Genetic variation among Staphylococcus aureus strains from Norwegian bulk milk

Rate of Beta-Lactam Resistance and Epidemiological Features of S. Aureus-Associated Bovine Mastitis in Cross-Bred Ethiopian Cows: Systematic Review

Background

Dairy cows get mastitis from a common infection called Staphylococcus aureus. Because of its broad distribution across diverse populations and capacity to acquire antibiotic resistance, this particular bacterial strain presents a serious threat to public health. The main goals of this study were to determine the beta-lactam resistance profile of S. aureus in Ethiopian dairy cows and to offer thorough epidemiological data.

Methods

We employed manual searches, Web of Science, PubMed Central, and Google Scholar HINARI for electronic bibliographic data.

Results

Twenty-six epidemiological studies were included in this systematic review. Of these studies, 12 articles in Oromia, 4 articles in Addis Ababa, 4 articles in Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's (SNNPRS), 3 articles in Tigray, and 3 articles in Amhara region. The average prevalence S. aureus were 34.3% in Oromia, 40.2% in Amhara, 39.5 in AA, 40% in Tigray and 21% in SNNPRS. The antimicrobial resistance rate of S. aureus, specifically in relation to beta-lactam drugs, exhibited an average estimation. Notably, penicillin resistance reached a rate of 75%, while amoxicillin resistance stood at 67%. Furthermore, it was determined that, when treating S. aureus, the resistance rates to ampicillin and cephalosporin were 50% and 57%, respectively.

Conclusion

The results of this analysis have demonstrated a considerable rise in S. aureus prevalence and beta-lactam resistance within the Ethiopian geographic environment. This emphasizes the critical need for alternate therapeutic approaches and preventative measures in order to successfully lessen the disease's extensive spread and detrimental effects across the nation.

Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis Analysis of Bovine Associated Staphylococcus aureus: A Review

For decades now, DNA fingerprinting by means of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) continues to be the most widely used to separate large DNA molecules and distinguish between different strains in alternating pulses. This is done by isolating intact chromosomal DNA and using restriction enzymes with specific restriction sites to generate less than 30 restriction fragments from 50 Kb to 10 Mbp. These results make clone-specific band profiles easy to compare. Specialized equipment is required for the optimization of DNA separation and resolution, among which a contour-clamped homogeneous electric field (CHEF) apparatus is the most commonly used. As a result, the PFGE analysis of a bacterial genome provides useful information in terms of epidemiological investigations of different bacterial pathogens. For Staphylococcus aureus subtyping, despite its limitations and the emergence of alternative methods, PFGE analysis has proven to be an adequate choice and the gold standard for determining genetic relatedness, especially in outbreak detection and short-term surveillance in the veterinary field.

Quarter-wise proportion and beta-lactam resistance rate of bovine mastitis associated- Staphylococcus aureus among infectious episodes in Ethiopia: Systematic review and meta-Analysis

Background

Bovine mastitis, a condition with multifactorial etiology, imposes a significant economic burden on the dairy sector in Ethiopia, with Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) being one of the leading etiologic agents. The acquisition of a compiled source of information concerning S. aureus is imperative in order to enhance the control and prevention strategies, as well as to facilitate the successful implementation of the national action plan aimed at curbing antimicrobial resistance by the year 2025. Thus, the primary objective of this meta-analysis was to comprehensively summarize the estimates of the proportion and beta-lactam resistance profile of S. aureus in bovine mastitis in Ethiopia.

Methods

electronic bibliographic data such as PubMed, Web of Science, HINARI, Google Scholar, and other databases were used to search articles and quality assessment was performed using the AMSTAR-2. The pooled proportion, the rate of beta-lactam resistance, and a 95% confidence interval were calculated with a random effects model using STATA 17 statistical software. Funnel plots, and Eggers were used to assess publication bias.

Results

Twenty-six (26) cross-sectional studies were included in this meta-analysis. The overall pooled proportion of S.aureus was 35% (95% CI: 0.31 to 0.41). Considerable heterogeneity was observed in the included studies (I² = 90.75%; P < 0.01). The subgroup analysis of the study region showed significant differences. The highest estimated regional pooled proportion of bovine mastitis-associated S.aureus was 40% in the Amhara and Tigray regions. Funnel plot and Eggers results showed no statistically significant publication bias (Eggers test: p = 0.5656) in estimating the proportion of S.aureus infections in association with bovine mastitis. A total of 14 articles were included to estimate beta-lactam antimicrobial resistance. The estimated pooled beta-lactam antimicrobial resistance rate of S.aureus was resistance to penicillin at 75%, followed by amoxicillin at 67%, ampicillin at 50% and cephalosporin at 57% were evaluated in the treatment of S. aureus. Therefore, the present meta-analysis has revealed that the prevalence of bovine-associated Staphylococcus aureus and its resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics are alarmingly high in the region of Ethiopia. This further emphasizes the vital necessity of implementing effective preventive measures to reduce the incidence and spread of this pathogen across the entire nation.

Usefulness of molecular typing methods for epidemiological and evolutionary studies of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from bovine intramammary infections

In cattle, Staphylococcus aureus is a major pathogen of increasing importance due to its association with intramammary infections (IMIs), which are a primary cause of antibiotic use on farms and thus of the rise in antibiotic resistance. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), which are frequently isolated from cases of bovine mastitis, represent a public health problem worldwide. Understanding the epidemiology and the evolution of these strains relies on typing methods. Such methods were phenotypic at first, but more recently, molecular methods have been increasingly utilized. Multiple-locus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA), a high-throughput molecular method for determining genetic diversity and the emergence of host- or udder-adapted clones, appears to be the most useful PCR-based method. Despite the difficulties present in reproducibility, interlaboratory reliability, and hard work, it is agreed that pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) remains the gold standard, particularly for short-term surveillance. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) is a good typing method for long-term and global epidemiological investigations, but it is not suitable for outbreak investigations. Staphylococcal protein A (spa) typing is the most widely used method today for first-line typing in the study of molecular evolution, and outbreaks investigations. Staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) typing has gained popularity for the evolutionary analysis of MRSA strains. Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) and DNA microarrays that represent relatively new DNA-based technologies, provide more information for tracking antibioresistant and virulent outbreak strains. They offer a higher discriminatory power, but are not suitable for routine use in clinical veterinary medicine at this time. Descriptions of the evolution of these methods, their advantages, and limitations are given in this review.

Prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus in wild hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) and first report of mecC-MRSA in Hungary

In 2011 mecC, a new mecA gene homologue, was described in a bovine isolate in the UK. Since then, mecC-positive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (mecC-MRSA) has also been found in wild animals. An especially high prevalence of mecC-MRSA has been reported among hedgehogs in Sweden (64%) and Denmark (61%). Based on these findings we aimed to survey the hedgehog population for mecC-MRSA in Hungary. Altogether 200 hedgehogs were screened for Staphylococcus aureus using a culture-based method. The antibiotic susceptibility of the isolates to nine drugs was determined, their genetic relatedness was established by PFGE and spa-typing, and virulence genes were identified by PCR. Whole genome sequencing was performed for the single mecC-MRSA isolate found. Of the 200 animals, 13 were carriers of S. aureus (6.5%). Among these, one isolate was mecA positive and one was mecC positive. The isolates were susceptible to non-beta-lactam antibiotics. Toxin genes were not found, but the majority carried genes responsible for adhesion and biofilm production. The mecC-MRSA isolate was a single-locus variant of ST130, had a new spa type (t19701) and belonged to SCCmec type XI. It carried a recently described, novel exfoliative toxin (etE). This is the first report of mecC-MRSA in Hungary and the first survey of staphylococcus carriage among wild animals in the country. The mecC prevalence was much lower than in Northern European countries and rather similar to other countries in our region. MecC-MRSA could potentially emerge as a novel human pathogen, especially where close contact occurs between humans and animals.

Diversity and pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus from bovine mastitis: current understanding and future perspectives

Staphylococcus aureus is a leading cause of bovine mastitis worldwide. Despite some improved understanding of disease pathogenesis, progress towards new methods for the control of intramammary infections (IMI) has been limited, particularly in the field of vaccination. Although herd management programs have helped to reduce the number of clinical cases, S. aureus mastitis remains a major disease burden. This review summarizes the past 16 years of research on bovine S. aureus population genetics, and molecular pathogenesis that have been conducted worldwide. We describe the diversity of S. aureus associated with bovine mastitis and the geographical distribution of S. aureus clones in different continents. We also describe studies investigating the evolution of bovine S. aureus and the importance of host-adaptation in its emergence as a mastitis pathogen. The available information on the prevalence of virulence determinants and their functional relevance during the pathogenesis of bovine mastitis are also discussed. Although traits such as biofilm formation and innate immune evasion are critical for the persistence of bacteria, the current understanding of the key host-pathogen interactions that determine the outcome of S. aureus IMI is very limited. We suggest that greater investment in research into the genetic and molecular basis of bovine S. aureus pathogenesis is essential for the identification of novel therapeutic and vaccine targets.

Isolation, Identification, and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Profiles of Staphylococcus aureus from Clinical Mastitis in Sebeta Town Dairy Farms

A cross-sectional study was carried out in and around Sebeta town dairy farms, Finfinne special zone, Ethiopia, from December 2019 to May 2020 to isolate, identify, and test antimicrobial susceptibility profile of Staphylococcus aureus from clinical mastitis. A total of 116 milk samples were purposively collected from 57 lactating cows with clinical mastitis. Isolation and identification of Staphylococcus aureus were carried out by using primary and secondary biochemical tests. Besides, Biolog was used for microbial identification systems. To know if the isolates develop resistance to antibiotics, the antimicrobial susceptibility test (ATS) was performed on Mueller-Hinton agar by the disk diffusion method. From a total of 57 lactating cows and 116 teat quarters examined, 21.05% (12/57) and 15.52% (18/116) were positive for S. aureus from clinical mastitis, respectively. From a total of 116 milk samples collected, 15.52% (18/116) Staphylococcus aureus were isolated, and from 11 farms surveyed, about 72.72% (8/11) overall farm prevalence of clinical mastitis due to S. aureus was recorded. All the 18 Staphylococcus aureus isolates were found susceptible to sulphamethoxazole/trimethoprim, erythromycin, gentamicin, ciprofloxacin, and chloramphenicol. However, high level of resistance was observed to common drugs such as penicillin (88.89%, 16/18) and tetracycline (61.11%, 11/18). The observed high level of resistance to penicillin and tetracycline also indicates the need to visit our treatment guidelines for mastitis caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Therefore, improved management and early treatment of the cases with drug of choice after the antimicrobial susceptibility test for each specific case can reduce chance of further development of resistance and are imperative to tackle clinical mastitis occurring at Sebeta and other similar farms in Ethiopia.

Prevalence, antibiotic resistance, virulence and genetic diversity of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from bulk tank milk samples of U.S. dairy herds

Background

Colonization of dairy cows by Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), especially those which are multi-drug resistant and toxin producing, is a concern for animal health and well-being as well as public health. The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence, antibiotic resistance, gene content and virulence determinants of S. aureus in bulk tank milk samples (BTM) from U.S. dairy herds.

Results

BTM samples were collected, once in winter and once in summer, from 189 U.S. dairy herds. Of 365 BTM samples cultured, the sample and herd prevalence of S. aureus in BTM was 46.6% (170 of 365 samples) and 62.4% (118 of 189 herds), respectively. Among a subset of 138 S. aureus isolates that were stored for further analysis, 124 were genome sequenced after being confirmed as S. aureus using phenotypic tests. The most commonly identified antimicrobial resistance-associated gene was norA (99.2%) and mecA gene responsible for methicillin resistance (MRSA) was identified in one isolate (0.8%). The most frequently detected putative virulence genes were aur (100%), hlgB (100%), hlgA, hlgC, hlb (99.2%), lukE (95.9%) and lukD (94.3%). In the 53 staphylococcal enterotoxin positive isolates, sen (37.9%), sem (35.5%), sei (35.5%) and seg (33.1%) were the most frequently detected enterotoxin genes. Among the 14 sequence types (ST) and 18 spa types identified, the most common was ST2187 (20.9%) and t529 (28.2%), respectively. The most predominant clone was CC97 (47.6%) followed by CC unknown (36.3%). The single MRSA isolate belonged to ST72-CC8, spa type t126 and was negative for the tst gene but harbored all the other virulence genes investigated.

Conclusion

Our findings indicated a high prevalence of S. aureus in BTM of U.S. dairy herds, with isolates showing little evidence of resistance to antibiotics commonly used to treat mastitis. However, isolates often carried genes for the various enterotoxins. This study identified predominant genetic clones. Despite lower prevalence, the presence of MRSA and multi-drug resistant strains in BTM poses a significant risk to animal and public health if their number were to increase in dairy environment. Therefore, it is necessary to continuously monitor the use of antibiotics in dairy cows.

