Uncertainty Assisted Robust Tuberculosis Identification With Bayesian Convolutional Neural Networks

Development of a chest X-ray machine learning convolutional neural network model on a budget and using artificial intelligence explainability techniques to analyze patterns of machine learning inference

Objective

Machine learning (ML) will have a large impact on medicine and accessibility is important. This study's model was used to explore various concepts including how varying features of a model impacted behavior.

Materials and Methods

This study built an ML model that classified chest X-rays as normal or abnormal by using ResNet50 as a base with transfer learning. A contrast enhancement mechanism was implemented to improve performance. After training with a dataset of publicly available chest radiographs, performance metrics were determined with a test set. The ResNet50 base was substituted with deeper architectures (ResNet101/152) and visualization methods used to help determine patterns of inference.

Results

Performance metrics were an accuracy of 79%, recall 69%, precision 96%, and area under the curve of 0.9023. Accuracy improved to 82% and recall to 74% with contrast enhancement. When visualization methods were applied and the ratio of pixels used for inference measured, deeper architectures resulted in the model using larger portions of the image for inference as compared to ResNet50.

Discussion

The model performed on par with many existing models despite consumer-grade hardware and smaller datasets. Individual models vary thus a single model's explainability may not be generalizable. Therefore, this study varied architecture and studied patterns of inference. With deeper ResNet architectures, the machine used larger portions of the image to make decisions.

Conclusion

An example using a custom model showed that AI (Artificial Intelligence) can be accessible on consumer-grade hardware, and it also demonstrated an example of studying themes of ML explainability by varying ResNet architectures.

Diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis with 3D neural network based on multi-scale attention mechanism

This paper presents a novel multi-scale attention residual network (MAResNet) for diagnosing patients with pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) by computed tomography (CT) images. First, a three-dimensional (3D) network structure is applied in MAResNet based on the continuity and correlation of nodal features on different slices of CT images. Secondly, MAResNet incorporates the residual module and Convolutional Block Attention Module (CBAM) to reuse the shallow features of CT images and focus on key features to enhance the feature distinguishability of images. In addition, multi-scale inputs can increase the global receptive field of the network, extract the location information of PTB, and capture the local details of nodules. The expression ability of both high-level and low-level semantic information in the network can also be enhanced. The proposed MAResNet shows excellent results, with overall 94% accuracy in PTB classification. MAResNet based on 3D CT images can assist doctors make more accurate diagnosis of PTB and alleviate the burden of manual screening. In the experiment, a called Grad-CAM was employed to enhance the class activation mapping (CAM) technique for analyzing the model's output, which can identify lesions in important parts of the lungs and make transparent decisions.

Deep Learning-Based Classification and Semantic Segmentation of Lung Tuberculosis Lesions in Chest X-ray Images

We present a deep learning (DL) network-based approach for detecting and semantically segmenting two specific types of tuberculosis (TB) lesions in chest X-ray (CXR) images. In the proposed method, we use a basic U-Net model and its enhanced versions to detect, classify, and segment TB lesions in CXR images. The model architectures used in this study are U-Net, Attention U-Net, U-Net++, Attention U-Net++, and pyramid spatial pooling (PSP) Attention U-Net++, which are optimized and compared based on the test results of each model to find the best parameters. Finally, we use four ensemble approaches which combine the top five models to further improve lesion classification and segmentation results. In the training stage, we use data augmentation and preprocessing methods to increase the number and strength of lesion features in CXR images, respectively. Our dataset consists of 110 training, 14 validation, and 98 test images. The experimental results show that the proposed ensemble model achieves a maximum mean intersection-over-union (MIoU) of 0.70, a mean precision rate of 0.88, a mean recall rate of 0.75, a mean F1-score of 0.81, and an accuracy of 1.0, which are all better than those of only using a single-network model. The proposed method can be used by clinicians as a diagnostic tool assisting in the examination of TB lesions in CXR images.

