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Dagnaw M, Solomon A, Dagnew B. Serological prevalence of the Schmallenberg virus in domestic and wild hosts worldwide: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1371495. [PMID: 38605927 PMCID: PMC11008530 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1371495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Schmallenberg virus (SBV) is an arthropod-borne virus that emerged recently in northwestern Europe in 2011 that affects domestic and wild ruminants and induces abortion, stillbirth, and newborns with congenital anomalies. Since its discovery, SBV has spread very rapidly to too many countries in the world. The overall serological investigation of SBV is needed to improve modeling predictions and assess the overall impact on ruminant animals, which helps to design interventions for control and prevention strategies. Thus, this study aimed to estimate the overall serological assay of SBV in both domestic and wild ruminants around the world. This systematic review was conducted as per the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. International databases were employed To search for relevant articles. The pooled prevalence with a 95% confidence interval was calculated with a random effects model. The Cochran's Q test, τ2, and I2 were used to assess the sources of heterogeneity. In the current meta-analysis, a total of 41 articles were included. The overall pooled proportion of SBV in domestic and wild ruminants was 49 and 26%, respectively. Substantial heterogeneity was observed in studies on domestic ruminants (I2 = 99.7%; p < 0.01) and studies on wild ruminants (I2 = 97.9%; p < 0.01). The pooled prevalence of SBV was significantly associated with publication time, detection techniques, and species of animals. According to the subgroup analysis, the highest pooled prevalence of SBV was reported in cattle (59%), followed by sheep (37%) and goat (18%). In addition to the subgroup analysis based on publication year, the pooled prevalence of SBV infection has become endemic since 2013 (49%) among domestic animals in the world. Of the diagnostic tests used, the highest anti-SBV antibodies (66%) were detected by a virus neutralization test. In this meta-analysis, the major wild animals that were infected by SBV were red deer, roe deer, fallow deer, mouflon, and wild boar. The highest sub-pooled prevalence of SBV was found in roe deer (46%), followed by fallow deer (30%), red deer (27%), mouflon (22%), and wild boar (11%). In general, the prevalence of SBV was high in cattle among domestic ruminants and in roe deer among wild animals. According to the current information provided by this meta-analysis, evidence-based risk management measures should be established to restrict SBV spread in both domestic and wild ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melkie Dagnaw
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Atsede Solomon
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Binyam Dagnew
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine and Health Science, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
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Kęsik-Maliszewska J, Collins ÁB, Rola J, Blanco-Penedo I, Larska M. Schmallenberg virus in Poland endemic or re-emerging? A six-year serosurvey. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020; 68:2188-2198. [PMID: 33012078 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A novel arbovirus, called Schmallenberg virus (SBV), emerged in Europe in 2011 infecting domestic as well as wild ruminants. The virus was first detected in Poland during the 2012 vector season. In order to study the SBV post-epidemic period in Poland, over twenty-one thousand domestic ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats) were tested for SBV infection between 2013 and 2018. Samples were collected as part of the national Bluetongue virus (BTV) surveillance programme. Thirteen per cent of all samples were collected from animals between 6 months and one year of age. Overall, 37.5% of ruminants tested seropositive. The seroprevalence fluctuated yearly and was highest in 2014 and 2017; however, seroconversion was detected in younger animals throughout the study indicating continuous virus circulation during the 6-year study period. A significantly higher proportion of seropositive animals were detected among cattle and older animals. Uneven distribution of seropositive animals between provinces was identified and may be a result of different housing and breeding practices and/or meteorological conditions influencing local and regional vector abundances, rather than farm stocking densities. A small number of animals were identified as being exposed to both SBV and BTV; this is likely due to the fact that the same Culicoides species transmit these two viruses thus increasing the risk of co-exposure. Considering these results, in addition to virological and entomological studies carried out in Poland previously, it can be concluded that SBV is endemic in Poland with cyclical waves of virus circulation happening every 3-4 years.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Áine B Collins
