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Boin DP, Baez JJ, Guajardo MP, Benavides DO, Ortega MEN, Valdés DR, Apphun MC. Breast papillary lesions: an analysis of 70 cases. Ecancermedicalscience 2014; 8:461. [PMID: 25228917 PMCID: PMC4162680 DOI: 10.3332/ecancer.2014.461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Papillary breast lesions are rare and constitute less than 10% of benign breast lesions and less than 1% of breast carcinomas. Objective To analyse the clinical presentation, preoperative evaluation, and surgical and anatomopathological characteristics of the patients operated on for papillary breast lesions. Material and Methods Retrospective descriptive and analytical study. We analysed the database of patients with definitive histopathological diagnosis of papillary breast lesions operated on at our institution from January 2004 to May 2013. Results During the period described, 70 patients with histopathological diagnosis of papillary breast lesions were operated upon. The median age was 50 years (19–86 years). Thirty-seven patients (52.8%) were symptomatic at diagnosis. Preoperative ultrasound was reported to be altered in all patients. A mammography showed pathologic findings in only 50% of cases. All patients underwent partial mastectomy, after needle localisation under ultrasound, if the lesion was not palpable on physical examination. The final pathological diagnosis was: benign papillary lesion in 55 patients (78.6%) and malignant in 15 patients (21.4%). Adjuvant treatment was performed in all malignant cases. Median follow-up was 46 months (3–115 months). Conclusions Patients with papillary breast lesions presented with symptoms in half of all cases. There was a high frequency of malignancy (21.4%), therefore surgical resection was recommended for papillary breast lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dahiana Pulgar Boin
- Department of Oncology and Maxillofacial Surgery, College of Medicine, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, Marcoleta 352, Santiago 8330033, Chile
| | - Jaime Jans Baez
- Department of Oncology and Maxillofacial Surgery, College of Medicine, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, Marcoleta 352, Santiago 8330033, Chile
| | - Militza Petric Guajardo
- Department of Oncology and Maxillofacial Surgery, College of Medicine, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, Marcoleta 352, Santiago 8330033, Chile
| | - David Oddo Benavides
- Department of Pathologic Anatomy, College of Medicine, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, Marcoleta 352, Santiago 8330033, Chile
| | - Maria Elena Navarro Ortega
- Department of Radiology, College of Medicine, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, Marcoleta 352, Santiago 8330033, Chile
| | - Dravna Razmilic Valdés
- Department of Radiology, College of Medicine, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, Marcoleta 352, Santiago 8330033, Chile
| | - Mauricio Camus Apphun
- Department of Oncology and Maxillofacial Surgery, College of Medicine, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, Marcoleta 352, Santiago 8330033, Chile
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Cyr AE, Margenthaler JA, Conway J, Rastelli AL, Davila RM, Gao F, Dietz JR. Correlation of ductal lavage cytology with ductoscopy-directed duct excision histology in women at high risk for developing breast cancer: a prospective, single-institution trial. Ann Surg Oncol 2011; 18:3192-7. [PMID: 21847699 DOI: 10.1245/s10434-011-1963-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The study was designed to determine which histological lesions produce cellular atypia in lavage specimens and whether ductoscopy adds useful information for the evaluation of high-risk patients with atypical lavage cytology. METHODS We prospectively recruited women ≥35 years at high risk for developing breast cancer. All underwent ductal lavage. Women found to have atypia underwent ductoscopy-directed duct excision (group 1). Women without atypia were observed (group 2). Data included patient demographics, risk assessment, cytologic and histologic findings, and outcomes. Descriptive statistics were utilized for data summary and were compared using Fisher's exact test. RESULTS We enrolled 102 women; 93 (91%) were Caucasian. Their median age was 49 (range 34-73) years with a median follow-up of 80 (range 5-90) months. Overall, 27 (26%) had atypical lavage cytology (group 1), and 75 (74%) had benign cytology (group 2). Subsequent duct excision in group 1 revealed benign histology in 11 (44%), papillomas in 9 (36%), atypical hyperplasia (AH) in 4 (16%), and ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) in 1 (4%). At follow-up, three patients developed breast cancer, including one group 1 patient and two group 2 patients. There were no differences between groups 1 and 2 according to patient demographics, Gail scores, or risk for subsequent breast cancer (P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Although 20% of high-risk women with ductal lavage atypia have AH or malignancy on subsequent excision, the majority do not. Atypia identified by ductal lavage is not associated with a higher risk of developing subsequent breast cancer, even in this high-risk population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy E Cyr
- Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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Lee LM, Davison Z, Heard CM. In vitro delivery of anti-breast cancer agents directly via the mammary papilla (nipple). Int J Pharm 2009; 387:161-6. [PMID: 20025946 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2009.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2009] [Revised: 12/04/2009] [Accepted: 12/09/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate, in vitro, the plausibility of a novel method for delivering a combination of anti-breast cancer agents to the breast via the mammary papilla (nipple). Mammary papillae were prepared from freshly excised strips of porcine sow breasts by blunt dissection. Permeation studies were performed using all glass Franz diffusion cells in both upright and lateral position, with drugs examined individually and in combination. Donor phase was comprised of equimolar PD98059, LY294002 and tamoxifen; 2.54x10(-4) mol dissolved in 950 microL fish oil (containing approximately 23% (w/v) eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA), 25 microL DMSO and 25 microL 1,8-cineole. Also, 4 or 10% Cabosil M5P (w/v) was added to thicken the formulation. After 6 h, the papillae were recovered, cleaned, centrifuged and extracted thrice with methanol. Pooled extracts were analysed by reversed-phase HPLC. The significance of the papilla orientation was also investigated. When applied singly and laterally, the amount extracted from the porcine breast tissue for PD98059, LY294002 and tamoxifen were 1.83+/-0.30, 10.67+/-1.78 and 0.74+/-0.19x10(-2) micromol g(-1) respectively; applied simultaneously and laterally, 2.03+/-0.14, 4.86+/-0.47 and 0.22+/-0.04x10(-2) micromol g(-1) respectively. With 4% Cabosil formulation, amount extracted for PD98059 and LY294002 were 5.71+/-0.95 and 9.91+/-0.92x10(-2) micromol g(-1) respectively; with 10% formulation, 2.64+/-0.5 and 3.90+/-0.78x10(-2) micromol g(-1) respectively. Tamoxifen was below its limit of detection in both Cabosil M5P formulations. To conclude, localized passive delivery via the mammary papilla is a plausible non-invasive means of delivering anti-breast cancer drugs directly to the breast, in levels that have previously been shown to markedly inhibit the growth of breast cancer cell lines, in vitro. The amounts deliverable may be influenced by differential interactions with the thickening agent and patient orientation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lay Ming Lee
- Welsh School of Pharmacy, Cardiff University, Redwood Building, King Edward VII Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3NB, Wales, UK
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Kocdor MA, Sevinc AI, Canda T, Balci P, Saydam S, Cavdaroglu O, Harmancioglu O. Pathologic Nipple Discharge in Patients with Radiologically Invisible Mass: Review of 28 Consecutive Sub-areolar Explorations. Breast J 2009; 15:230-5. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1524-4741.2009.00710.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Hung WK, Ying M, Chan CM, Lam HS, Mak KL. Minimally invasive technology in the management of breast disease. Breast Cancer 2009; 16:23-9. [PMID: 18818988 DOI: 10.1007/s12282-008-0072-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2008] [Accepted: 08/06/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Minimally invasive surgery is gaining popularity around the world because it achieves the same or even superior results when compared to standard surgery but with less morbidity. Minimally invasive breast surgery is a broad concept encompassing new developments in the field of breast surgery that work on this minimally invasive principle. In this regard, breast-conserving surgery and sentinel lymph node biopsy are good illustrations of this concept. There are three major areas of progress in the minimally invasive management of breast disease. First, percutaneous excisional devices are now available that can replace the surgical excision of breast mass lesions. Second, various ablative treatments are capable of destroying breast cancers in situ instead of surgical excision. Third, mammary ductoscopy provides a new approach to the investigation of mammary duct pathology. Clinical experience and potential applications of these new technologies are reviewed.