Trustworthy clinical AI solutions: A unified review of uncertainty quantification in Deep Learning models for medical image analysis

The full acceptance of Deep Learning (DL) models in the clinical field is rather low with respect to the quantity of high-performing solutions reported in the literature. End users are particularly reluctant to rely on the opaque predictions of DL models. Uncertainty quantification methods have been proposed in the literature as a potential solution, to reduce the black-box effect of DL models and increase the interpretability and the acceptability of the result by the final user. In this review, we propose an overview of the existing methods to quantify uncertainty associated with DL predictions. We focus on applications to medical image analysis, which present specific challenges due to the high dimensionality of images and their variable quality, as well as constraints associated with real-world clinical routine. Moreover, we discuss the concept of structural uncertainty, a corpus of methods to facilitate the alignment of segmentation uncertainty estimates with clinical attention. We then discuss the evaluation protocols to validate the relevance of uncertainty estimates. Finally, we highlight the open challenges for uncertainty quantification in the medical field.

Review on chest pathogies detection systems using deep learning techniques

Chest radiography is the standard and most affordable way to diagnose, analyze, and examine different thoracic and chest diseases. Typically, the radiograph is examined by an expert radiologist or physician to decide about a particular anomaly, if exists. Moreover, computer-aided methods are used to assist radiologists and make the analysis process accurate, fast, and more automated. A tremendous improvement in automatic chest pathologies detection and analysis can be observed with the emergence of deep learning. The survey aims to review, technically evaluate, and synthesize the different computer-aided chest pathologies detection systems. The state-of-the-art of single and multi-pathologies detection systems, which are published in the last five years, are thoroughly discussed. The taxonomy of image acquisition, dataset preprocessing, feature extraction, and deep learning models are presented. The mathematical concepts related to feature extraction model architectures are discussed. Moreover, the different articles are compared based on their contributions, datasets, methods used, and the results achieved. The article ends with the main findings, current trends, challenges, and future recommendations.

A study on the effects of interfering with the conventional sequential protocol for chemical isolation and characterization of chitosan from biowaste of giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii

Unless better measures are put in place to address the environmental and social impacts emanating from the huge waste generated from sea food processing industries; 'tragedy of the commons' is inevitable. Needless to re-emphasise the enormous contributions of aquaculture as the perfect substitute to capture fisheries which has been proven unsustainable. Be that as it may, the huge amount of bio-waste produced could be transformed into useful products such as chitin and chitosan with far reaching applications. Chitin and chitosan have been consistently processed from many sources following the traditional chemical sequence of Demineralization (DM), Deproteinization (DP), Decolouration (DC) and Deacetylation (DA). In this study, this method was re-ordered, resulting to 4 sequences of chemical processes. HCl, NaOH, ethanol (97%) and NaOH (50%) were used for DM, DP, DC and DA respectively. The results of this study showed that better chitin (23.99 ± 0.61%) and chitosan (15.17 ± 1.69%) yields were obtained from sequence four (SQ4) following the order of DC-DM-DP-DA. In addition, physicochemical properties such as DDA (80.67 ± 2.52%) and solubility (66.43 ± 2.61%) were significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) in SQ4 thereby making the obtained product suitable for use as coagulant and flocculant in wastewater treatment. Results of FTIR, XRD and SEM of the study proved that the resultant product exhibited the characteristic nature of chitosan with porous and fibril nature. In the analysis of the physical properties of chitosan obtained from bio-waste of Macrobrachium rosenbergii, the high Carr's index (CI) and low bulk as well as tapped densities were an indication that the chitosan produced in this study had poor flowability and compressibility, thereby making it unfit for application in pharmaceutical industries.

