Acute effects of outdoor and indoor walking on cigarette cravings, withdrawal symptoms and affective response during temporary smoking abstinence

RATIONALE

Cigarette smoking is one of the leading preventable causes of premature death worldwide. There is evidence in the literature that brief exercise units indoors can improve well-being in temporarily abstinent smokers and reduce cigarette cravings and withdrawal symptoms.

OBJECTIVE

Because exercise in natural environments showed enhanced psychological effects, the aim of our study was to examine the acute effects of outdoor exercise compared with indoor exercise on craving, withdrawal symptoms and affective response in temporarily abstinent smokers.

METHODS

In a randomized controlled within-subject-design, temporarily abstinent smokers (N = 16) participated in three interventions lasting 10 min: outdoor walking (OUT-EX), indoor walking (IN-EX) and a sedentary control condition (CC). Self-reported cigarette craving, withdrawal symptoms and affective response were assessed pre-, mid-, post-interventions and at follow-up.

RESULTS

In contrast to CC, OUT-EX and IN-EX significantly reduced cigarette cravings during and at the end of the intervention compared to pre-intervention, but not at 20 min follow-up. Cigarette withdrawal symptoms decreased significantly over time in all three groups, but no significant group differences were found. OUT-EX and IN-EX, but not CC, showed significantly improved affective valence at the end of the intervention and at follow-ups. Outdoor walking resulted in significantly lower cigarette cravings than indoor walking at the end of the intervention.

CONCLUSION

The study adds to existing evidence that short bouts of indoor or outdoor exercise can help reduce cigarette cravings and increase well-being in abstinent smokers. Further studies are needed to address the potential additional effect of outdoor exercise on craving, affective states and smoking cessation.

Validity, reliability, and invariance across sex of a German version of the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire

Objective

Since there is no scientifically validated German version of the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ-3), the aim of this study was to assess its psychometric parameters and invariance across sex in a sample of German-speaking young adults. The BREQ-3 is an instrument measuring the social and internal influences of motivation toward exercising. This tool is widespread within the scientific community and has been validated in several languages.

Methods

A total of 271 participants (45% women; mean age = 20.67 ± 2.17 years; effect size ≥ 0.5) filled in the BREQ-3 at one time point, with a small sub-sample (n = 37) responding it a second time after 15 days. Confirmatory Factorial Analysis, Structural Modeling, and Intraclass Correlation Coefficient were used to examine the German version of the questionnaire.

Results

Results highlighted a good fit of the six-dimensional model after the removal of two items (CFI = 0.912; SRMR = 0.0594; RMSEA = 0.064), as well as full invariance across sex (pχ2 = 0.218; ΔCFI < 0.01). Internal consistency and reliability were moderate to good.

Conclusions

The 22-item German BREQ-3 is a scientifically valid instrument that can be used in cross-national studies dealing with social aspects of exercise behaviors.

Hypoxia Sensing and Responses in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is associated with various deficits in sensing and responding to reductions in oxygen availability (hypoxia). Here we summarize the evidence pointing to a central role of hypoxia in PD, discuss the relation of hypoxia and oxygen dependence with pathological hallmarks of PD, including mitochondrial dysfunction, dopaminergic vulnerability, and alpha-synuclein-related pathology, and highlight the link with cellular and systemic oxygen sensing. We describe cases suggesting that hypoxia may trigger Parkinsonian symptoms but also emphasize that the endogenous systems that protect from hypoxia can be harnessed to protect from PD. Finally, we provide examples of preclinical and clinical research substantiating this potential.

Examining acute environmental effects on affective state, expectancy, and intention in sport climbing

Introduction

Psychological research has shown that, among other variables, affective state, expectancy, and behavioral intention influence whether or not a (physically active) behavior is performed. Environmental effects during physical activity on affective state have been well studied; however, research regarding environmental effects on expectancy or intention is limited. Sport climbing is a form of physical activity that is performed both indoors and outdoors and is therefore considered as suitable to study environmental effects. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate environmental effects during sport climbing on affective state, expectancy, and intention. The nature of the relationship between some of these parameters should also be explored.

Methods

Using a within-subjects design, 48 participants were to climb both once indoors in a climbing gym and once outdoors at a crag. The design included questionnaire-based surveys at multiple time points. Affective state, expectancy, and behavioral intention were measured at different test time points.

Results

Two-factor repeated-measures ANOVAs revealed significant main effects of the factors environment (indoor - outdoor) and time (T1 - T2 - T3) for affective state, indicating more positive affective state during outdoor climbing. No environment*time interactions were found. Furthermore, significantly higher intention (d = 0.32; p = 0.032) was measured after the outdoor condition (M = 32.5, SD = 4.1) compared to the indoor condition (M = 31.2, SD = 4.7). Multiple linear regressions revealed that expectancies (measured before and after the session) significantly predicted post-climbing intention only indoors.

Conclusion

The results at least partly suggest environmental effects on behaviorally relevant variables during climbing. Outdoor climbing might provide more favorable characteristics for physically active behavior compared to indoor climbing. Health psychologists or public health professionals who focus on increasing physical activity for their clients could recommend outdoor climbing over indoor climbing.

Risk Factors for Accidents and Close Calls in Junior Freeriders, Adolescent Alpine Skiers and Adult Freeriders-A Comparison

Understanding factors associated with risk-taking behavior, accidents and close calls could enhance prevention strategies and thus contribute to preventing serious injury or death in the long term. The following study aims to assess these factors in junior freeride athletes in comparison with competitive alpine skiers of similar age and adult freeriders. A cross-sectional questionnaire design was used to assess risk-related variables and potential associated factors. Accident and close call involvement did not significantly differ between the groups (p > 0.080). No significant relationships between gender and risk-related variables were found (|r| < 0.26). Precautionary behavior was higher in freeride adults and freeride juniors compared to alpine skiers (p < 0.001) and deliberate risk-taking was lower in freeride adults compared to junior freeriders and alpine skiers (p < 0.001). Regression analyses revealed that the association between self-objectification and accidents was stronger in freeride juniors compared to alpine skiers of similar age and freeride adults (p < 0.049). Although accidents and close calls were similar between groups, age seems to be an associated variable to deliberate risk-taking and precautionary behavior. The relationship between accidents and self-objectification in freeride juniors implicates a need for risk education in freeriders in the sensitive phase of adolescence beyond the mere presentation of environmental dangers.