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Weber MA, Ditzen H. Tastbefund retromamillär und blutige Sekretion der rechten Brust. Radiologe 2006; 46:604-8. [PMID: 15843912 DOI: 10.1007/s00117-005-1198-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M-A Weber
- Abteilung Radiologie, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg.
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Dillon MF, Mohd Nazri SR, Nasir S, McDermott EW, Evoy D, Crotty TB, O'Higgins N, Hill ADK. The role of major duct excision and microdochectomy in the detection of breast carcinoma. BMC Cancer 2006; 6:164. [PMID: 16796740 PMCID: PMC1539014 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-6-164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2006] [Accepted: 06/23/2006] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The association of nipple discharge with breast carcinoma has resulted in numerous women undergoing exploratory surgery to exclude malignancy. The aim of this study was to determine whether pre-operative factors can identify those patients that are most at risk of carcinoma. METHODS All patients over a 14-year period (1991-2005) who had a microdochectomy or subareolar exploration for the evaluation of nipple discharge were assessed. Patient characteristics, pre-operative imaging and pathological findings were analysed. RESULTS Of the 211 patients included in this study, 116 patients had pathological (unilateral, uniductal serous or bloody) discharge. On excision, 6% (n = 7) of patients with pathological discharge and 2.4% (n = 2) of patients with non-pathological discharge were diagnosed with carcinoma. Overall, major duct excision resulted in the diagnosis of carcinoma in 4.3% (n = 9), ADH/LCIS in 4% (n = 8), papilloma in 39% (n = 83), and duct ectasia or non-specific benign disease in 53% (n = 111) of patients. In the patients determined to have malignancy, 44% (n = 4) were premenopausal. No patient with a non-bloody discharge in the total population analysed (28%; n = 59/211), or in the population with a pathological discharge (21%; n = 24/116) was found to have carcinoma upon excision. CONCLUSION Microdochectomy or major duct excision performed for nipple discharge resulted in a low rate of malignancy on excision. Conservative management of non-bloody nipple discharge can be considered in patients with no other clinical or radiological signs of malignancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary F Dillon
- Department of Surgery, St Vincent's University Hospital, Elm Park, Dublin 4, Ireland
- Department of Surgery, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Shah R Mohd Nazri
- Department of Surgery, St Vincent's University Hospital, Elm Park, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Shaaira Nasir
- Department of Surgery, St Vincent's University Hospital, Elm Park, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Enda W McDermott
- Department of Surgery, St Vincent's University Hospital, Elm Park, Dublin 4, Ireland
- Department of Surgery, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Denis Evoy
- Department of Surgery, St Vincent's University Hospital, Elm Park, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Thomas B Crotty
- Department of Pathology, St Vincent's University Hospital, Elm Park, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Niall O'Higgins
- Department of Surgery, St Vincent's University Hospital, Elm Park, Dublin 4, Ireland
- Department of Surgery, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Arnold DK Hill
- Department of Surgery, St Vincent's University Hospital, Elm Park, Dublin 4, Ireland
- Department of Surgery, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland
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Mohsin SK, Allred DC, Osborne CK, Cruz A, Otto P, Chew H, Clark GM, Elledge RM. Morphologic and immunophenotypic markers as surrogate endpoints of tamoxifen effect for prevention of breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2006; 94:205-11. [PMID: 16267611 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-005-4896-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Prevention trials using incidence or mortality as endpoints require a large number of participants and long follow-up. Trials using biomarkers as endpoints would potentially require fewer participants, less time, and significantly less resources to test promising new agents for breast cancer prevention. To test this idea, a randomized trial of tamoxifen for 1 year versus observation for 1 year was conducted to determine whether tamoxifen can cause regression of hyperplastic breast tissue, whether it changes the biomarker phenotype of premalignant disease or normal breast epithelium, and if biomarkers can be used as early surrogate indicators of response to tamoxifen. Women were identified by having an abnormal mammogram and ductal hyperplasia diagnosed by core needle biopsy. Image-directed needle biopsy was repeated in the same site of the breast after 1 year. Approximately 3000 women were screened, and 265 were eligible. Sixty-three women were randomized and paired biopsies from 45 subjects were available for analysis. There was no evidence of substantial regression of hyperplasia--fewer samples showed hyperplasia at 1 year follow-up, but this was seen in both untreated and tamoxifen-treated women. There were trends for reductions in ER and PgR and trends for increases in bcl-2 in normal and hyperplastic tissue in the tamoxifen-treated arm, though these changes did not reach statistical significance. Proliferation, determined by Ki67 staining, was not significantly changed. Clinical trials of this type are difficult to carry out and modifications in trial design are needed to make this process more efficient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed K Mohsin