Response Surface Methodology (RSM) Approach to Optimization of Coagulation-Flocculation of Aquaculture Wastewater Treatment Using Chitosan from Carapace of Giant Freshwater Prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii

The major sources of waste from aquaculture operations emanates from fish or shellfish processing and wastewater generation. A simple technique called coagulation/flocculation utilizes biowaste from aquaculture to produce chitosan coagulant for wastewater treatment. A chemical method was applied in the present study for chitin and chitosan extraction from carapace of Macrobrachium rosenbergii and subsequent application for removal of turbidity and salinity from shrimp aquaculture wastewater. Box-Behnken in RSM was used to determine the optimum operating conditions of chitosan dosage, pH, and settling time, after which quadratic models were developed and validated. Results show that 80 g of raw powder carapace yielded chitin and chitosan of 23.79% and 20.21%, respectively. The low moisture (0.38%) and ash (12.58%) content were an indication of good quality chitosan, while other properties such as water-binding capacity (WBC), fat-binding capacity (FBC), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscope (SEM) confirmed the structure and the α-group, as well as the rough morphology of chitosan. In addition, the high solubility (71.23%) and DDA (85.20%) suggested good coagulant potentials. It was recorded in this study that 87.67% turbidity was successfully removed at 20 mg/L of chitosan dosage and 6.25 pH after 30 min settling time, while 21.43% salinity was removed at 5 mg/L of chitosan dosage, 7.5 pH, and 30 min settling time. Therefore, the process conditions adopted in this study yielded chitosan of good quality, suitable as biopolymer coagulant for aquaculture wastewater treatment.

Robust Motor Imagery Tasks Classification Approach Using Bayesian Neural Network

The development of Brain-Computer Interfaces based on Motor Imagery (MI) tasks is a relevant research topic worldwide. The design of accurate and reliable BCI systems remains a challenge, mainly in terms of increasing performance and usability. Classifiers based on Bayesian Neural Networks are proposed in this work by using the variational inference, aiming to analyze the uncertainty during the MI prediction. An adaptive threshold scheme is proposed here for MI classification with a reject option, and its performance on both datasets 2a and 2b from BCI Competition IV is compared with other approaches based on thresholds. The results using subject-specific and non-subject-specific training strategies are encouraging. From the uncertainty analysis, considerations for reducing computational cost are proposed for future work.

AI-based radiodiagnosis using chest X-rays: A review

Chest Radiograph or Chest X-ray (CXR) is a common, fast, non-invasive, relatively cheap radiological examination method in medical sciences. CXRs can aid in diagnosing many lung ailments such as Pneumonia, Tuberculosis, Pneumoconiosis, COVID-19, and lung cancer. Apart from other radiological examinations, every year, 2 billion CXRs are performed worldwide. However, the availability of the workforce to handle this amount of workload in hospitals is cumbersome, particularly in developing and low-income nations. Recent advances in AI, particularly in computer vision, have drawn attention to solving challenging medical image analysis problems. Healthcare is one of the areas where AI/ML-based assistive screening/diagnostic aid can play a crucial part in social welfare. However, it faces multiple challenges, such as small sample space, data privacy, poor quality samples, adversarial attacks and most importantly, the model interpretability for reliability on machine intelligence. This paper provides a structured review of the CXR-based analysis for different tasks, lung diseases and, in particular, the challenges faced by AI/ML-based systems for diagnosis. Further, we provide an overview of existing datasets, evaluation metrics for different[][15mm][0mm]Q5 tasks and patents issued. We also present key challenges and open problems in this research domain.