Multi Locus Sequence Typing and spa Typing of Staphylococcus Aureus Isolated from the Milk of Cows with Subclinical Mastitis in Croatia

Background: The bacterial species S. aureus is the most common causative agent of mastitis in cows in most countries with a dairy industry. The prevalence of infection caused by S. aureus ranges from 2% to more than 50%, and it causes 10–12% of all cases of clinical mastitis. Aim: The objective was to analyze 237 strains of S. aureus isolated from the milk of cows with subclinical mastitis regarding the spa, mecA, mecC and pvl genes and to perform spa and multi-locus sequence typing (MLST). Methods: Sequencing amplified gene sequences was conducted at Macrogen Europe. Ridom StaphType and BioNumerics software was used to analyze obtained sequences of spa and seven housekeeping genes. Results: The spa fragment was present in 204 (86.1%) of strains, while mecA and mecC gene were detected in 10 strains, and the pvl gene was not detected. Spa typing successfully analyzed 153 tested isolates (64.3%), confirming 53 spa types, four of which were new types. The most frequent spa type was t2678 (14%). MLST typed 198 (83.5%) tested strains and defined 32 different allele profiles, of which three were new. The most frequent allele profile was ST133 (20.7%). Six groups (G) and 15 singletons were defined. Conclusion: Taking the number of confirmed spa types and sequence types (STs) into account, it can be concluded that the strains of S. aureus isolated from the milk of cows with subclinical mastitis form a heterogenous group. To check the possible zoonotic potential of isolates it would be necessary to test the persons and other livestock on the farms.

Prevalence and distribution of multilocus sequence types of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from bulk tank milk and cows with mastitis in Pennsylvania

A total of 163 S. aureus isolates; 113 from mastitic milk (MM) and 50 from bulk tank milk (BTM) (2008, 2013–2015) submitted for bacteriologic analysis at the Penn State Animal Diagnostic Laboratory were examined for their phenotypic and genotypic characteristics. Multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) analysis identified 16 unique sequence types (STs) which belonged to eight clonal complexes (CCs). Majority of the isolates were variants of CC97 (68.7%) and CC151 (25.1%). CC97 comprised of seven STs, of which two were new STs (ST3273, ST3274), while CC151 comprised of three STs of which ST3272 was identified for the first time. Several farms had more than one ST type that were either members of the same clonal complex or unrelated STs. On one farm, six different STs of both categories were seen over the years within the farm. It was observed that ST352 and ST151 were the two main clonal populations in cattle not only in Pennsylvania but also globally. Most isolates were susceptible to all the antibiotics evaluated. 6.7% of isolates showed resistance to vancomycin and penicillin. Two isolates of ST398 showed multidrug resistance (>3 antibiotics) against clindamycin, erythromycin, tetracycline, and penicillin. It was noted that 59 of 163 (36.2%) isolates encoded for enterotoxigenic genes. Enterotoxin genes seg/sei accounted for ~85% of enterotoxin positive isolates. Toxic shock syndrome gene tsst-1 alone was positive in two isolates (ST352, ST 2187). 97.5% of CC151 isolates were enterotoxin seg/sei positive. Most isolates were positive for lukED (95%) and lukAB (96.3%) leukotoxin genes. Bovine specific bi-component leucocidin lukMF’ was present in 54% of isolates. A prominent observation of this study was the explicit association of lukMF’ with lineages ST151 and ST352. In conclusion, the findings of the study, suggest that small number of S. aureus STs types (ST352, ST2187, ST3028, and ST151) are associated with majority of cases of bovine mastitis in Pennsylvania dairy farms. It was observed that one ST of S. aureus predominated in the herd and this ST can coexist with several other ST types of S. aureus strains. When STs were interpreted along with virulence, leucocidin genes and antimicrobial resistance, ST-variants allowed better interpretation of the S. aureus molecular epidemiologic findings specifically for tracing recurrence or persistence of infections in cow over time, among cows in the herd, and between herds in Pennsylvania.

Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Ruminants with Mastitis in Northern Greece Dairy Herds: Genetic Relatedness and Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterization

Staphylococcus aureus is the most common mastitis-related pathogen in dairy cattle, goats, and sheep worldwide. However, the population structure and genomic characteristics of mastitis-associated S. aureus in small ruminants are limited. Furthermore, the genotypic and phenotypic characteristics involved in the pathogenicity of S. aureus have been thoroughly defined, yet their association with the severity of mastitis is not fully established. Here, we performed genotyping by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and spa analyses to assess the genetic diversity and relatedness of 162 S. aureus strains recovered from clinical mastitis (CM) and subclinical mastitis (SCM) cases from goats, sheep, and bovines. PFGE analysis revealed 108 distinguishable pulsotypes and 3 main clusters that comprised isolates from the three host species, while according to spa typing, 32 different spa types were identified. Genotypic analysis revealed a spreading of genetically related or indistinguishable S. aureus strains among ovine, caprine, and bovine farms of distant geographical regions. In total, 28 different staphylococcal enterotoxin (SE) gene profiles were observed, revealing a diverse range of SE genes among isolates. By evaluating the antimicrobial resistance, we found low phenotypic antimicrobial resistance among all ruminant isolates. We also performed multiple correspondence analysis, which indicated that the presence of the sec gene, biofilm production, and high autoaggregation ability are associated with CM cases.

Genotyping and antimicrobial resistance of Staphylococcus aureus isolates from dairy ruminants: differences in the distribution of clonal types between cattle and small ruminants

Staphylococcus aureus is part of the normal flora of animals, and represents one of the leading causes of contagious mastitis in dairy herds worldwide. Sixty-seven epidemiologically unrelated S. aureus isolates from nasal and mastitis milk samples of dairy-producing animals (32 cows, 25 sheep, and 10 goats) were characterized by antimicrobial susceptibility testing and spa typing followed by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) on representative isolates and SCCmec-typing on methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) isolates. The highest resistance was observed to penicillin (64.2%, 43/67), followed by tetracycline (23.9%, 16/67), erythromycin (22.4%, 15/67), and streptomycin (17.9%, 12/67). In general, 18 spa types (including newly identified t16958) and 13 sequence types (STs) belonging to 8 clonal complexes (CCs) were detected. The cow-associated isolates were mainly assigned to CC5 (n = 18, related to t267-ST97, t521-ST352, t527-ST97, t304-ST6, and t084-ST15), followed by CC398 (n = 6, t937-ST291), CC45 (n = 3, t230-ST45), CC88 (n = 2, t2526-ST88), CC22 (n = 2, t3680-ST22), and CC522 (n = 1, t3576-ST522). Small ruminant isolates were mostly clustered into CC522 (n = 29, related to t3576, t1534, t16958, t7308, t7311, t7305 [ST522], t1534-ST2057, and t5428-ST2079). Two isolates from cows with mastitis were found to be MRSA, exhibited a composite profile of t937-ST291-SCCmecIV. No isolates carried the PVL and mecC genes. A significant difference in clonal types of S. aureus isolates from cows in comparison with those from small ruminants was found. This study demonstrated the circulation of diverse clones of S. aureus among dairy animals in Iran, with a different clonal composition between cows and small ruminants. The current study also reports MRSA-related mastitis in dairy cows, emphasizing the need for comprehensive surveillance.