- Centre for Veterinary Epidemiology and Risk Analysis, UCD School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.,Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Jerzy Rola
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Puławy, Poland
| | - Isabel Blanco-Penedo
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Magdalena Larska
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Puławy, Poland
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Collins ÁB, Doherty ML, Barrett DJ, Mee JF. Schmallenberg virus: a systematic international literature review (2011-2019) from an Irish perspective. Ir Vet J 2019; 72:9. [PMID: 31624588 PMCID: PMC6785879 DOI: 10.1186/s13620-019-0147-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
In Autumn 2011, nonspecific clinical signs of pyrexia, diarrhoea, and drop in milk yield were observed in dairy cattle near the German town of Schmallenberg at the Dutch/German border. Targeted veterinary diagnostic investigations for classical endemic and emerging viruses could not identify a causal agent. Blood samples were collected from animals with clinical signs and subjected to metagenomic analysis; a novel orthobunyavirus was identified and named Schmallenberg virus (SBV). In late 2011/early 2012, an epidemic of abortions and congenital malformations in calves, lambs and goat kids, characterised by arthrogryposis and hydranencephaly were reported in continental Europe. Subsequently, SBV RNA was confirmed in both aborted and congenitally malformed foetuses and also in Culicoides species biting midges. It soon became evident that SBV was an arthropod-borne teratogenic virus affecting domestic ruminants. SBV rapidly achieved a pan-European distribution with most countries confirming SBV infection within a year or two of the initial emergence. The first Irish case of SBV was confirmed in the south of the country in late 2012 in a bovine foetus. Since SBV was first identified in 2011, a considerable body of scientific research has been conducted internationally describing this novel emerging virus. The aim of this systematic review is to provide a comprehensive synopsis of the most up-to-date scientific literature regarding the origin of SBV and the spread of the Schmallenberg epidemic, in addition to describing the species affected, clinical signs, pathogenesis, transmission, risk factors, impact, diagnostics, surveillance methods and control measures. This review also highlights current knowledge gaps in the scientific literature regarding SBV, most notably the requirement for further research to determine if, and to what extent, SBV circulation occurred in Europe and internationally during 2017 and 2018. Moreover, recommendations are also made regarding future arbovirus surveillance in Europe, specifically the establishment of a European-wide sentinel herd surveillance program, which incorporates bovine serology and Culicoides entomology and virology studies, at national and international level to monitor for the emergence and re-emergence of arboviruses such as SBV, bluetongue virus and other novel Culicoides-borne arboviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Áine B Collins
- Animal and Bioscience Research Department, Teagasc, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co, Cork, Ireland.,2School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Michael L Doherty
- 2School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Damien J Barrett
- Department of Agriculture, Surveillance, Animal By-Products and TSE Division, Food and the Marine, Backweston, Celbridge, Co. Kildare Ireland
| | - John F Mee
- Animal and Bioscience Research Department, Teagasc, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co, Cork, Ireland
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Jiménez-Ruiz S, Paniagua J, Isla J, Martínez-Padilla AB, de Los Ángeles Risalde M, Caballero-Gómez J, Cano-Terriza D, Pujols J, Arenas A, García-Bocanegra I. Description of the first Schmallenberg disease outbreak in Spain and subsequent virus spreading in domestic ruminants. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2019; 65:189-193. [PMID: 31300112 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2019.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Schmallenberg disease (SBD) is an emerging disease transmitted mainly among ruminant species by biting midges of the genus Culicoides. Since the Schmallenberg virus (SBV) was first identified in Germany in late 2011, it rapidly spread to other European countries. The aims of the present study were to describe the first SBD outbreak in Spain and to assess the spread and risk factors associated with SBV infection in domestic ruminants from nearby farms during the following year. In March 2012, one malformed stillborn lamb from a sheep farm located in Cordoba province (Southern Spain) was subjected to necropsy. Pathological compatible lesions and molecular analyses confirmed the first SBV infection in Spain. Afterwards, serum samples from 505 extensively reared domestic ruminants from 29 farms were analysed using both blocking ELISA and virus neutralization test