Ensemble Technique Coupled with Deep Transfer Learning Framework for Automatic Detection of Tuberculosis from Chest X-ray Radiographs

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease affecting humans' lungs and is currently ranked the 13th leading cause of death globally. Due to advancements in technology and the availability of medical datasets, automatic analysis and classification of chest X-rays (CXRs) into TB and non-TB can be a reliable alternative for early TB screening. We propose an automatic TB detection system using advanced deep learning (DL) models. A substantial part of a CXR image is dark, with no relevant information for diagnosis and potentially confusing DL models. In this work, the U-Net model extracts the region of interest from CXRs and the segmented images are fed to the DL models for feature extraction. Eight different convolutional neural networks (CNN) models are employed in our experiments, and their classification performance is compared based on three publicly available CXR datasets. The U-Net model achieves segmentation accuracy of 98.58%, intersection over union (IoU) of 93.10, and a Dice coefficient score of 96.50. Our proposed stacked ensemble algorithm performed better by achieving accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity values of 98.38%, 98.89%, and 98.70%, respectively. Experimental results confirm that segmented lung CXR images with ensemble learning produce a better result than un-segmented lung CXR images.

Analyzing Transfer Learning of Vision Transformers for Interpreting Chest Radiography

Limited availability of medical imaging datasets is a vital limitation when using “data hungry” deep learning to gain performance improvements. Dealing with the issue, transfer learning has become a de facto standard, where a pre-trained convolution neural network (CNN), typically on natural images (e.g., ImageNet), is finetuned on medical images. Meanwhile, pre-trained transformers, which are self-attention-based models, have become de facto standard in natural language processing (NLP) and state of the art in image classification due to their powerful transfer learning abilities. Inspired by the success of transformers in NLP and image classification, large-scale transformers (such as vision transformer) are trained on natural images. Based on these recent developments, this research aims to explore the efficacy of pre-trained natural image transformers for medical images. Specifically, we analyze pre-trained vision transformer on CheXpert and pediatric pneumonia dataset. We use CNN standard models including VGGNet and ResNet as baseline models. By examining the acquired representations and results, we discover that transfer learning from the pre-trained vision transformer shows improved results as compared to pre-trained CNN which demonstrates a greater transfer ability of the transformers in medical imaging.

A systematic review of transfer learning-based approaches for diabetic retinopathy detection

Cases of diabetes and related diabetic retinopathy (DR) have been increasing at an alarming rate in modern times. Early detection of DR is an important problem since it may cause permanent blindness in the late stages. In the last two decades, many different approaches have been applied in DR detection. Reviewing academic literature shows that deep neural networks (DNNs) have become the most preferred approach for DR detection. Among these DNN approaches, Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) models are the most used ones in the field of medical image classification. Designing a new CNN architecture is a tedious and time-consuming approach. Additionally, training an enormous number of parameters is also a difficult task. Due to this reason, instead of training CNNs from scratch, using pre-trained models has been suggested in recent years as transfer learning approach. Accordingly, the present study as a review focuses on DNN and Transfer Learning based applications of DR detection considering 43 publications between 2015 and 2021. The published papers are summarized using 3 figures and 10 tables, giving information about 29 pre-trained CNN models, 13 DR data sets and standard performance metrics.

Recent Advances in Video Analytics for Rail Network Surveillance for Security, Trespass and Suicide Prevention-A Survey

Railway networks systems are by design open and accessible to people, but this presents challenges in the prevention of events such as terrorism, trespass, and suicide fatalities. With the rapid advancement of machine learning, numerous computer vision methods have been developed in closed-circuit television (CCTV) surveillance systems for the purposes of managing public spaces. These methods are built based on multiple types of sensors and are designed to automatically detect static objects and unexpected events, monitor people, and prevent potential dangers. This survey focuses on recently developed CCTV surveillance methods for rail networks, discusses the challenges they face, their advantages and disadvantages and a vision for future railway surveillance systems. State-of-the-art methods for object detection and behaviour recognition applied to rail network surveillance systems are introduced, and the ethics of handling personal data and the use of automated systems are also considered.

Predicting diarrhoea outbreaks with climate change

Background

Climate change is expected to exacerbate diarrhoea outbreaks across the developing world, most notably in Sub-Saharan countries such as South Africa. In South Africa, diseases related to diarrhoea outbreak is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. In this study, we modelled the impacts of climate change on diarrhoea with various machine learning (ML) methods to predict daily outbreak of diarrhoea cases in nine South African provinces.