Effect of microbial sanitizers for reducing biofilm formation of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa on stainless steel by cultivation with UHT milk

Biofilm is a serious issue in the dairy factory due to it increases the opportunity for microbial contamination. Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the bacteria capable to construct the biofilm on materials and equipments. Therefore, the bacterial growth and efficiency of sanitizing agents to solve the problems were evaluated. These bacteria grew well in UHT milk when they were cultivated at 37 °C, especially S. aureus. The exponential growth phase and biofilm on stainless steel were discovered by short contact time at 2 h. The mature stage of biofilm cycle was found at 4 h during bacteria growth and it was continuously constructed until 48 h. The 10, 24, and 48 h-old biofilm adhering on stainless steel were established with oxisan and chlorine used as microbial sanitizers. The 4% of sanitizing agents was the efficiency concentration to reduce biofilm on stainless steel up to 82% when these bacteria grew in UHT milk.

Antibiotic Susceptibility profile of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from sausages in Meknes, Morocco

Background and Aims

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most common causes of foodborne disease worldwide, due to the consumption of food contaminated by their toxins. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and the antimicrobial resistance of S. aureus isolated from sausages in Meknes city of Morocco.

Materials and Methods

A total of 156 samples (Beef sausages, Turkey sausages, and Artisanal sausages "Merguez") were collected from different shopping sites (butchery, supermarket, street vendors, and weekly market "Souk") and used for the isolation of S. aureus. All the isolated strains were tested for their antimicrobials resistance to 16 antibiotics.

Results

Our results showed the presence of S. aureus in 63 samples (40.38%). Furthermore, the antimicrobial resistance study showed that 84.13% of isolated S. aureus were resistant to streptomycin, 76.20% to tetracycline, 42.86% to ampicillin, 41.27% to doxycycline, 38.1% to penicillin G, and 19.05% to chloramphenicol with the presence of 25 different phenotypic profiles. However, all isolated strains were sensitive to oxacillin, cefoxitin, gentamicin, and vancomycin.

Conclusion

The findings of this study revealed consumption of sausages as a potential risk of foodborne poisonings because of its contamination with the multi-resistant strains of S. aureus. Moreover, this contamination is related to the season, sampling sites and the origin of the raw material.

Isoenzymatic genotyping of Staphylococcus aureus from dairy cattle and human clinical environments reveal evolutionary divergences

Background

The genetic variability of 610 S. aureus isolates from the hands of professional dentists (A), dental clinic environment air (B), bovine milk from cows with and without mastitis (C), an insufflator for milking equipment (D) and milking environment air (E) was studied by isoenzyme genotyping and genetic and cluster analysis.

Results

Monoclonal and polyclonal patterns of S. aureus were detected in every bacterial population; however, isolates belonging to the same strain were not found among the populations, suggesting the genetic heterogeneity and the intrapopulation spread of strains. Genetic relationship analysis revealed the co-existence of highly related strains at low frequency among populations.

Conclusion

The data suggest that some strains can adapt and colonize new epidemiologically unrelated habitats. Consequently, the occurrence of an epidemiological genotypic identity can assume a dynamic character (spread to new habitats), however infrequently. A tendency of microevolutionary and genetic divergences among populations of S. aureus from human sources (AB) and bovine milk (DE), and especially the mammary quarter (C), is also suggested. This research can contribute to the knowledge on the distribution and dissemination of strains and the implementation of control measures and eradication of S. aureus in important dental clinic environments, as well as animal environments and dairy production.

Presence of Classical Enterotoxin Genes, agr Typing, Antimicrobial Resistance, and Genetic Diversity of Staphylococcus aureus from Milk of Cows with Mastitis in Southern Brazil

Staphylococcus aureus is a common causative agent of bovine mastitis in dairy cows and commonly associated with foodborne disease outbreaks. The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of enterotoxin genes, agr typing, antimicrobial resistance, and genetic diversity of S. aureus isolated from milk of cows with mastitis in dairy farms from southern Brazil. Results showed that 7 (22.6%) of 31 S. aureus isolates were positive for enterotoxin genes. Specifically, the genes encoding for enterotoxins A ( n = 4), C ( n = 2), and B ( n = 1) were detected. Isolates belonging to the agr group III (10 of 31, 32.2%) and agr group I (7 of 31, 22.5%) were the most common. To our knowledge, this is the first report of both agr I and III in the same S. aureus isolate from milk of cows with bovine mastitis. The antimicrobial resistance test showed that 54% of the isolates were multiresistant to antimicrobial agents. The macrorestriction analysis produced 16 different major SmaI pulsed-field gel electrophoresis patterns, with up to two subpatterns. Moreover, the presence of some S. aureus clones in a distinct area was observed. Although this study characterized a limited number of S. aureus isolates, the presence of classical enterotoxin genes and resistance to multiple antimicrobial agents reinforces the importance of this microorganism to animal and human health. In addition, similar genetic profiles have been identified in distinct geographic areas, suggesting clonal dissemination of S. aureus in dairy herds from southern Brazil.

Prevalence and molecular characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus, including methicillin resistant strains, isolated from bulk can milk and raw milk products in pastoral communities of South-West Uganda

Background

Staphylococcus aureus strains are now regarded as zoonotic agents. In pastoral settings where human-animal interaction is intimate, multi-drug resistant microorganisms have become an emerging zoonotic issue of public health concern. The study of S. aureus prevalence, antimicrobial resistance and clonal lineages in humans, animals and food in African settings has great relevance, taking into consideration the high diversity of ethnicities, cultures and food habits that determine the lifestyle of the people. Little is known about milk carriage of methicillin resistant S. aureus strains (MRSA) and their virulence factors in Uganda. Here, we present the prevalence of MRSA in bulk can milk and raw milk products in pastoral communities of south-west Uganda. We also present PFGE profiles, spa-types, as well as frequency of enterotoxins genes.

