity. However, the mechanism remains unknown and requires future research.

Muscle oxygen dynamics in elite climbers during finger-hang tests at varying intensities

The aim of this study was to measure muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂) dynamics during a climbing specific task until failure in varying conditions. Our prediction was that SmO₂ should be a good marker to predict task failure. Eleven elite level climbers performed a finger-hang test on a 23 mm wooden rung under four different weighted conditions, 1. body weight (BW), 2. body weight +20% (BW +20), 3. body weight −20% (BW −20) and 4. body weight −40% (BW −40), maintaining half crimp grip until voluntary exhaustion. During each trial SmO₂ and time to task failure (TTF) were measured. TTF was then compared to the minimally attainable value of SmO₂ (SmO₂min) and time to SmO₂min (TTmin). There is a considerable degree of agreement between attainable SmO₂min at high intensity conditions (M_BW = 21.6% ± 6.4; M_BW+20 = 24.0% ± 7.0; M_BW−20 = 23.0% ± 7.3). Bland-Altman plot with an a priori set equivalency interval of ±5% indicate that these conditions are statistically not different (M_{BW-BW + 20} = −2.4%, 95% CI [1.4, −6.2]; M_BW−Bw−20 = −1.3, 95% CI [2.5, −5.1]). The fourth and lowest intensity condition (M_{BW −40} = 32.4% ± 8.8) was statistically different and not equivalent (M_{BW-BW −40} = −8.8%, 95% CI [−5.0, −12.6]). The same agreement was found between TTF and TTmin for the high intensity conditions plotted via Bland-Altman. While the rate with which oxygen was extracted and utilised changed with the conditions, the attainable SmO₂min remained constant at high intensity conditions and was related to TTF.

Comparison of climbing-specific strength and endurance between lead and boulder climbers

Albeit differences in climbing-specific strength of the forearms have been demonstrated between lead and boulder climbers, little is known about the potential differences in force and power output of the upper body pulling-apparatus between disciplines. The aim of this study was to compare the climbing-specific upper-body strength and finger flexor endurance between lead and boulder climbers, as well as to examine the relative utilization of force when testing on a ledge hold compared to a jug hold. Sixteen boulder climbers (red-point climbing grade 17.9 ± 3.3) and fifteen lead climbers (red-point climbing grade 20.5 ± 3.5) performing on an advanced level volunteered for the study. Peak force, average force and rate of force development (RFD) were measured during an isometric pull-up, average velocity in dynamic pull-up, and finger flexor endurance in an intermittent test to fatigue. The isometric pull-up was performed on a ledge hold (high finger strength requirements) and on a jug hold (very low finger strength requirements). Boulder climbers demonstrated a higher maximal and explosive strength in all strength and power measurements (26.2–52.9%, ES = 0.90–1.12, p = 0.006–0.023), whereas the finger flexor endurance test showed no significant difference between the groups (p = 0.088). Both groups were able to utilize 57–69% of peak force, average force and RFD in the ledge condition compared to the jug condition, but the relative utilization was not different between the groups (p = 0.290–0.996). In conclusion, boulder climbers were stronger and more explosive compared to lead climbers, whereas no differences in finger flexor endurance were observed. Performing climbing-specific tests on a smaller hold appears to limit the force and power output equally between the two groups.

The Determination of Finger-Flexor Critical Force in Rock Climbers

Purpose:To determine if the mathematical model used for the estimation of critical force (CF) and the energy store componentW′ are applicable to intermittent isometric muscle actions of the finger flexors of rock climbers, using a multisession test. As a secondary aim, the agreement of estimates of CF andW′ from a single-session test was also determined. The CF was defined as the slope coefficient, andW′ was the intercept of the linear relationship between total “isometric work” (Wlim) and time to exhaustion (Tlim).Methods:Subjects performed 3 (separated by either 20 min or >24 h) tests to failure using intermittent isometric finger-flexor contractions at 45%, 60%, and 80% of their maximum voluntary contraction.Results:Force plotted againstTlimdisplayed a hyperbolic relationship; correlation coefficients of the parameter estimates from the work–time CF model were consistently very high (R2 > .94). Climbers’ mean CF was 425.7 (82.8) N (41.0% [6.2%] maximum voluntary contraction) andW′ was 30,882 (11,820) N·s. Good agreement was found between the single-session and multisession protocol for CF (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC3,1] = .900; 95% confidence interval, .616–.979), but not forW′ (ICC3,1 = .768; 95% confidence interval, .190–.949).Conclusions:The results demonstrated the sensitivity of a simple test for the determination of CF andW′, using equipment readily available in most climbing gyms. Although further work is still necessary, the test of CF described is of value for understanding exercise tolerance and to determine optimal training prescription to monitor improvements in the performance of the finger flexors.

[Current state of the scientific literature on effects of therapeutic climbing on mental health - conclusion: a lot to do]

BACKGROUND

Therapeutic Climbing is applied in physiological as well as in psychological rehabilitation programs. Systematic reviews have been conducted, evaluating the physiological effects of therapeutic climbing. The aim of the following article is a review on existing literature about the psychological effects of climbing therapy.

METHODS

We searched the databases of PubMed, Scholar and ScienceDirect up to December 2017 in German and English language. Trials were included if they assessed psychological variables in climbing interventions.

RESULTS

Seven articles were included in the following review. Effectiveness of climbing therapy was studied in a) adult inpatients with mental disorders (n = 3), b) adult outpatients with mental disorders (n = 1), c) children with motoric deficits and disabilities (n = 2), d) healthy adults (n = 1). All trials had major methodological limitations. Control groups if present, were defined differently. Three trials assessed self-efficacy and revealed enhanced self-efficacy after the climbing intervention. No psychological differences were seen between aerobic exercise and climbing therapy in healthy adults. Acute positive affective changes were seen in in-patients with major depressive disorders after a climbing session compared to a relaxation session.

CONCLUSION

The effectiveness of climbing therapy on psychological outcomes remains unclear. Limited evidence with varying age groups (children and adults) and a high risk of bias shows enhanced self-efficacy through climbing therapy. There is a need for further studies in children and adults on psychological outcomes through climbing therapy, especially in comparison with aerobic activity interventions.