- Breast Center at Baylor College of Medicine, The Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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Krynyckyi BR, Shafir MK, Kim SC, Kim DW, Travis A, Moadel RM, Kim CK. Lymphoscintigraphy and triangulated body marking for morbidity reduction during sentinel node biopsy in breast cancer. Int Semin Surg Oncol 2005; 2:25. [PMID: 16277655 PMCID: PMC1308847 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7800-2-25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2005] [Accepted: 11/08/2005] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Current trends in patient care include the desire for minimizing invasiveness of procedures and interventions. This aim is reflected in the increasing utilization of sentinel lymph node biopsy, which results in a lower level of morbidity in breast cancer staging, in comparison to extensive conventional axillary dissection. Optimized lymphoscintigraphy with triangulated body marking is a clinical option that can further reduce morbidity, more than when a hand held gamma probe alone is utilized. Unfortunately it is often either overlooked or not fully understood, and thus not utilized. This results in the unnecessary loss of an opportunity to further reduce morbidity. Optimized lymphoscintigraphy and triangulated body marking provides a detailed 3 dimensional map of the number and location of the sentinel nodes, available before the first incision is made. The number, location, relevance based on time/sequence of appearance of the nodes, all can influence 1) where the incision is made, 2) how extensive the dissection is, and 3) how many nodes are removed. In addition, complex patterns can arise from injections. These include prominent lymphatic channels, pseudo-sentinel nodes, echelon and reverse echelon nodes and even contamination, which are much more difficult to access with the probe only. With the detailed information provided by optimized lymphoscintigraphy and triangulated body marking, the surgeon can approach the axilla in a more enlightened fashion, in contrast to when the less informed probe only method is used. This allows for better planning, resulting in the best cosmetic effect and less trauma to the tissues, further reducing morbidity while maintaining adequate sampling of the sentinel node(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Borys R Krynyckyi
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine, The Mount Sinai School of Medicine, The Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, New York, USA
| | - Michail K Shafir
- Department of Surgery, The Mount Sinai School of Medicine, The Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, New York, USA
| | - Suk Chul Kim
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine, The Mount Sinai School of Medicine, The Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, New York, USA
| | - Dong Wook Kim
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine, The Mount Sinai School of Medicine, The Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, New York, USA
| | - Arlene Travis
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine, The Mount Sinai School of Medicine, The Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, New York, USA
| | - Renee M Moadel
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, and the Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Chun K Kim
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine, The Mount Sinai School of Medicine, The Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, New York, USA
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Abstract
Chemotherapy is effective against breast cancer. COX-2 has been implicated in the progression and angiogenesis of cancers. Celecoxib, a cyclooxygenase type 2 (COX-2) inhibitor, has both apoptotic and antiangiogenic activities, and may be of use in treatment of breast tumors which overexpress the COX-2 enzyme. Preliminary clinical trials have shown that the combination of chemotherapy with celecoxib has minimal additional toxicity and it may enhance the effects of the chemotherapy. Beside chemotherapy, celecoxib may promulgate the effect of aromatase inhibitor in breast cancer cells. Animal studies have shown that there are fewer and smaller tumors treated by combining exemestane and celecoxib. Larger clinical trials should be initiated to study the potential anti-cancer effects of celecoxib in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- L W C Chow
- Department Hung Chao Hong Integrated Center for Breast Diseases, University of Hong Kong Medical Center, Pokfulam, China.