Climbing as an Add-On Treatment Option for Patients with Severe Anxiety Disorders and PTSD: Feasibility Analysis and First Results of a Randomized Controlled Longitudinal Clinical Pilot Trial

BACKGROUND

Exercise has considerable effects on physical and psychological health. Anxiolytic effects of climbing exercise have been found in people suffering from depression. However, there are no studies on patients with severe anxiety disorders or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) practicing climbing as add-on treatment. Additionally, many studies on physical therapy fail to use adequate active control groups. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the feasibility of a four-week climbing exercise program for patients with anxiety disorders or PTSD in comparison to a standard exercise treatment and a social control group.

METHODS

Outpatients diagnosed with anxiety disorders or PTSD (F 40, F 41, F 43.1 according to ICD-10) were randomly assigned to (a) climbing exercise (n = 27), (b) Nordic walking exercise (n = 23), or (c) control condition (n = 23) providing the same amount of social contact for eight sessions of 90 minutes each. Psychological parameters (symptom severity, worry symptoms, self-efficacy, quality of life) and biological parameters were assessed at the beginning and at the end of the four-week program. Additionally, follow-up assessments were conducted three and six months after the program ended.

RESULTS

Sixty outpatients (75% female) aged 18-65 years with a longstanding history of a mental disorder (>10 years) and classified as treatment-resistant (95%) and with averaging 3.8 psychiatric comorbidities completed the pilot trial. After participation, symptoms of anxiety disorders were significantly reduced (p = 0.003), and health-related characteristics significantly improved (depression symptoms: p < 0.001, worry symptoms: p < 0.001, self-efficacy: p < 0.001, quality of life-physical health: p = 0.002, quality of life-psychological health: p = 0.006) in all groups. The feasibility of conducting climbing exercises for the patient groups could be demonstrated, and a general acceptance in the groups was recorded. No significant time-by-group interactions were found. At the completion of the program, psychological parameters improved, while biological parameters remained the same in all three groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Participation in the climbing group as well as in Nordic walking and social contact groups demonstrated beneficial results in patients with anxiety disorders and PTSD with severe mental burden. Nevertheless, climbing did not show any additional clinically relevant benefits compared to Nordic walking or social contact. Studies with larger sample sizes and qualitative insights are needed to further evaluate the possible benefits of climbing in this population.

Better Together? Analyzing Experiences from Male and Female Students and Teachers from Single-Sex and Coeducational Physical Education Classes

Purpose: Since personal, environmental and behavioral factors influence students’ and teachers’ actions and experiences, the present study aimed to assess gender-related experiences of students and teachers from single-sex and coeducational physical education (PE) settings. Method: In total, 64 students (mean age: 13.8 ± 0.5 years) and 12 PE teachers from single-sex and coeducational PE settings from higher education schools (6th to 13th grade) in Germany and Austria were interviewed. Interviews were analyzed using a thematic content approach. Results: Students from coeducational PE settings described more gender-unrelated behavior and a higher variety of activities including various non-gender conforming activities. Male students from single-sex PE settings reported performing only gender conform and some gender-neutral activities. Teachers from coeducational settings stated that they purposefully formed mixed-gender groups to foster social processes. A lack of time and lack of knowledge were named by PE teachers as reasons for not addressing gender issues in PE by teachers. Conclusion: Performed activities and teachers’ behavior differed between PE settings, eventually influencing reported differences in terms of behavior and gender perception by students. Further studies should evaluate the influence of specific physical activity interventions on gender perceptions and students’ behavior in order to give practical recommendations for PE classes.

Intention to Engage in Mountain Sport During the Summer Season in Climate Change Affected Environments

Natural environments can make it easier to engage in regular physical activity, including mountain sport activities. However, global warming is expected to change natural environments, especially in mountainous regions with potential impacts on physical activity behavior. While there is some evidence of a reduced intention to engage in winter sport in climate change affected environments, little is known on the impact of climate change in mountain sports conducted in the summer season. Therefore, the present study aimed at comparing the effect of being exposed to a climate change affected scenario (CCA) to being exposed to a climate change unaffected scenario (CCU) on the intention to engage in summer mountain sport activities. Furthermore, we aimed to analyze the role of anticipated affective responses in the context of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). Using a web-based experimental cross-sectional study design, participants were randomly allocated to scenarios of either CCA or CCU pictures. Participants were asked to complete questions about TPB variables and about affective responses referring to the displayed scenarios. Statistical analyses included tests on group differences and hierarchical linear regression analyses. TPB variables (intention to engage in summer mountain sport, attitude, and perceived behavioral control) did not show significant group differences between CCA (n = 155) and CCU (n = 156), p > 0.131; r < −0.10. Significantly lower anticipated affective valence was found in CCA compared to CCU, p < 0.001, r = −0.43. Affective valence did not significantly improve the TPB model, change in R² = 0.7%, p = 0.096. However, a higher affective valence was significantly associated with a higher attitude toward summer mountain sport, beta = 0.19, p < 0.001. Intention to engage in summer mountain sport was similar in the groups. Therefore, an immediate reduced engagement in mountain sport activities due to climate change seems unlikely in the summer season, although differentiated findings across various activities of summer mountain sport cannot be excluded. A reduced affective valence during summer mountain sport activities might occur in the presence of signs of climate change in the environment, which may lead to longer-term behavior changes in climate change affected scenarios also in the summer by repeated experiences of reduced valence.

Effects of a Two-Step Cognitive and Relaxation Training Program in Care Home Residents with Mild Cognitive Impairment

The aim of the present study was to assess the impact of a relaxation training program (RT), a cognitive training program (CT), and the combination of both on changes in cognitive status, emotional status, and experience of pain in older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Fifty care home residents underwent either RT (26 participants) or CT (24 participants) in the first training period, followed by the combined relaxation and cognitive training program in the second. Psychological tests on cognitive performance, mood disturbance/well-being, depression, and experience of pain were implemented at three time points of measurement, before (t1), after (t2) the first training period, and after the second training period (t3). Both RT and CT with the subsequent combined training program in the second training period, respectively, increased cognitive performance and well-being, and reduced mood disturbance, depression, and the experience of pain. The study showed the non-inferiority of RT in respect of cognitive and emotional status in care home residents with MCI compared to the more frequently implemented CT. Both training programs are high in acceptability and positive outcomes on cognitive, emotional, and pain status support the use of a combination of RT and CT.