Methods

S. aureus was identified by the coagulase test, susceptibility testing by the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion and E-test methods and MRSA by detection of the mecA gene and SCCmec types. The presence of Panton – Valentine Leucocidin (PVL) genes and staphylococcal enterotoxins was determined by PCR, while genotyping was by PFGE and spa typing.

Results

S. aureus were isolated from 30/148 (20.3%) milk and 11/91(12%) sour milk samples. mecA gene carriage, hence MRSA, was detected in 23/41 (56.1%) of the isolates, with 21 of the 23 (91.3%) being SCCmec type V; while up to 30/41 (73.2%) of the isolates were resistant to tetracycline. Only five isolates carried the PVL virulence gene, while PFGE typing revealed ten clusters (ranging from two seven isolates each) that comprised 83% of the sample, and only eight isolates with unique pulsotypes. The largest PFGE profile (E) consisted of seven isolates while t7753, t1398, and t2112 were the most common spa-types. Thirty seven of the 41 strains (90.2%) showed at least one of the eight enterotoxin genes tested, with sem 29 (70.7%), sei 25 (61%) and seg 21 (51.2%) being the most frequently observed genes.

Conclusion

This is the first study to demonstrate MRSA and enterotoxin genes in raw milk and its products in Uganda. The fact that over 90% of the isolates carried at least one gene encoding enterotoxins shows a high risk of spread of foodborne diseases through milk in this setting.

Anti-Staphylococcal Enterotoxinogenesis of Lactococcus lactis in Algerian Raw Milk Cheese

Staphylococcus aureus is a potential pathogen contaminating raw milk and dairy products, where it is able to produce thermostable enterotoxins that can cause staphylococcal food poisoning. This study was undertaken to investigate the inhibitory activity of a Lactococcus lactis strain (isolated from milk) on S. aureus growth and staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA) production. In the presence of L. lactis, the number of the pathogen decreased significantly (p<0.05) after 6 h of incubation in a laboratory medium and milk (3 log CFU/mL reduction compared to pure cultures). SEA concentration was reduced by 79% in the co-cultures. S. aureus was unable to reach population levels permitting SEA production in the cheese inoculated with L. lactis during 32 days of storage. In contrast, during the same period, it attained 7 log CFU/g in the cheese manufactured without the lactococcal strain, a level which permitted SEA detection in the cheese extracts. However, this enterotoxin was never detected in the cheese harbouring L. lactis. These results demonstrate the anti-staphylococcal enterotoxinogenesis potential of the L. lactis strain and its usefulness in raw milk cheese biopreservation.

Prevalence of the Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Coagulase-Positive-and Negative-Staphylococcus in Chicken Meat Retailed to Consumers

The use of antibiotics in farm management (growing crops and raising animals) has become a major area of concern. Its implications is the consequent emergence of antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) and accordingly their access into the human food chain with passage of antibiotic resistance genes (ARG) to the normal human intestinal microbiota and hence to other pathogenic bacteria causative human disease. Therefore, we pursued in this study to unravel the frequency and the quinolone resistance determining region, mecA and cfr genes of methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA), methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci (MRCNS) and methicillin-susceptible coagulase-negative staphylococci (MSCNS) isolated from the retail trade of ready-to-eat raw chicken meat samples collected during 1 year and sold across the Great Cairo area. The 50 Staphylococcus isolated from retail raw chicken meat were analyzed for their antibiotic resistance phenotypic profile on 12 antibiotics (penicillin, oxacillin, methicillin, ampicillin-sulbactam, erythromycin, tetracycline, clindamycin, gentamicin, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, and vancomycin) and their endorsement of the quinolone resistance determining region, mecA and cfr genes. The isolation results revealed 50 isolates, CPS (14) and CNS (36), representing ten species (S. aureus, S. hyicus, S. epidermedius, S. lugdunensis, S. haemolyticus, S. hominus, S. schleiferi, S. cohnii, S. intermedius, and S. lentus). Twenty seven isolates were methicillin-resistant. Out of the characterized 50 staphylococcal isolates, three were MRSA but only 2/3 carried the mecA gene. The ARG that bestows resistance to quinolones, β-lactams, macrolides, lincosamides, and streptogramin B [MLS(_B)] in MRSA and MR-CNS were perceived. According to the available literature, the present investigation was a unique endeavor into the identification of the quinolone-resistance-determining-regions, the identification of MRSA and MR-CNS from retail chicken meat in Egypt. In addition, these isolates might indicate the promulgation of methicillin, oxacillin and vancomycin resistance in the community and imply food safety hazards.

Staphylococcus aureus Entrance into the Dairy Chain: Tracking S. aureus from Dairy Cow to Cheese

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most important contagious mastitis pathogens in dairy cattle. Due to its zoonotic potential, control of S. aureus is not only of great economic importance in the dairy industry but also a significant public health concern. The aim of this study was to decipher the potential of bovine udder associated S. aureus as reservoir for S. aureus contamination in dairy production and processing. From 18 farms, delivering their milk to an alpine dairy plant for the production of smeared semi-hard and hard cheese. one thousand hundred seventy six one thousand hundred seventy six quarter milk (QM) samples of all cows in lactation (n = 294) and representative samples form bulk tank milk (BTM) of all farms were surveyed for coagulase positive (CPS) and coagulase negative Staphylococci (CNS). Furthermore, samples from different steps of the cheese manufacturing process were tested for CPS and CNS. As revealed by chemometric-assisted FTIR spectroscopy and molecular subtyping (spa typing and multi locus sequence typing), dairy cattle represent indeed an important, yet underreported, entrance point of S. aureus into the dairy chain. Our data clearly show that certain S. aureus subtypes are present in primary production as well as in the cheese processing at the dairy plant. However, although a considerable diversity of S. aureus subtypes was observed in QM and BTM at the farms, only certain S. aureus subtypes were able to enter and persist in the cheese manufacturing at the dairy plant and could be isolated from cheese until day 14 of ripening. Farm strains belonging to the FTIR cluster B1 and B3, which show genetic characteristics (t2953, ST8, enterotoxin profile: sea/sed/sej) of the recently described S. aureus genotype B, most successfully contaminated the cheese production at the dairy plant. Thus, our study fosters the hypothesis that genotype B S. aureus represent a specific challenge in control of S. aureus in the dairy chain that requires effective clearance strategies and hygienic measures already in primary production to avoid a potential transfer of enterotoxic strains or enterotoxins into the dairy processing and the final retail product.