Methods

We applied two deep Learning DL techniques, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) and Long-Short term Memory Networks (LSTMs); and a Support Vector Machine (SVM) to predict daily diarrhoea cases over the different South African provinces by incorporating climate information. Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) was used to generate synthetic data which was used to augment the available data-set. Furthermore, Relevance Estimation and Value Calibration (REVAC) was used to tune the parameters of the ML methods to optimize the accuracy of their predictions. Sensitivity analysis was also performed to investigate the contribution of the different climate factors to the diarrhoea prediction method.

Results

Our results showed that all three ML methods were appropriate for predicting daily diarrhoea cases with respect to the selected climate variables in each South African province. However, the level of accuracy for each method varied across different experiments, with the deep learning methods outperforming the SVM method. Among the deep learning techniques, the CNN method performed best when only real-world data-set was used, while the LSTM method outperformed the other methods when the real-world data-set was augmented with synthetic data. Across the provinces, the accuracy of all three ML methods improved by at least 30 percent when data augmentation was implemented. In addition, REVAC improved the accuracy of the CNN method by about 2.5% in each province. Our parameter sensitivity analysis revealed that the most influential climate variables to be considered when predicting outbreak of diarrhoea in South Africa were precipitation, humidity, evaporation and temperature conditions.

Conclusions

Overall, experiments indicated that the prediction capacity of our DL methods (Convolutional Neural Networks) was found to be superior (with statistical significance) in terms of prediction accuracy across most provinces. This study’s results have important implications for the development of automated early warning systems for diarrhoea (and related disease) outbreaks across the globe.

A Systematic Review of Deep Learning Techniques for Tuberculosis Detection From Chest Radiograph

The high mortality rate in Tuberculosis (TB) burden regions has increased significantly in the last decades. Despite the possibility of treatment for TB, high burden regions still suffer inadequate screening tools, which result in diagnostic delay and misdiagnosis. These challenges have led to the development of Computer-Aided Diagnostic (CAD) system to detect TB automatically. There are several ways of screening for TB, but Chest X-Ray (CXR) is more prominent and recommended due to its high sensitivity in detecting lung abnormalities. This paper presents the results of a systematic review based on PRISMA procedures that investigate state-of-the-art Deep Learning techniques for screening pulmonary abnormalities related to TB. The systematic review was conducted using an extensive selection of scientific databases as reference sources that grant access to distinctive articles in the field. Four scientific databases were searched to retrieve related articles. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined and applied to each article to determine those included in the study. Out of the 489 articles retrieved, 62 were included. Based on the findings in this review, we conclude that CAD systems are promising in tackling the challenges of the TB epidemic and made recommendations for improvement in future studies.

TBNet: a context-aware graph network for tuberculosis diagnosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious bacterial disease. It can affect the human lungs, brain, bones, and kidneys. Pulmonary tuberculosis is the most common. This airborne bacterium can be transmitted with the droplets by coughing and sneezing. So far, the most convenient and effective method for diagnosing TB is through medical imaging. Computed tomography (CT) is the first choice for lung imaging in clinics because the conditions of the lungs can be interpreted from CT images. However, manual screening poses an enormous burden for radiologists, resulting in high inter-observer variances. Hence, developing computer-aided diagnosis systems to implement automatic TB diagnosis is an emergent and significant task for researchers and practitioners. This paper proposed a novel context-aware graph neural network called TBNet to detect TB from chest CT images METHODS: Traditional convolutional neural networks can extract high-level image features to achieve good classification performance on the ImageNet dataset. However, we observed that the spatial relationships between the feature vectors are beneficial for the classification because the feature vector may share some common characteristics with its neighboring feature vectors. To utilize this context information for the classification of chest CT images, we proposed to use a feature graph to generate context-aware features. Finally, a context-aware random vector functional-link net served as the classifier of the TBNet to identify these context-aware features as TB or normal RESULTS: The proposed TBNet produced state-of-the-art classification performance for detecting TB from healthy samples in the experiments CONCLUSIONS: Our TBNet can be an accurate and effective verification tool for manual screening in clinical diagnosis.