The interplay of hypoxic and mental stress: Implications for anxiety and depressive disorders

Adequate oxygen supply is essential for the human brain to meet its high energy demands. Therefore, elaborate molecular and systemic mechanism are in place to enable adaptation to low oxygen availability. Anxiety and depressive disorders are characterized by alterations in brain oxygen metabolism and of its components, such as mitochondria or hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-pathways. Conversely, sensitivity and tolerance to hypoxia may depend on parameters of mental stress and the severity of anxiety and depressive disorders. Here we discuss relevant mechanisms of adaptations to hypoxia, as well as their involvement in mental stress and the etiopathogenesis of anxiety and depressive disorders. We suggest that mechanisms of adaptations to hypoxia (including metabolic responses, inflammation, and the activation of chemosensitive brain regions) modulate and are modulated by stress-related pathways and associated psychiatric diseases. While severe chronic hypoxia or dysfunctional hypoxia adaptations can contribute to the pathogenesis of anxiety and depressive disorders, harnessing controlled responses to hypoxia to increase cellular and psychological resilience emerges as a novel treatment strategy for these diseases.

Physical Activity Behavior During and After COVID-19 Stay-at-Home Orders-A Longitudinal Study in the Austrian, German, and Italian Alps

Background

In Alpine regions, which are very similar due to their topographical location and their wide-ranging sports offerings, the restrictions on sports activities during the COVID-19 pandemic differed in type and level: while in some regions (Tyrol, South Tyrol, Trentino), all sports activities were forbidden except for walking near the home, in other regions (Upper Bavaria, Vorarlberg), people were allowed to go hiking and running during the first lockdown.

Objective

The aim of this study was to investigate the change in physical activity (PA) behavior in different Alpine regions (Upper Bavaria, Vorarlberg, Tyrol, South Tyrol, Trentino) over four periods in 2020, to examine the effects of COVID-19 measures of varying severity on PA behavior and to identify factors associated with a change in PA over time.

Methods

A retrospective online survey was conducted (N = 2975) from December 2020, to January 2021. Using the questionnaire of the Eurobarometer 472 study, PA behavior was measured over four periods: before COVID-19 (March), during the first lockdown (March and April), during the relaxed period (May-October) and during the second lockdown (November and December) in 2020.

Results

During the first (M = 5.0h, SD = 4.5) and the second lockdowns (M = 4.9h, SD = 4.3), the participants (age: 42 years, overly active in sports) engaged less in sports than before (M = 5.9h, SD = 4.8) and during the relaxed period in summer (M = 6.4h, SD = 5.0) (average number of hours per week being physically active). A larger percentage of participants from Alpine regions with severe restrictions (Tyrol, South Tyrol, Trentino) decreased their PA during the first lockdown as compared to participants from Upper Bavaria and Vorarlberg with a less strict first lockdown. Those with psychological distress, male participants, and individuals with decreased physical health and less free time during COVID-19 were more likely to reduce their PA.

Conclusions

Despite a short-term negative effect of COVID-19 restrictions on exercise participation during lockdowns, the majority of respondents returned to their original levels of PA during the relaxed COVID-19 phases. As a comparison of Alpine regions shows, particularly severe COVID-19 measures seem to have reduced PA with potential negative health effects. For the future, policy makers and sports organizations should collaborate to support the population in their PA behavior during pandemics to outweigh restrictions.

Add-on exercise interventions for smoking cessation in people with mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Smoking is the most common substance use disorder among people with mental illness. In contrast to people without mental illness, among whom the proportion of smokers has declined in recent decades, the proportion of smokers among people with mental illness remains high. There is a growing body of literature suggesting the use of exercise interventions in combination with smoking cessation in people without mental illness, but to our knowledge the available studies on this treatment option in people with mental illness have not been systematically reviewed. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis aims to assess the effectiveness of exercise interventions as an adjunctive treatment for smoking cessation in people with mental illness.

METHODS

Electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, PsycInfo, Sport Discus and Base) were searched for randomised controlled trials and prospective single-group studies that investigated exercise interventions in combination with smoking cessation programmes alone or in comparison with a control group in people with mental illness. A meta-analysis using the Mantel-Haenszel fixed-effect model was conducted to estimate the overall effect of treatment on smoking cessation (abstinence rate at the end of the intervention and at 6-month follow-up).

RESULTS

Six studies, five randomised controlled trials and one study with a prospective single-group design, were included in the systematic review and four randomised controlled trials were included in the meta-analysis. The meta-analysis found a significantly higher abstinence rate after additional exercise at the end of the intervention [risk ratio (RR) 1.48, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.13-1.94], but not at the 6-month follow-up (RR 1.34, 95% CI 0.89-2.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Exercise appears to be an effective adjunctive therapy to temporarily increase abstinence rates in individuals with mental illness at the end of the intervention. However, due to the small number of included studies and some risk of bias in the included studies, the results should be treated with caution. Therefore, future studies with larger samples are needed to provide a more accurate estimate of the effect in people with mental illness. Registration The systematic review and meta-analysis were registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) (registration number: CRD42020178630).

Update about Oralair® as a treatment for grass pollen allergic rhinitis

Sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) is a well-tolerated, safe, and effective approach to treating allergic rhinitis (AR). Oralair® is a five-grass pollen SLIT tablet containing natural pollen allergens from five of the major grass species responsible for seasonal AR due to grass pollen allergy. Recommended use is in a pre-coseasonal regimen, starting daily treatment approximately 4 months before the start of the pollen season, with treatment then continued daily throughout the season; treatment should continue for 3–5 y. Clinical efficacy and safety of Oralair® in patients with grass pollen-induced AR has been demonstrated in a comprehensive clinical development program of randomized controlled trials. Effectiveness has been substantiated in subsequent observational studies with sustained efficacy following treatment cessation and a favorable level of adherence, quality of life, benefit, and satisfaction for the patients. Supportive evidence for a benefit in reducing the risk or delaying the development of allergic asthma is emerging.

A Comparison of Acute Effects of Climbing Therapy with Nordic Walking for Inpatient Adults with Mental Health Disorder: A Clinical Pilot Trial

As climbing therapy is increasingly used for mental health disorders, the present study aimed to compare acute effects of a therapeutic climbing intervention (CT) on affective responses, anxiety, and self-efficacy with those of Nordic walking (NW) and a sedentary control condition (SC) in an inpatient setting with persons with depression, anxiety, or obsessive−compulsive disorders. A total of 21 inpatients (32 ± 12.2 years) participated in a clinical trial in all interventions using an experimental within-subject design. Anxiety and self-efficacy were assessed preintervention (t0) and postintervention (t2) using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and the General Self-Efficacy Scale, and affective responses were additionally evaluated during (t1) and 180 min after the intervention (t3) using the Feeling Scale, Felt Arousal Scale, and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. Statistical evaluation was performed with a 3 × 2 or 3 × 4 repeated measures ANOVA. Significant interaction effects were found for affective responses regarding positive affect, affective valence, and perceived activation (p < 0.015) favoring CT over NW and SC. For anxiety, a significant interaction effect was found (F(2.40) = 6.603; p = 0.003; η2 = 0.248), and also perceived self-efficacy increased significantly (F(2.40) = 6.046; p = 0.005; η2 = 0.232). Single CT sessions may enhance affective responses and self-efficacy and reduce anxiety in inpatients with mental health disorders to a higher extent than NW. CT as part of an inpatient therapy program may help to improve key affective mechanisms and should be further studied in comparison with other exercise interventions with comparable intensity.