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Jacobs VR, Kiechle M, Plattner B, Fischer T, Paepke S. Breast ductoscopy with a 0.55-mm mini-endoscope for direct visualization of intraductal lesions. J Minim Invasive Gynecol 2005; 12:359-64. [PMID: 16036199 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmig.2005.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2004] [Accepted: 02/28/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Standard radiologic examinations of breast duct lesions can give only indirect information. Mini-endoscopy with a breast ductoscope of only 0.55 mm offers direct visualization of the lesion and helps in the decision to perform or avoid exploratory breast tissue resection. We used a LaDuScope (PolyDiagnost, Pfaffenhofen, Germany) with a 0.55- or 0.95-mm outer diameter and a 75-mm working length from October 2003 through July 2004 on 11 women (average age of 48.3 years [range 36-69 years]) with suspicious nipple discharge. The optics have zero-degree direct view, 70-degree field vision, and 3000 or 6000 pixel resolution. Breast ducts and walls could be easily inspected; and irrigation of breast ducts, aspiration, and use of cytology brush were possible under visual control. We had no intraoperative or postoperative complications. The new procedure of mini-ductoscopy is feasible, safe, and helpful as an additional ambulatory diagnostic method for visual inspection of breast ducts. This instrument demonstrates the latest advances of technology and a trend toward less-invasive diagnostics for breast duct lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker R Jacobs
- Frauenklinik (OB/GYN), Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany.
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Okugawa H, Yamamoto D, Uemura Y, Sakaida N, Tanano A, Tanaka K, Kamiyama Y. Effect of perductal paclitaxel exposure on the development of MNU-induced mammary carcinoma in female S-D rats. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2005; 91:29-34. [PMID: 15868429 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-004-6455-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Breast carcinoma and precancer are thought to start in the lining of the milk duct or lobule. METHODS At 5weeks of age, rats received a intraperitoneal (ip) injection of MNU for carcinogenesis. After mammary tumors were identified macroscopically using fiberscope, the rats were treated with perductal (pd) or ip injection of paclitaxel tri-weekly. At 36 weeks after MNU injection, tumor burden (No. of >1cm palpable mammary tumors/rat), total number of mammary carcinoma, apoptosis (AI), and microvessel density (MVD) were measured. RESULTS The administration of paclitaxel through the duct did not produce any toxic side effect. The tumor burden and total number of mammary carcinoma in the pd paclitaxel-treated group were significantly reduced compared to those seen in the ip paclitaxel-treated group. In addition, in the pd paclitaxel-treated group, AI was also increased and MVD was decreased, compared to those in the ip paclitaxel-treated group. CONCLUSION Local administration of paclitaxel may be useful for treatment of breast cancer.
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MESH Headings
- Alkylating Agents/administration & dosage
- Animals
- Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic/administration & dosage
- Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic/adverse effects
- Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic/pharmacology
- Female
- Infusions, Parenteral
- Mammary Glands, Animal
- Mammary Neoplasms, Animal/drug therapy
- Mammary Neoplasms, Animal/etiology
- Mammary Neoplasms, Animal/physiopathology
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental
- Methylnitrosourea/administration & dosage
- Paclitaxel/administration & dosage
- Paclitaxel/adverse effects
- Paclitaxel/pharmacology
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
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Affiliation(s)
- Homa Okugawa
- Department of Surgery, Kansai Medical University, Moriguchi, Osaka, 570-8506, Japan
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