Assessment of Enterotoxin Production and Cross-Contamination of Staphylococcus aureus between Food Processing Materials and Ready-To-Eat Cooked Fish Paste

This study evaluated Staphylococcus aureus growth and subsequent staphylococcal enterotoxin A production in tryptone soy broth and on ready-to-eat cooked fish paste at 12 to 37 °C, as well as cross-contamination between stainless steel, polyethylene, and latex glove at room temperature. A model was developed using Barany and Roberts's growth model, which satisfactorily described the suitable growth of S. aureus with R(2)-adj from 0.94 to 0.99. Except at 12 °C, S. aureus cells in TSB presented a lag time lower (14.64 to 1.65 h), grew faster (0.08 to 0.31 log CFU/h) and produced SEA at lower cell density levels (5.65 to 6.44 log CFU/mL) compare to those inoculated on cooked fish paste with data of 16.920 to 1.985 h, 0.02 to 0.23 log CFU/h, and 6.19 to 7.11 log CFU/g, respectively. Staphylococcal enterotoxin type A (SEA) visual immunoassay test showed that primary SEA detection varied considerably among different storage temperature degrees and media. For example, it occurred only during exponential phase at 30 and 37 °C in TSB, but in cooked fish paste it took place at late exponential phase of S. aureus growth at 20 and 25 °C. The SEA detection test was negative on presence of S. aureus on cooked fish paste stored at 12 and 15 °C, although cell density reached level of 6.12 log CFU/g at 15 °C. Cross-contamination expressed as transfer rate of S. aureus from polyethylene surface to cooked fish paste surface was slower than that observed with steel surface to cooked fish paste under same conditions. These results provide helpful information for controlling S. aureus growth, SEA production and cross-contamination during processing of cooked fish paste.

Genomic characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus strains associated with high within-herd prevalence of intramammary infections in dairy cows

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most important causes of mastitis in dairy cattle. Based on previous research, Staph. aureus genotypes with different pathogenic and contagious properties can cause intramammary infection (IMI) and coexist in the same herd. Our study aimed to compare Staph. aureus strains from herds that differed in IMI prevalence using different molecular approaches such as ribosomal spacer (RS)-PCR, multilocus sequence typing (MLST), spa typing, ribotyping, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and multiplex PCR. For this purpose, 31 dairy herds with Staph. aureus IMI were selected, and 16 of these were chosen for a comparison study: the 8 high-prevalence (HP) herds had Staph. aureus IMI prevalence >28% and the 8 low-prevalence (LP) herds had an IMI prevalence <4%. A total of 650 isolates of Staph. aureus from mammary quarters of all positive cows were genotyped with RS-PCR, a technique based on amplification of a portion of the intergenic spacer 16S-23S rRNA, and a subset of 54 strains was also analyzed by multiplex PCR, ribotyping, PFGE, MLST, and spa typing. The RS-PCR analysis revealed 12 different profiles. Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from 5 out of 8 HP herds showed a profile identical to the genotype B (GTB), described in previous studies as being strongly associated with high within-herd prevalence of Staph. aureus mastitis and the presence of the genes coding for enterotoxins sea, sed, and sej, a long x-region of spa gene, and 3 lukE fragments. Moreover, all strains isolated in the HP herds possessed genes coding for staphylococcal enterotoxins. In LP herds, a limited number of strains of 6 genotypes, different from those isolated in HP herds, were identified and GTB was not found. Within these genotypes, 4 strains were positive for the mecA gene. Preliminary results and comparison with other genotyping methods confirmed that genotyping by RS-PCR is an accurate, rapid, and inexpensive tool for future field studies on Staph. aureus mastitis strains and generates clinically relevant results.

The bacteriological quality of goat and ovine milk

This study concentrates on information concerning the microbiological hazards that can be present in raw milk from animal species other than cows. A total of 54 (23 of ovine and 31 of goat) bulk tank milk samples from 10 farms in the Czech Republic were collected in years 2013 - 2014. The sampling was done at regular time intervals during the whole year, with five to eight samples collected from each of the 10 dairy farms involved in the study. All milk samples were collected into sterile sampling bottles and transported in a cooler sampling case to the laboratory for immediate examination. Farms were randomly selected to cover the whole area of the Czech Republic. The prevalence and characteristic of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. and Listeria monocytogenes was studied. Raw cow's milk can be contaminated by E. coli intramammarily during clinical or subclinical mastitis and either directly through animal feces or indirectly during milk collection through farm employees or the milking equipment. E. coli was detected in 90.3% of the goat milk and 95.7% of the ovine milk samples. The genes encoding Shiga toxins 1 and 2- (stx1, stx2) were not detected and no STEC was identified. The Eae was the detected in 3 (4.6%) isolates. S. aureus was detected in 9 (29.0%) samples of goat milk and 8 (34.8%) samples of ovine milk. A total 12 (57.1%) enterotoxin positive S. aureus were obtained; 6 (28.6%) were positive for the production of sec encoding enterotoxin SEC; in 4 (19.0%) isolates the gene seh was detected; 2 (9.5%) isolates were proven positive for seg (4.8%) and combination seg and sei (4.8%). The presence of MRSA was not detected in the tested samples in our study. L. monocytogenes was detected in 1 (3.2%) samples of goat milk and 1 (4.3%) samples of ovine milk. The serotype (1/2a, 1/2b) was detected in our study. Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. were not isolated from any of the samples. These results form the basis for determining the microbiological quality standards for goat and ovine milk.

Staphylococcus aureus from 152 cases of bovine, ovine and caprine mastitis investigated by Multiple-locus variable number of tandem repeat analysis (MLVA)

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the main etiological agents of mastitis in ruminants. In the present retrospective study, we evaluated the potential interest of a previously described automated multiple loci Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTR) Assay (MLVA) comprising 16 loci as a first line tool to investigate the population structure of S. aureus from mastitis. We determined the genetic diversity of S. aureus strains from cases of clinical and subclinical mastitis in dairy cattle (n = 118, of which 16 were methicillin-resistant), sheep (n = 18) and goats (n = 16). The 152 strains could be subdivided into 115 MLVA genotypes (including 14 genotypes for the ovine strains and 15 genotypes for the caprine strains). This corresponds to a discriminatory index (D) value of 0.9936. Comparison with published MLVA data obtained using the same protocol applied to strains from diverse human and animal origins revealed a low number (8.5%) of human-related MLVA genotypes among the present collection. Eighteen percent of the S. aureus mastitis collection belonged to clonal complexes apparently not associated with other pathological conditions. Some of them displayed a relatively low level of diversity in agreement with a restricted ecological niche. These findings provide arguments suggesting that specific S. aureus lineages particularly adapted to ruminant mammary glands have emerged and that MLVA is a convenient tool to provide a broad overview of the population, owing to the availability via internet of databases compiling published MLVA genotypes.