Affective Responses to Both Climbing and Nordic Walking Exercise Are Associated With Intermediate-Term Increases in Physical Activity in Patients With Anxiety and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder - A Randomized Longitudinal Controlled Clinical Pilot Trial

BACKGROUND

Exercise programs have shown anxiolytic effects in psychiatric patients. Adherence to exercise programs and subsequent long-term lifestyle change is influenced by acute affective responses of the exercise programs. This research aimed to assess acute affective responses of two different exercise modalities compared to a non-exercise control program and its effects on persisting physical activity behavior change.

METHODS

Sixty-six outpatients diagnosed with an anxiety disorder or posttraumatic stress disorder were randomly allocated to one of three groups in a randomized longitudinal controlled clinical pilot trial: climbing (n = 26), nordic walking (n = 19), social contact control (n = 21). Affective responses were assessed pre, during, and post activity. General physical activity behavior was recorded prior to participation in the program, post program, and at follow-ups three and six months after the program.

RESULTS

Multilevel modeling analyzes of 1,066 individual data points revealed increases in affective valence in the exercise sessions compared to the social contact sessions. State anxiety decreased in the climbing group compared to the social contact group. Physical activity behavior was increased immediately following the program as well as at six months follow-up in both exercise groups. A larger increase in affective valence during and after the sessions was associated with higher physical activity post program.

CONCLUSIONS

Climbing and conventional nordic walking exercise sessions revealed positive affective changes in outpatients indicating therapeutic potential of both modalities for acute emotion regulation. In accordance with theoretical models of human behavior change, it was judged that the experience of a more pleasant affective state following the exercise sessions induced more persisting effects on physical activity behavior after the exercise programs.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03758599, identifier: NCT03758599.

A case-control study on physical activity preferences, motives, and barriers in patients with psychiatric conditions

BACKGROUND

Physical activity in individuals diagnosed with psychiatric conditions (patients) has antidepressant and anxiolytic effects, but levels of physical activity are still low in this population. This study aimed to identify physical activity preferences, motives, and perceived barriers in patients compared to individuals without a diagnosed psychiatric condition (controls).

METHODS

A total of 230 patients (age = 39.5 ± 14.0 years, 80% female) with major depression (34%), anxiety disorders (38%), or post-traumatic stress disorder (28%) completed a cross-sectional online survey to assess preferences, motives, and perceived barriers to physical activity (measured by the EMI-2). This group consisted of 100 patients with a clinical diagnosis (clinical subset) and 130 with self-reported psychiatric conditions (confirmed by the PHQ-4) from online help forums (online subset). Comparisons between patients of the clinical and the online subsets were performed and are referenced whenever significant. The patients group was compared to a healthy control group matched by sex and age (n = 230, age = 39.4 ± 14.9 years, 80% female).

RESULTS

More patients reported insufficient physical activity levels and more daily sitting hours (measured by the IPAQ) compared to controls. Patients reported lower preference in more ambitious types of physical activity, such as hiking, cycling, and running. The commonly most preferred type of physical activity in both groups was walking and yoga. Patients had fewer motives and more perceived barriers to physical activity in comparison to the control group. Some differences in motives and perceived barriers to physical activity were also found between patients of the clinical and the online subset.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings of low physical activity levels in patients are consistent with the literature. Due to the patients' lack of motivation and perception of barriers, health care providers should consider offering different and individualized forms of physical activity. Easier types of physical activity, such as walking and yoga, appear to be the most feasible and provide a good starting point to overcome perceived barriers to physical activity.

Aiming at Optimal Physical Activity for Longevity (OPAL)

Although even small volumes (15–20 min) of daily physical activity (PA) are associated with health benefits, the optimal volume for healthy aging and longevity is substantially larger, amounting to about 100 min of daily moderate PA. The accomplishment of this objective likely requires the development of an appropriate PA lifestyle at an early age. Research initiatives are necessary addressing the motivational contribution of families, school surroundings and sport clubs, perhaps combined with role model effects and instructions for the specific implementation. Such approaches would need an enlarged agreement in readdressing this new aim followed by the launch of a new research strategy in order to develop specific offers for the respective age cohorts.

Expert Views on Therapeutic Climbing-A Multi-Perspective, Qualitative Study

Therapeutic climbing (TC) is regularly used as an add-on treatment option for a variety of disorders. However, evidence on the assessment of professionals deciding on the treatment options or assessing the appropriateness of treatment options is lacking. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to assess the potential of TC as an exercise intervention from different expert perspectives. The study was designed as a qualitative, problem-centered interview experiment to assess the perspectives of pedagogues, physicians, and psychologists on exercise therapy in general and the potential of TC. The sample consisted of 30 experts (10 pedagogues, 10 physicians, and 10 psychologists) with different levels of experience in TC (ᴓage: 41.7 years, ♀ = 43%). Overall, the potential of TC as an add-on treatment option for various disorders was rated by the respondents as positive and useful. The interviewed experts believed that TC can have a decisive effect on the social, psychological, and physiological domain as a sensibly used add-on therapy. However, considering the reported potential adverse effects and the costs connected with TC, it should not be considered as a panacea. Although research in this area is still much in its infancy, the positive perspective of the professional representatives surveyed could facilitate access to TC for patients and may foster more research in this field.