against SBV. The overall seroprevalence was 54.4% (CI95%: 50.0-58.7). Antibodies were detected in 70.6%, 46.0% and 34.8% of cattle, sheep and goats, respectively. A generalized estimating equation model indicated that the main risk factors associated with SBV infection were: species (cattle), age (adult), and absence of animal insecticide treatment. Pathological and molecular results confirmed the presence of SBV in Spain few months after it was firstly identified in Germany. The seroprevalence detected indicates a widespread circulation of SBV in nearby domestic ruminant farms one year after this first outbreak was reported in Spain. Further studies are warranted to determine the spatio-temporal trend of SBV in domestic ruminants in this country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saúl Jiménez-Ruiz
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, UCO, Campus Universitario de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba, Spain; Grupo de Sanidad y Biotecnología, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, Universidad de Castilla la Mancha, (SaBio-IREC, UCLM-CSIC-JCCM), 13005, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Jorge Paniagua
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, UCO, Campus Universitario de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Julio Isla
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, UCO, Campus Universitario de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Ana Belén Martínez-Padilla
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, UCO, Campus Universitario de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
| | - María de Los Ángeles Risalde
- Departamento de Anatomía y Anatomía Patológica Comparadas, Facultad de Veterinaria, UCO, Campus Universitario de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba, Spain; Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Grupo de Virología Clínica y Zoonosis, Instituto Maimónides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Hospital Universitario de Córdoba, 14004 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Javier Caballero-Gómez
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, UCO, Campus Universitario de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba, Spain; Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Grupo de Virología Clínica y Zoonosis, Instituto Maimónides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Hospital Universitario de Córdoba, 14004 Córdoba, Spain
| | - David Cano-Terriza
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, UCO, Campus Universitario de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Joan Pujols
- IRTA, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA, IRTA-UAB), Campus de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Antonio Arenas
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, UCO, Campus Universitario de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Ignacio García-Bocanegra
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, UCO, Campus Universitario de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba, Spain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Larska
- Department of Virology; National Veterinary Research Institute; Puławy Poland
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Ségard A, Gardès L, Jacquier E, Grillet C, Mathieu B, Rakotoarivony I, Setier-Rio ML, Chavernac D, Cêtre-Sossah C, Balenghien T, Garros C. Schmallenberg virus in Culicoides
Latreille (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) populations in France during 2011-2012 outbreak. Transbound Emerg Dis 2017; 65:e94-e103. [DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A. Ségard
- UMR ASTRE; CIRAD; Montpellier France
| | - L. Gardès
- UMR ASTRE; CIRAD; Montpellier France
| | | | | | - B. Mathieu
- IPPTS, DHPI EA 7292; Université de Strasbourg; Strasbourg France
| | | | | | | | - C. Cêtre-Sossah
- UMR ASTRE; CIRAD; Montpellier France
- UMR ASTRE; CIRAD; Sainte-Clotilde La Réunion France
| | - T. Balenghien
- UMR ASTRE; CIRAD; Montpellier France
- CIRAD; UMR ASTRE; Rabat Maroc
- Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II; Rabat Maroc
| | - C. Garros
- UMR ASTRE; CIRAD; Montpellier France
- UMR ASTRE; CIRAD; Sainte-Clotilde La Réunion France
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Abstract
In 2011-2012, northern European livestock faced a threat from a newly emerged virus, Schmallenberg virus (SBV), only a few years after a major outbreak of bluetongue serotype 8 (BTV-8). Like BTV-8, SBV is transmitted by Culicoides biting midges to ruminants and spread throughout Europe. SBV, however, spread faster, reaching the UK within three months of initial discovery. Adult ruminants show only mild, if any, clinical signs; however, infection of naive ruminants by SBV during the vulnerable period of gestation leads to abortions, stillbirths and fetal malformations. Although some data exist for the prevalence of SBV on UK sheep farms early in the outbreak, we have no information on its current status. Is SBV still circulating in the UK? To answer this, the authors designed a freedom from disease study across the southernmost counties of the UK. During autumn 2015, 1444 sheep, from 131 farms, were tested for antibodies against SBV by ELISA; 5 samples from 4 farms were twice found positive by ELISA but were later confirmed negative by virus neutralisation test. As the sheep were born between October 2014 and April 2015, the authors conclude that it is unlikely that SBV is still circulating in the south of England.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Eleanor Stokes