Pulmonary tuberculosis diagnosis, differentiation and disease management: A review of radiomics applications

Pulmonary tuberculosis is a worldwide epidemic that can only be fought effectively with early and accurate diagnosis and proper disease management. The means of diagnosis and disease management should be easily accessible, cost effective and be readily available in the high tuberculosis burdened countries where it is most needed. Fortunately, the fast development of computer science in recent years has ensured that medical images can accurately be quantified. Radiomics is one such tool that can be used to quantify medical images. This review article focuses on the literature currently available on the application of radiomics explicitly for the purpose of diagnosis, differentiation from other pulmonary diseases and disease management of pulmonary tuberculosis. Despite using a formal search strategy, only five articles could be found on the application of radiomics to pulmonary tuberculosis. In all five articles reviewed, radiomic feature extraction was successfully used to quantify digital medical images for the purpose of comparing, or differentiating, pulmonary tuberculosis from other pulmonary diseases. This demonstrates that the use of radiomics for the purpose of tuberculosis disease management and diagnosis remains a valuable data mining opportunity not yet realised.

An accurate artificial intelligence system for the detection of pulmonary and extra pulmonary Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is the greatest irresistible illness in humans, caused by microbes Mycobacterium TB (MTB) bacteria and is an infectious disease that spreads from one individual to another through the air. It principally influences lung, which is termed Pulmonary TB (PTB). However, it can likewise influence other parts of the body such as the brain, bones and lymph nodes. Hence, it is also referred to as Extra Pulmonary TB (EPTB). TB has normal symptoms, so without proper testing, it is hard to detect if a patient has TB or not. In this paper, an accurate and novel system for diagnosing TB (PTB and EPTB) has been designed using image processing and AI-based classification techniques. The designed system is comprised of two phases. Firstly, the X-Ray image is processed using preprocessing, segmentation and features extraction and then, three different AI-based techniques are applied for classification. For image processing, 'Histogram Filter' and 'Median Filter' are applied with the CLAHE process to retrieve the segmented image. Then, classification based on AI techniques is done. The designed system produces the accuracy of 98%, 83%, and 89% for Decision Tree, SVM, and Naïve Bayes Classifier, respectively and has been validated by the doctors of the Jalandhar, India.

Interpreting Uncertainty in Model Predictions for Covid-19 Diagnosis

COVID-19, due to its accelerated spread has brought in the need to use assistive tools for faster diagnosis in addition to typical lab swab testing. Chest X-Rays for COVID cases tend to show changes in the lungs such as ground glass opacities and peripheral consolidations which can be detected by deep neural networks. However, traditional convolutional networks use point estimate for predictions, lacking in capture of uncertainty, which makes them less reliable for adoption. There have been several works so far in predicting COVID positive cases with chest X-Rays. However, not much has been explored on quantifying the uncertainty of these predictions, interpreting uncertainty, and decomposing this to model or data uncertainty. To address these needs, we develop a visualization framework to address interpretability of uncertainty and its components, with uncertainty in predictions computed with a Bayesian Convolutional Neural Network. This framework aims to understand the contribution of individual features in the Chest-X-Ray images to predictive uncertainty. Providing this as an assistive tool can help the radiologist understand why the model came up with a prediction and whether the regions of interest captured by the model for the specific prediction are of significance in diagnosis. We demonstrate the usefulness of the tool in chest x-ray interpretation through several test cases from a benchmark dataset.