Acute Effects of a Single Bout of Walking on Affective Responses in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder

Exercise programs are considered an effective (add-on) treatment option for depressive disorders. However, little is known about the acute effects of exercise on affective responses in in-patient settings. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to compare the effects of a single 30-min bout of walking on affective responses to a passive control condition in patients with major depressive disorder during treatment in a mental health center. In total, 23 in-patients were exposed to two conditions (duration: 30 min) using a within-subject design: an exercise (light-moderate walking outdoors) and a passive control condition (sitting and reading). Affective responses were assessed based on the Circumplex Model in four phases: pre, during, post, and two hours following the conditions. The main results include a significantly larger pre-post increase in energetic arousal in the exercise condition compared to the control condition, p = 0.012, η_p² = 0.25, but no significantly different pre-follow-up change between conditions, p = 0.093, η_p² = 0.12. Negatively valenced affective responses showed significantly stronger pre-post decreases after the exercise condition compared to the passive control condition, p < 0.036, η_p² > 0.18. Positively valenced affective response activity showed a pre-post increase in the exercise condition and a pre-post decrease in the passive control condition, p = 0.017, η_p² = 0.23. The higher-activated, positively valenced immediate response of light- to moderate-intensity walking may serve as an acute emotion regulation in patients with major depressive disorder and provide a favorable state for adherence to exercise programs.

Structured Digital Self-Assessment of Patient Anamnesis Prior to Computed Tomography: Performance Evaluation and Added Value

The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of a tablet-based, digitized structured self-assessment (DSSA) of patient anamnesis (PA) prior to computed tomography (CT). Of the 317 patients consecutively referred for CT, the majority (n = 294) was able to complete the tablet-based questionnaire, which consisted of 67 items covering social anamnesis, lifestyle factors (e.g., tobacco abuse), medical history (e.g., kidney diseases), current symptoms, and the usability of the system. Patients were able to mark unclear questions for a subsequent discussion with the radiologist. Critical issues for the CT examination were structured and automatically highlighted as “red flags” (RFs) in order to improve patient interaction. RFs and marked questions were highly prevalent (69.5% and 26%). Missing creatinine values (33.3%), kidney diseases (14.4%), thyroid diseases (10.6%), metformin (5.5%), claustrophobia (4.1%), allergic reactions to contrast agents (2.4%), and pathological TSH values (2.0%) were highlighted most frequently as RFs. Patient feedback regarding the comprehensibility of the questionnaire and the tablet usability was mainly positive (90.9%; 86.2%). With advanced age, however, patients provided more negative feedback for both (p = 0.007; p = 0.039). The time effort was less than 20 min for 85.1% of patients, and faster patients were significantly younger (p = 0.046). Overall, the DSSA of PA prior to CT shows a high success rate and is well accepted by most patients. RFs and marked questions were common and helped to focus patients’ interactions and reporting towards decisive aspects.

Intention to Engage in Winter Sport in Climate Change Affected Environments

Exercise, including winter sport activities, shows positive effects on physical and mental health, with additional benefits when participating in natural environments. Winter sport activities are particularly vulnerable to climate change, since global warming will decrease the duration and amount of snow. In the context of climate change in alpine environments, little is known on the determinants of winter sport behavior. Thus, the following study primarily aimed at comparing the effect of being exposed to a climate change affected scenario (CCA) or to a climate change unaffected scenario (CCU) on the intention to engage in recreational winter sport activities. Secondly, we aimed to analyze the role of anticipated affective responses during exercising based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). An experimental cross-sectional web-based study design was used. Participants were randomly allocated to pictures of either CCA or CCU. TPB variables and affective responses with regard to the displayed scenarios were assessed. Statistical analyses included Mann-Whitney-U Tests, linear regression, and mediation analyses. Significant group differences were seen in all TPB variables, p < 0.038; −0.13 < r < −0.30, as well as in affective responses, p < 0.001; −0.24 < r < −0.85. Lower intention to engage in winter sport activities and lower anticipated affective valence during exercising was found in CCA compared to CCU. Attitude toward winter sport was significantly positively associated with intention to engage in winter sport, beta = 0.66, p < 0.001. The effect of group allocation on attitude was mediated by anticipated affective valence, indirect effect = 0.37, p < 0.001. Intention to engage in recreational winter sport activities was lower in participants exposed to the climate change affected winter sport scenario. Since affective valence seems to influence attitude and consequently intention to exercise, the role of non-cognitive variables with regard to climate change related exposure should be considered in future studies. Therefore, winter sport resorts may consider altered winter sport behaviors due to the consequences of climate change as well as the importance of providing an optimal framework to enhance affective valence of their guests in order to mitigate potential changes in winter sports behavior.

Psychological Variables Related to Developmental Changes during Adolescence-A Comparison between Alpine and Non-Alpine Sport Participants

Alpine sport is a popular form of exercise and provides several skills that are potentially relevant for positive development during adolescence. However, empirical data on differences between alpine and non-alpine sport participants in variables related to developmental changes are lacking. Therefore, the primary aim of the present study was to analyze differences in self-esteem and additional variables between adolescent alpine and non-alpine sport participants. A comparison to non-regular exercisers was conducted for self-esteem. In a cross-sectional design, information on self-esteem, sensation seeking, agency, and emotion regulation was collected in 183 adolescents [(mean age: 15.4 (SD: 2.3) years, 71.0% female)]. Alpine sport participants reported significantly higher self-esteem compared to non-regular exercisers, p = 0.003, d = 0.95, but not compared to non-alpine sport participants, p = 0.774, d = 0.06. When controlling for sex and high-risk sport engagement, alpine sport participants showed a significantly higher experience of agency compared to non-alpine sport participants, p = 0.016, d = 0.46. We conclude that alpine sport participation is less relevant with regard to self-esteem compared to regular exercise. However, the characteristics of alpine sport might provide a trigger for higher experience of agency during sport participation, potentially helping to satisfy the increased need for autonomy and independence in adolescence.

Affective responses to climbing exercises in children and adolescents during in-patient treatment for mental health disorders a pilot study on acute effects of different exercise interventions

The aim of the present study was to compare acute effects of a climbing intervention (CI) on affective responses with a different exercise intervention (swimming, SI) and an occupational therapy intervention (OTI) in children and adolescents during in-patient treatment for mental health disorders. The following study was designed as a cross-over study. Participants completed three single 60 min interventions of CI, SI and OTI. Affective responses were assessed pre and post intervention and at 20 and 40 min during intervention. The sample consisted of 33 children and adolescents in mental-health inpatient care (ᴓage: 13.3 ± 2.2 years, ♀=39.4%). A significant time effect was seen in all interventions in increasing positive and reducing negative affect, p<.028, eta²>0.144. Repeated measures ANOVAs revealed a significant time by intervention effect for affective valence (p=.011, eta²=0.09), but not for perceived activation, favouring CI over SI and OCT between pre-test and the first 20 or 40 min, respectively. All interventions showed similar effects on affective responses pre to post interventions. CI seems to increase affective valence more strongly during intervention compared to SI and OTI. The present results may have implications for therapy adherence and acute emotion regulation in children and adolescent in-patients with mental health disorders.