Prevalence of enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus aureus in organic milk and cheese in Tabriz, Iran

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Staphylococcal food poisoning is a gastrointestinal disease, which is caused by consumption of contaminated food with enterotoxins produced by Staphylococcus aureus (SEs). Milk and its products are known sources of food borne diseases. This study was carried out to evaluate the prevalence of enterotoxigenic S. aureus strains in organic milk and cheese in Tabriz - Iran.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 200 samples (100 milk samples and 100 cheese samples) were collected from farms and milk collection points in Tabriz - Iran. The samples were cultured and identified by standard bacteriological methods, then PCR was performed to detect sea gene.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Staphylococcus aureus was found in 27% of all samples (milk and cheese). Results of PCR showed that 12.96% of S. aureus isolates possessed sea gene. It suggested the potential public health threat of S. aureus resulting from contamination of dairy products. So, efforts are required to improve safety standards for preventing staphylococcal food poisoning.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carrying the mecC gene: emergence in Spain and report of a fatal case of bacteraemia

OBJECTIVES

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains carrying the mecC gene have been reported from humans and animals from several European countries, but never from Spain. We describe the first isolates of mecC-positive MRSA of human origin collected in Spain and report a fatal case of bacteraemia.

METHODS

Isolates were tested for phenotypic resistance using cefoxitin, tested for the mecA/mecC genes and toxin genes by PCR, and typed by staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec), PFGE, spa, multilocus sequence typing and agr.

RESULTS

During 2008-13 five MRSA isolates showing resistance to cefoxitin and carrying the mecC gene were recovered at one hospital in Spain. In a review of 5505 S. aureus strains received at the Spanish National Reference Centre for Staphylococci from the same period, we found two additional mecC-positive isolates. The isolates were recovered from blood (two), wounds (two), joint fluid (one), urine (one) and a nasal swab (one). All MRSA were mecA negative, presented SCCmecXI, belonged to agr group III and to clonal complex 130, and were negative for the production of the toxin genes tst1, eta, etb, etd and Panton-Valentine leucocidin. Six isolates belonged to spa type t843 (ST130 and ST1945, where ST stands for sequence type) and one to spa type t6220 (ST1945). One patient with mecC-positive MRSA sepsis died in the emergency department.

CONCLUSIONS

We confirm the presence of MRSA carrying the mecC gene in Spain, the ability of this livestock-associated MRSA to cause severe infections in humans and the need to perform culture-based susceptibility testing methods in order to detect these emerging strains.

Whole genome sequencing identifies zoonotic transmission of MRSA isolates with the novel mecA homologue mecC

Several methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) lineages that carry a novel mecA homologue (mecC) have recently been described in livestock and humans. In Denmark, two independent human cases of mecC-MRSA infection have been linked to a livestock reservoir. We investigated the molecular epidemiology of the associated MRSA isolates using whole genome sequencing (WGS). Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) were defined and compared to a reference genome to place the isolates into a phylogenetic context. Phylogenetic analysis revealed two distinct farm-specific clusters comprising isolates from the human case and their own livestock, whereas human and animal isolates from the same farm only differed by a small number of SNPs, which supports the likelihood of zoonotic transmission. Further analyses identified a number of genes and mutations that may be associated with host interaction and virulence. This study demonstrates that mecC-MRSA ST130 isolates are capable of transmission between animals and humans, and underscores the potential of WGS in epidemiological investigations and source tracking of bacterial infections.

Are all meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) equal in all hosts? Epidemiological and genetic comparison between animal and human MRSA

Meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) continues to pose a major threat to human health. In animals, MRSA has become established as a veterinary pathogen in pets and horses; in livestock, it presents a concern for public health as a reservoir that can infect humans and as a source of transferrable resistance genes. Genetic analyses have revealed that the epidemiology of MRSA is different in different animal hosts. While human hospital-associated MRSA lineages are most commonly involved in pet infection and carriage, horse-specific MRSA most often represent 'traditional' equine S. aureus lineages. A recent development in the epidemiology of animal MRSA is the emergence of pig-adapted strains, such as CC398 and CC9, which appear to have arisen independently in the pig population. Recent insight into the genome structure and the evolution of S. aureus has helped to explain key aspects of these three distinct epidemiological scenarios. This nonsystematic literature review summarizes the structure and variations of the S. aureus genome and gives an overview of the current distribution of MRSA lineages in various animal species. It also discusses present knowledge about the emergence and evolution of MRSA in animals, adaptation to different host species and response to selective pressure from animal-specific environments. An improved understanding of the genetics and selective pressure that underpin the adaptive behaviour of S. aureus may be used in the future to predict new developments in staphylococcal diseases and to investigate novel control strategies required at a time of increasing resistance to antimicrobial agents.

Comparative host specificity of human- and pig- associated Staphylococcus aureus clonal lineages

Bacterial adhesion is a crucial step in colonization of the skin. In this study, we investigated the differential adherence to human and pig corneocytes of six Staphylococcus aureus strains belonging to three human-associated [ST8 (CC8), ST22 (CC22) and ST36(CC30)] and two pig-associated [ST398 (CC398) and ST433(CC30)] clonal lineages, and their colonization potential in the pig host was assessed by in vivo competition experiments. Corneocytes were collected from 11 humans and 21 pigs using D-squame® adhesive discs, and bacterial adherence to corneocytes was quantified by a standardized light microscopy assay. A previously described porcine colonization model was used to assess the potential of the six strains to colonize the pig host. Three pregnant, S. aureus-free sows were inoculated intravaginally shortly before farrowing with different strain mixes [mix 1) human and porcine ST398; mix 2) human ST36 and porcine ST433; and mix 3) human ST8, ST22, ST36 and porcine ST398] and the ability of individual strains to colonize the nasal cavity of newborn piglets was evaluated for 28 days after birth by strain-specific antibiotic selective culture. In the corneocyte assay, the pig-associated ST433 strain and the human-associated ST22 and ST36 strains showed significantly greater adhesion to porcine and human corneocytes, respectively (p<0.0001). In contrast, ST8 and ST398 did not display preferential host binding patterns. In the in vivo competition experiment, ST8 was a better colonizer compared to ST22, ST36, and ST433 prevailed over ST36 in colonizing the newborn piglets. These results are partly in agreement with previous genetic and epidemiological studies indicating the host specificity of ST22, ST36 and ST433 and the broad-host range of ST398. However, our in vitro and in vivo experiments revealed an unexpected ability of ST8 to adhere to porcine corneocytes and persist in the nasal cavity of pigs.