Monte Carlo Dropout for Uncertainty Estimation and Motor Imagery Classification

Motor Imagery (MI)-based Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) have been widely used as an alternative communication channel to patients with severe motor disabilities, achieving high classification accuracy through machine learning techniques. Recently, deep learning techniques have spotlighted the state-of-the-art of MI-based BCIs. These techniques still lack strategies to quantify predictive uncertainty and may produce overconfident predictions. In this work, methods to enhance the performance of existing MI-based BCIs are proposed in order to obtain a more reliable system for real application scenarios. First, the Monte Carlo dropout (MCD) method is proposed on MI deep neural models to improve classification and provide uncertainty estimation. This approach was implemented using Shallow Convolutional Neural Network (SCNN-MCD) and with an ensemble model (E-SCNN-MCD). As another contribution, to discriminate MI task predictions of high uncertainty, a threshold approach is introduced and tested for both SCNN-MCD and E-SCNN-MCD approaches. The BCI Competition IV Databases 2a and 2b were used to evaluate the proposed methods for both subject-specific and non-subject-specific strategies, obtaining encouraging results for MI recognition.

Deep learning for chest X-ray analysis: A survey

Recent advances in deep learning have led to a promising performance in many medical image analysis tasks. As the most commonly performed radiological exam, chest radiographs are a particularly important modality for which a variety of applications have been researched. The release of multiple, large, publicly available chest X-ray datasets in recent years has encouraged research interest and boosted the number of publications. In this paper, we review all studies using deep learning on chest radiographs published before March 2021, categorizing works by task: image-level prediction (classification and regression), segmentation, localization, image generation and domain adaptation. Detailed descriptions of all publicly available datasets are included and commercial systems in the field are described. A comprehensive discussion of the current state of the art is provided, including caveats on the use of public datasets, the requirements of clinically useful systems and gaps in the current literature.

A Survey of Deep Learning for Lung Disease Detection on Medical Images: State-of-the-Art, Taxonomy, Issues and Future Directions

The recent developments of deep learning support the identification and classification of lung diseases in medical images. Hence, numerous work on the detection of lung disease using deep learning can be found in the literature. This paper presents a survey of deep learning for lung disease detection in medical images. There has only been one survey paper published in the last five years regarding deep learning directed at lung diseases detection. However, their survey is lacking in the presentation of taxonomy and analysis of the trend of recent work. The objectives of this paper are to present a taxonomy of the state-of-the-art deep learning based lung disease detection systems, visualise the trends of recent work on the domain and identify the remaining issues and potential future directions in this domain. Ninety-eight articles published from 2016 to 2020 were considered in this survey. The taxonomy consists of seven attributes that are common in the surveyed articles: image types, features, data augmentation, types of deep learning algorithms, transfer learning, the ensemble of classifiers and types of lung diseases. The presented taxonomy could be used by other researchers to plan their research contributions and activities. The potential future direction suggested could further improve the efficiency and increase the number of deep learning aided lung disease detection applications.

Binary Time Series Classification with Bayesian Convolutional Neural Networks When Monitoring for Marine Gas Discharges

The world’s oceans are under stress from climate change, acidification and other human activities, and the UN has declared 2021–2030 as the decade for marine science. To monitor the marine waters, with the purpose of detecting discharges of tracers from unknown locations, large areas will need to be covered with limited resources. To increase the detectability of marine gas seepage we propose a deep probabilistic learning algorithm, a Bayesian Convolutional Neural Network (BCNN), to classify time series of measurements. The BCNN will classify time series to belong to a leak/no-leak situation, including classification uncertainty. The latter is important for decision makers who must decide to initiate costly confirmation surveys and, hence, would like to avoid false positives. Results from a transport model are used for the learning process of the BCNN and the task is to distinguish the signal from a leak hidden within the natural variability. We show that the BCNN classifies time series arising from leaks with high accuracy and estimates its associated uncertainty. We combine the output of the BCNN model, the posterior predictive distribution, with a Bayesian decision rule showcasing how the framework can be used in practice to make optimal decisions based on a given cost function.