COVID-19 stay-at-home order in Tyrol, Austria: sports and exercise behaviour in change?

Objectives

The aim of the study was to investigate differences in the frequency and types of engagement in sports before, during and after the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) stay-at-home order in Tyrol, Austria.

Study design

A representative population survey was conducted.

Methods

A sample of Tyroleans (N = 511) was questioned by a market research institute via an online questionnaire or telephone survey.

Results

During the stay-at-home order, participants engaged less in sports than before and after the restrictions. However, within-group analyses revealed increasing sport participation in less active groups when comparing the pre- and post-COVID-19 period.

Conclusions

Despite the restrictions during the stay-at-home order, respondents did engage in sports and promoted their health. Nevertheless, it is still necessary to investigate the long-term effects of the COVID-19 crisis on sports and exercise behaviour as well as the extent to which sports policy measures may be able increase sports participation.

•

In general, participants engaged less in sports during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) stay-at-home order.

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Within-group analyses showed increased sports participation in less active groups.

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Respondents adhered to the outdoor sports ban and did home training instead.

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Appropriateness of regulations implemented in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic was measured.

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Crises such as COVID-19 might have a long-term impact on sports participation.

Acute Effects of a Short Bout of Physical Activity on Cognitive Function in Sport Students

Physical activity is a promising intervention to restore cognitive function after prolonged sedentary periods. However, little is known about the effect of short physical activity bouts on cognition especially among individuals that are used to physical activity. Therefore, the goal of the present study was to assess the impact of a single ten-minute physical activity bout on the cognitive domain of visual attention compared to sedentary behavior in a population of physically active sport students. Using a randomized controlled design, 51 healthy and physically active sport students [mean age: 22.3 (SD: 2.0) years, 33.3% female] were allocated to one of the following interventions in the break of a two-hour study course: physical activity group (running for ten minutes) and sedentary control group. Visual attention was measured post-intervention using a modified trail making test. Pre-, post-, and 30 min after intervention, perceived attention, and affective states were measured. Between-group comparisons were used to analyze whether visual attention and/or changes in perceived attention or affective states differed between groups. The physical activity group showed significantly higher visual attention post-intervention compared with the sedentary control group, p = 0.003, d = 0.89. Perceived attention, p = 0.006, d = 0.87, and arousal, p < 0.001, d = 1.68, showed a significantly larger pre- and post-intervention increase in the physical activity group compared with the sedentary control group, which was not evident 30 min after intervention. A single ten-minute running intervention in study breaks might help to restore the basal visual attentional domain of cognition after prolonged sedentary periods more effectively compared with common sedentary behavior in breaks between study lessons.

Does Age Matter? A Qualitative Comparison of Motives and Aspects of Risk in Adolescent and Adult Freeriders

Recent research has shown multiple motives for high-risk sport participation derived from research on adult participants. The aim of this study was to provide insights into motives and risk-related aspects in adolescent high-risk sport participants and to compare those findings with adults performing the same activity. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 24 adolescent (14-20 years) freeriders (skiers/snowboarders who ski outside the protected areas of a ski resort) and 24 adult freeriders (26-41 years). A content analyses was done using MAXQDA software. Both cohorts reported the motives Challenge (adolescents: 92%, adults: 88%), Freedom/Pleasure (adolescents: 88%, adults: 75%), Friends (adolescents: 88%, adults: 79%) and Balance (adolescents: 63%, adults: 63%). However, the description of friends differed between adults and adolescents. Whereas adolescents mostly referred to a community and shared interests, adults described the importance of trust and the development of deep friendships through the activity more often. Nature was a major motive in adults (83%) but not in adolescents (29%). Most of the adults have already experienced a major accident or close call (n = 19; 79%), contrary to adolescents (n = 7; 29%). Adolescents learned about the risks in freeriding primarily through their families (n = 10) and the ski club (n = 9). Some adults reported to have realized the risks involved in freeriding after starting with the activity due to experienced negative outcomes. Both cohorts were largely motivated by the same motives. As the new generation of freeriders seems to receive more instructions about risk reduction, it might be interesting to see if this educational approach results into less accidents or close calls in this group.

Erfassung unmittelbarer affektiver Reaktionen auf körperliche Aktivität

Zusammenfassung. Affektive Reaktionen während körperlicher Aktivität haben in den letzten Jahren vermehrtes Forschungsinteresse erfahren. In englischsprachigen Forschungsarbeiten werden vielfach die zwei Single-Item-Verfahren „Feeling Scale“ ( Hardy & Rejeski, 1989 ) und „Felt Arousal Scale“ ( Svebak & Murgatroyd, 1985 ) zur Erhebung angewendet. Für den deutschsprachigen Raum liegen bisher keine validierten Übersetzungen dieser Verfahren vor. Daher wurden 82 Personen bei einer Fahrradergometrie deutsche Übersetzungen der FS und FAS vorgelegt. Zur Prüfung der Validität wurde parallel das „Self-Assessment Manikin“-Verfahren ( Bradley & Lang, 1994 ) eingesetzt und individuelle Variationen auf Between- und Within-Person Ebene analysiert. Die Korrelationen zwischen FS und SAM Dimension Valenz ( r = .72 bis .73) sowie zwischen FAS und SAM Dimension Aktivierung ( r = .50 bis .62) waren mit den englischsprachigen Validierungsstudien vergleichbar. Auf Basis dieses Beitrags können die Möglichkeiten für die Erhebung von affektiven Reaktionen im deutschen Sprachraum erweitert werden, wobei Validierungen in weiteren Personengruppen empfehlenswert sind.

[German Language Version and Validation of the Risk-Taking Behaviour Scale (RBS-K) for High-Risk Sports]

BACKGROUND

 High-risk sports, particularly climbing, kayaking and extreme skiing, have become increasingly popular. The most widely used psychological survey instrument with regard to risk behaviour in sports is the Sensation Seeking Model, mostly assessed by the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS-V). Until recently, the literature discussed risk behaviour solely through this model. However, this scale does not measure risk-taking behaviours. In contrast, the Risk-Taking Behaviour Scale (RBS-K) is a three-item scale that measures risk behaviour in high-risk sports. This study aimed to validate a German language version of the RBS-K.