Comparative genotypic and phenotypic characterisation of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus ST398 isolated from animals and humans

The high prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) ST398 among pigs in certain European countries and North America and its occurrence in other animal species raises a question concerning the molecular mechanisms mediating the success of this lineage. In this study a panel of S. aureus strains belonging to sequence type (ST) 5 (n = 4), ST8 (n = 5), ST15 (n = 5), ST22 (n = 8), clonal complex (CC) 30 (n = 8), CC97 (n = 8), CC130 (n = 4), CC151 (n = 4) and ST398 (n = 18) were screened by DNA microarray and PCR for the carriage of virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes. Isolates belonging to the same sequence type/clonal complex (ST/CC) were found to share similar virulence gene profiles. The ST398 lineage displayed the lowest content of virulence genes, which consisted mainly of genes detected among the majority or all of the analysed lineages. All MRSA ST398 isolates lacked accessory virulence genes that were detected in other ST/CC. In contrast to virulence genotype, the antimicrobial resistance genes profiles varied between isolates belonging to the same ST/CC and profile similarities could be observed for isolates from different lineages. MRSA ST398 isolates in particular displayed significant diversity and high content of antimicrobial resistance genes. This was comparable with certain MRSA belonging to other sequence types particularly the equine MRSA ST8. The apparent lack of significant virulence genes among MRSA ST398 strains, demonstrates that the lineage features a unique genetic background but no ST398-specific virulence markers could be identified.

High throughput multiple locus variable number of tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) of Staphylococcus aureus from human, animal and food sources

Staphylococcus aureus is a major human pathogen, a relevant pathogen in veterinary medicine, and a major cause of food poisoning. Epidemiological investigation tools are needed to establish surveillance of S. aureus strains in humans, animals and food. In this study, we investigated 145 S. aureus isolates recovered from various animal species, disease conditions, food products and food poisoning events. Multiple Locus Variable Number of Tandem Repeat (VNTR) analysis (MLVA), known to be highly efficient for the genotyping of human S. aureus isolates, was used and shown to be equally well suited for the typing of animal S. aureus isolates. MLVA was improved by using sixteen VNTR loci amplified in two multiplex PCRs and analyzed by capillary electrophoresis ensuring a high throughput and high discriminatory power. The isolates were assigned to twelve known clonal complexes (CCs) and –a few singletons. Half of the test collection belonged to four CCs (CC9, CC97, CC133, CC398) previously described as mostly associated with animals. The remaining eight CCs (CC1, CC5, CC8, CC15, CC25, CC30, CC45, CC51), representing 46% of the animal isolates, are common in humans. Interestingly, isolates responsible for food poisoning show a CC distribution signature typical of human isolates and strikingly different from animal isolates, suggesting a predominantly human origin.

Population genetic structures of Staphylococcus aureus isolates from cats and dogs in Japan

We determined the population genetic structures of feline and canine Staphylococcus aureus strains in Japan by multilocus sequence typing (MLST). Ecological analyses suggested that multiple feline-related S. aureus clones, including ST133, naturally occur as commensals and can cause endogenous infections in felines. In contrast, S. aureus populations do not likely include any clone that exhibits tropism in domestic dogs. Even if S. aureus infections occur in dogs, the pathologies are likely exogenous infections.

Clonal diversity of Staphylococcus aureus originating from the small ruminants goats and sheep

Staphylococcus aureus is an important pathogen in humans and many animal species. The prevalence of different clonal types in animal species remains largely unknown. We analyzed 267 S. aureus from intramammary infections in goats (47) and sheep (220) by spa typing, multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) and antimicrobial susceptibility. The most frequent spa types in goats were t337 (N=9), t759 (N=6) and t1534 (N=5). Sheep isolates mainly belonged to spa types t1534 (N=72), t2678 (N=29) and t3576 (N=20). Eighteen novel spa-types were observed; two from goat strains, 13 from sheep and three in both species. The majority of the goat strains grouped in MLST CC133 (N=10) and ST522 (N=10), followed by CC9 (N=9), while the majority of the sheep strains were of ST522 (N=108) followed by CC133 (N=86) and CC130 (N=11). Nine new MLST types were detected; three in goat and sheep isolates (ST1739, ST1758 and ST1780), two identified in goats only (ST1740 and ST2061) and four in sheep only (ST1742, ST1743, ST1781 and ST2011). Strains showed resistance below 20% against penicillin and tetracycline; a strong association between CC-types and penicillin resistance was observed. No resistance was detected to cefoxitin, quinupristin-dalfopristin, rifampicin and vancomycin. This study suggests that ST522 is the most common S. aureus clone associated with small ruminants followed by CC133.

Molecular epidemiology of microorganisms isolated from food workers and enteral feeding of public hospitals

This study aimed to compare strains of Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli isolated from food workers and enteral diet samples obtained from 2 public hospitals (H1/H2) in Goiania, Goias, Brazil, by the means of antibiogram and pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). In the H1, strains of S. aureus were present in 2 enteral diet samples and in 13 food worker swabs. Strains of E. coli were found in an enteral diet sample from H1 and in 2 enteral diet samples from H2 and in 6 food worker swabs in the H1 and in 12 food worker swabs from H2. According to the antibiogram, the 6 susceptibility profiles (A to F) of 15 S. aureus strains colonizing personnel and enteral feeding did not allow the identification of the probable source of diet contamination. All 20 E. coli strains isolated from the H1 and H2 were grouped in 4 phenotypic profiles (A to D). The phenotypes A (H1) and C (H2) showed the same profile for microorganisms isolated from handlers and diets, suggesting more phenotypic similarity among these samples. PFGE genotyping showed that S. aureus isolates from diets were related to a single strain isolated from a food worker suggesting that in this case the reason for the diet contamination may be a result of food handling. The food worker appears to be the most probable source of E. coli contamination for enteral feeding from H2. This fact emphasizes on the food workers as a risk of bacterial transmission for the diets and that the diet chain production must be controlled.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

The study emphasizes the importance of monitoring the enteral diet microbiological quality and the factors associated to its contamination. The study highlights the use of molecular biology as an instrument to correlate strains to determine the origin of the final product contamination.