METHODS

 The RBS-K was translated and back-translated between English and German. High-risk sports participants (n = 2399) completed the German version of the RBS-K. Of those participants, 820 completed the RBS-K in person as part of a field survey and 1579 participated in an online survey. To validate the questionnaire, the SSS-V, accident involvement, age and sex were evaluated. The RBS-K divides the sample into deliberate risk takers (mean + standard deviation) and risk-averse persons (mean - standard deviation). We tested for internal consistency and correlations with SSS-V, age, sex and accident involvement. Group differences were calculated between deliberate risk takers and risk-averse persons.

RESULTS

 For internal consistency, we obtained a Cronbach's alpha of 0.56 and a McDonald's omega of 0.63. Significant correlations were shown between RBS-K and SSS-V as well as age and sex. Compared to risk-averse persons (n = 643, 26.8 %), deliberate risk takers (n = 319, 13.3 %) scored significantly higher in sensation seeking, were significantly younger and primarily male and had a significantly higher accident involvement.

CONCLUSION

 The RBS-K discriminates well for age, sex and accident involvement. Also, correlations between the RBS-K and the well-established SSS-V are acceptable. With regard to the results and its compact design, the scale seems to be well suited for field surveys. We discuss the relatively modest internal consistency in the context of the small number of items and the different dimensions of risk-taking.

Association between Club Sports Participation and Physical Fitness across 6- to 14-Year-Old Austrian Youth

Changes in social and built environments most likely contribute to a decline in physical activity (PA) and physical fitness in children and adolescents. Organized sports may be an important component in ensuring adequate fitness, which is an important aspect in general health and well-being. The present study examines differences by club sports participation in cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, power, speed, agility, flexibility and balance in 3293 (55.1% male) Austrian children and adolescents between 6 and 14 years of age. Anthropometric measurements (height and weight) were taken and participants completed the German motor test during regular class time. Even though there was no significant difference in body weight between club sports participants and non-club sports participants, club sports participation was associated with higher physical fitness, particularly regarding endurance, strength, power, and agility. Differences by club sports participation, however, declined during the elementary school years (6-10 years of age), while they became more pronounced during middle school years (10-14 years of age). Club sports participation, therefore, may be a viable option in the promotion of physical fitness, particularly during adolescence. At younger ages, other sources of PA, such as physical education and free play, however, should be considered to ensure sufficient fitness levels that contribute to a healthy and active lifestyle.

Carotid CTA at the Lowest Tube Voltage (70 kV) in Comparison with Automated Tube Voltage Adaption

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

CTA is the imaging modality of choice in many institutions for the evaluation of the supraaortic vessels, but radiation exposure remains a matter of concern. Our aim was to evaluate a 70-kV protocol for CT angiography of the carotid arteries with respect to image quality and radiation exposure compared with automated tube voltage adaption.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 90 consecutive patients were included in this prospective study and randomized to the study group (n = 45, 70 kV) or control group (n = 45, automated tube voltage adaptation). Volume CT dose indices and dose-length products were recorded in the examination protocol. Image quality was assessed as arterial vessel contrast, signal-to-noise ratio, contrast-to-noise ratio, and contrast-to-noise ratio in reference to the radiation dose. Subjective overall image-quality analysis, image-artifact analysis, and diagnostic evaluation were performed by 2 observers by using a 4-point Likert scale.

RESULTS

Radiation exposure was significantly lower in the study group (volume CT dose index reduced by 22%, dose-length product reduction by 20%; each P < .001). Contrast (P = .15), SNR (P = .4), and contrast-to-noise ratio (P = .5) did not show significant differences between the groups. The contrast-to-noise ratio in reference to the radiation dose was not significantly increased using the study protocol (P = .2). Subjective image quality and visualization of pathologic findings did not differ significantly between the groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Carotid CTA using the lowest available voltage (70 kV) is feasible at very-low-dose levels, while overall image quality is comparable with protocols using automated tube voltage selection.

Effects of Visual and Auditory Perturbations on Ski-Specific Balance among Males and Females-A Randomized Crossover Trial

Injuries in skiing show sex-specific differences, especially when visual perception is reduced. Reduced visual perception impairs balance, which plays an important role in avoiding skiing injuries. However, males and females might cope differently with reduced visual perception. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate sex-related effects of environmental perturbations (reduced visual perception and listening to music) on ski-specific balance. Using a crossover design, ski-specific balance was tested in 50 young adults (50% female) in four conditions: with and without listening to music and/or with and without reduced visual perception (ski goggles with occlusion foil). A four × two (condition by sex) mixed ANOVA revealed a significant condition by sex interaction, partial η² = 0.06. Females showed an increase in balance from the condition without music/with normal visual perception to the condition with music/with normal visual perception, while males showed a decrease. Balance was significantly higher in females compared to males, partial η² = 0.31. The findings suggest that balance is affected differently by environmental perturbations in females and males. However, the differences observed were not in line with our initial hypotheses, which might be because the model was too simplistic for how visual/auditory perturbations may affect balance.

[Current state of the scientific literature on effects of therapeutic climbing on mental health - conclusion: a lot to do]

BACKGROUND

Therapeutic Climbing is applied in physiological as well as in psychological rehabilitation programs. Systematic reviews have been conducted, evaluating the physiological effects of therapeutic climbing. The aim of the following article is a review on existing literature about the psychological effects of climbing therapy.

METHODS

We searched the databases of PubMed, Scholar and ScienceDirect up to December 2017 in German and English language. Trials were included if they assessed psychological variables in climbing interventions.

RESULTS

Seven articles were included in the following review. Effectiveness of climbing therapy was studied in a) adult inpatients with mental disorders (n = 3), b) adult outpatients with mental disorders (n = 1), c) children with motoric deficits and disabilities (n = 2), d) healthy adults (n = 1). All trials had major methodological limitations. Control groups if present, were defined differently. Three trials assessed self-efficacy and revealed enhanced self-efficacy after the climbing intervention. No psychological differences were seen between aerobic exercise and climbing therapy in healthy adults. Acute positive affective changes were seen in in-patients with major depressive disorders after a climbing session compared to a relaxation session.

CONCLUSION

The effectiveness of climbing therapy on psychological outcomes remains unclear. Limited evidence with varying age groups (children and adults) and a high risk of bias shows enhanced self-efficacy through climbing therapy. There is a need for further studies in children and adults on psychological outcomes through climbing therapy, especially in comparison with aerobic activity interventions.

Is the Effect of Physical Activity on Quality of Life in Older Adults Mediated by Social Support?

Increasing evidence suggests positive associations between physical activity, social support, and quality of life in later life. However, the role of physical activity and social support in the influence on quality of life is unclear. In this viewpoint, definitions of central terms and key research findings on factors influencing quality of life in older adults are provided. We highlight the importance of both a physically active lifestyle and high social support in positively influencing quality of life. However, we question the direct effect of physical activity on quality of life and present data of a cross-sectional study to support the assumption that the effect of physical activity on quality of life might be influenced by perceived social support. In this cross-sectional study, self-reported physical activity, social support, and quality of life were assessed in a nonclinical sample of 100 adults aged between 60 and 80 years. Statistical analyses included correlation analyses and covariate-controlled mediation analyses. The results confirmed the research findings on positive correlations between all domains of quality of life and both physical activity and social support. Mediation analyses indicated that the effect of physical activity on all domains of quality of life was at least partially mediated by social support, when controlled for covariates. Based on the findings of published evidence and this cross-sectional study, a socially and physically active lifestyle is recommended for older adults to positively influence quality of life. However, the well-documented effect of physical activity on quality of might be an at least partially mediated effect by perceived social support. Practical and research-related implications of a potential indirect effect are discussed. Further prospective research is warranted to clarify the relationship between the variables.

Potential Health Benefits From Downhill Skiing

Objectives: Downhill skiing represents one of the most popular winter sports worldwide. Whereas a plethora of studies dealt with the risk of injury and death associated with downhill skiing, data on its favorable health effects are scarce. A more comprehensive overview on such effects might emerge from a multidisciplinary perspective.

Methods: A literature search has been performed to identify original articles on downhill/alpine skiing interventions or questionnaire-based evaluation of skiing effects and the assessment of health effects (cardiorespiratory, neurophysiological, musculoskeletal, psycho-social).

Results and Discussion: A total of 21 original articles dealing with potentially favorable health effects resulting from downhill skiing were included in this review. Results indicate that downhill skiing, especially when performed on a regular basis, may contribute to healthy aging by its association with a healthier life style including higher levels of physical activity. Several other mechanisms suggest further favorable health effects of downhill skiing in response to specific challenges and adaptations in the musculo-skeletal and postural control systems, to exposures to cold temperatures and intermittent hypoxia, and/or emotional and social benefits from outdoor recreation. However, reliable data corroborating these mechanisms is scarce.

Freeriding-Only a need for thrill?: Comparing different motives and behavioural aspects between slope skiers and freeride skiers

OBJECTIVES

To compare professional freeride skiers (an experienced high-risk cohort) with recreational freeride skiers (a less experienced high risk cohort) and slope skiers (a low-risk sport cohort) in regard to their motives and their reported accident involvement.

DESIGN

Case-control study.

METHODS

In an online survey, skiers completed the German Sensation Seeking, Emotion Regulation and Agency Scale and the German Accident and Close Calls in Sport Inventory. Freeriders were further asked about their risk-management strategies and their use of safety equipment. For every professional freerider (total 31; 29% female) within the sample, two matched controls (age, gender) were allocated (slope skier and recreational freerider). Univariate analyses of variance (ANOVAs) and Chi-square differences were calculated.

RESULTS

Freeriders showed significantly higher sensation seeking scores than slope skiers. No differences were found in the experience of agency while participating; however freeriders experienced higher agency transfers after the activity than slope skiers. No further motivational disparities between recreational or professional freeriders were shown. Both freeride samples reported a significantly higher accident and close call involvement than slope skiers. Accident and close call involvement was not predicted by motives of participation.

CONCLUSIONS

Freeriding might provide beneficial transfer effects as shown through a higher agency transfer, for participants into aspects of everyday life. Nevertheless it should not be ignored that the potential behavioural gain of freeriding is at the cost of a higher risk which is underlined by the higher involvement in accidents and experienced close calls of freeriders compared to slope skiers.

Long-term effect of migration background on the development of physical fitness among primary school children

BACKGROUND

Children with a low socioeconomic status and migration background are more likely to exhibit unfavorable health behavior patterns and higher BMI scores as well as lower physical activity and physical fitness.

AIM

To evaluate the effect of migration background on the development of physical fitness among primary school children from first to third grade.

METHODS

In this longitudinal study, height, weight, and physical fitness of primary school children from Tyrol/Austria were measured five times over a period of 2.5 years using the German motor performance test DMT 6-18 consisting of eight items testing different subdomains of physical fitness.

RESULTS

A total of 266 children (45% girls) participated in all five tests, of which 69 (26%) children reported to have a migration background (MB). Mixed-model ANOVA did not reveal a significantly different development of physical fitness (according to the mean total Z-score of DMT 6-18) over time, P = 0.883, partial ƞ²  < 0.01. However, children with MB showed significantly lower physical fitness compared to children without MB, P < 0.001, partial ƞ²  = 0.06. Controlling for BMI and age did not alter the interpretation of the results. Analyses of the single test items revealed significant differences in motor tests involving strength and endurance.

CONCLUSION

Primary school children with and without MB significantly increased their physical fitness over time in a comparable manner. However, children with MB showed a significantly lower physical fitness at all test time points, which was only partly explained by a higher mean BMI in children with MB. Children with MB outreached the mean baseline fitness level of children without MB not until the fourth test time point, that is after two years. Therefore, a special focus on physical fitness particularly including strength and endurance capacities should be directed to children with MB already in young ages.

Alcohol Consumption and Physical Activity in Austrian College Students-A Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

The age of college students is considered as crucial for developing health-related behaviors, e.g., alcohol consumption or a physically active lifestyle. Previous research reported a positive relationship between alcohol consumption and physical activity (PA) in college students. However, the main body of research was done in students from the United States who might differ from European students.

OBJECTIVES

Thus the aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between alcohol consumption and PA in a sample of Austrian college students.

METHODS

In a cross-sectional design, 861 Austrian students from various study fields responded to a web-based questionnaire. Self-reported alcohol consumption, PA, and relevant sociodemographic variables were assessed. Multiple regression analyses were used to study the relationship between alcohol consumption and PA.

RESULTS

In none of the regression models, a significant relationship between alcohol consumption and PA was found. There was a significant influence of sex, age, relationship status, education level, and study field on alcohol consumption. Male, older, and undergraduate students studying social sciences without a relationship reported higher alcohol consumption. Conclusions/Importance: The results do not support a general relationship between alcohol consumption and PA among urban Austrian college students of various study fields. Compared to other variables (e.g., sex, relationship status), PA seems to be less important in relation to the consumption of alcohol. This study challenges a global perspective on a positive relationship between alcohol consumption and PA and highlights the need for more cross-cultural investigations.