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 7TE, UK
| | - Matthew Baylis
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 7TE, UK
| | - Jennifer Sarah Duncan
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 7TE, UK
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Poskin A, Théron L, Hanon J, Saegerman C, Vervaeke M, Van der Stede Y, Cay B, De Regge N. Reconstruction of the Schmallenberg virus epidemic in Belgium: Complementary use of disease surveillance approaches. Vet Microbiol 2016; 183:50-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.11.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Revised: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 11/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Helmer C, Eibach R, Humann-Ziehank E, Tegtmeyer PC, Bürstel D, Mayer K, Moog U, Stauch S, Strobel H, Voigt K, Sieber P, Greiner M, Ganter M. Seroprevalence of Schmallenberg virus infection in sheep and goats flocks in Germany, 2012-2013. Vet Med Sci 2016; 2:10-22. [PMID: 29067177 PMCID: PMC5645825 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2014] [Revised: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 11/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Schmallenberg virus (SBV) is a member of the family Bunyaviridae and mainly affects ruminants. It is transmitted by biting midges, first and foremost Culicoides spp., and causes congenital malformations reflected in arthrogryposis-hydranencephaly (AH) syndrome. The aim of this study was to collect data on the emergence of SBV as a new arthropod-borne disease introduced into Europe in 2011. Germany was located in the core region of the 2011/2012 epidemic. Following two seroprevalence studies in the north-west of Germany in 2012, this study focused on the epidemiology and distribution of SBV throughout 130 small ruminant flocks in the whole country. Blood samples were obtained of 30 animals per flock and a SBV-specific questionnaire was used to collect operating data of the farms. The median within-herd seroprevalence for all 130 flocks tested was 53.3% with a total range from 0% to 100%. The median within-herd seroprevalence for goats was 30% [interquartile range (IQR): 40.3%] and 57% for sheep (IQR: 43.3%). Small ruminant flocks kept permanently indoors or housed overnight had a significantly lower seroprevalence than flocks kept permanently outdoors. In addition, this study revealed a significantly lower seroprevalence in the north-east of Germany. These results show that small ruminants in Germany are still at risk of contracting new SBV infections following incomplete seroconversion of flocks especially in the north-east of Germany. This might contribute to SBV becoming enzootic in central and northern Europe. Furthermore, the survey revealed that housing animals at least during mating and early pregnancy may reduce the risk of new SBV infections and may thus be an option to reduce losses as long as there is no licensed vaccine available on the German market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carina Helmer
- Clinic for Swine and Small RuminantsUniversity of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, FoundationBischofsholer Damm 15D-30173HannoverGermany
| | - Regina Eibach
- Clinic for Swine and Small RuminantsUniversity of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, FoundationBischofsholer Damm 15D-30173HannoverGermany
| | - Esther Humann-Ziehank
- Clinic for Swine and Small RuminantsUniversity of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, FoundationBischofsholer Damm 15D-30173HannoverGermany
| | - Philip C Tegtmeyer
- Clinic for Swine and Small RuminantsUniversity of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, FoundationBischofsholer Damm 15D-30173HannoverGermany
| | - Daniela Bürstel
- Tierseuchenkasse (Animal Diseases Fund) Baden-WuerttembergSchaflandstr. 3D-70736FellbachGermany
| | - Kathrin Mayer
- Small Ruminant Health ServiceSächsische Tierseuchenkasse (Animal Diseases Fund)Löwenstraße 7aD-01099DresdenGermany
| | - Udo Moog
- Animal Health Service Thuringia e.V.Thüringer Tierseuchenkasse (Animal Diseases Fund)Victor-Goerttler-Str. 4D-07745JenaGermany
| | - Sieglinde Stauch
- Schafpraxis (sheep veterinary practice) StoffenriedAm Hopfenberg 8D-89352StoffenriedGermany
| | - Heinz Strobel
- Schafpraxis (sheep veterinary practice) StoffenriedAm Hopfenberg 8D-89352StoffenriedGermany
| | - Katja Voigt
- Clinic for RuminantsLudwig Maximilians University (LMU) MunichSonnenstr.1685764OberschleißheimGermany
| | - Philipp Sieber
- Clinic for RuminantsLudwig Maximilians University (LMU) MunichSonnenstr.1685764OberschleißheimGermany
| | - Matthias Greiner
- Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR)Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10D-10589BerlinGermany.,University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, FoundationHannoverGermany
| | - Martin Ganter
- Clinic for Swine and Small RuminantsUniversity of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, FoundationBischofsholer Damm 15D-30173HannoverGermany
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Barrett DJ, More SJ, O' Neill RG, Collins DM, O'Keefe C, Regazzoli V, Sammin D. Exposure to Schmallenberg virus in Irish sheep in 2013. Vet Rec 2015; 177:494. [PMID: 26503360 PMCID: PMC4680190 DOI: 10.1136/vr.103318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D J Barrett
- Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Sligo Regional Veterinary Laboratory, Doonally, Sligo, Republic of Ireland
| | - S J More
- Centre for Veterinary Epidemiology and Risk Analysis, School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland
| | - R G O' Neill
- Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Backweston Laboratory Campus, Celbridge, Co. Kildare, Republic of Ireland
| | - D M Collins
- Centre for Veterinary Epidemiology and Risk Analysis, School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland
| | - C O'Keefe
- Depatment of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Cork Blood Testing Laboratory, Model Farm Road, Cork, Republic of Ireland
| | - V Regazzoli
- Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Backweston Laboratory Campus, Celbridge, Co. Kildare, Republic of Ireland
| | - D Sammin
- Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Backweston Laboratory Campus, Celbridge, Co. Kildare, Republic of Ireland
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Barrett D, More SJ, O'Neill R, Bradshaw B, Casey M, Keane M, McGrath G, Sammin D. Prevalence and distribution of exposure to Schmallenberg virus in Irish cattle during October 2012 to November 2013. BMC Vet Res 2015; 11:267. [PMID: 26486852 PMCID: PMC4618175 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-015-0564-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2015] [Accepted: 09/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Schmallenberg virus (SBV) was first identified in November 2011. It is a novel Orthobunyavirus (family Bunyaviridae) whose main ill effect is congenital malformation of the musculoskeletal and central nervous systems. It is borne by Culicoides spp., and has spread extensively in western Europe. The first case of SBV in Ireland was diagnosed in October 2012. It was anticipated that once the virus emerged in Ireland that there would be wide scale or nationwide spread over the course of the 2013 vector season. The objectives of this study were to determine the seroprevalence and distribution of exposure to Schmallenberg virus in Irish cattle from November 2012 to November 2013. Methods Samples of brain for the pathology based surveillance were collected from malformed bovine and ovine foetuses submitted for post mortem examination. These samples were tested for SBV using RT-qPCR. Three serological surveys were carried out on sera submitted for the national brucellosis eradicartion programme. A spatial analysis of both sets of data was carried out. Results Between October 2012 and 10th May 2013, SBV was confirmed by RT-qPCR in brain tissues from malformed foetuses obtained from 49 cattle herds and 30 sheep flocks in Ireland. In national serosurveys conducted between November 2012 until November 2013 the herd-level and animal-level SBV seroprevalences in cattle were 53 and 36 % respectively for the first survey, 51 and 35 % for the second survey and 53 and 33 % for the third survey. The herd level seroprevalence in counties ranged from 0 to 100 %, with the counties in the south and southeast having the highest seroprevalence (>50 %), the midlands a moderate herd level seroprevalence (10–50 %) while northern and north western counties had a low herd level seroprevalence (0–10 %). There was close spatial agreement between the results of the two different targeted surveillance strategies. Conclusions At the end of the 2012 vector season, there was widespread exposure to SBV among herds in southern and south eastern Ireland. During 2013, there was little or no evidence of further outward spread, unlike the situation in several other European countries. Given the lack of evidence for circulation of the virus since 2012, it is likely that the younger age cohort in herds previously exposed to SBV and substantial proportions of animals of all ages on the margins of affected areas are immunologically naïve to SBV, and would be susceptible to infection if the virus were to re-emerge.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Barrett
- Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Sligo Regional Veterinary Laboratory, Doonally, Sligo, Ireland.
| | - S J More
- Centre for Veterinary Epidemiology and Risk Analysis, UCD School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - R O'Neill
- Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Central Veterinary Laboratory, Backweston Laboratory Complex, Celbridge, Co. Kildare, Ireland.
| | - B Bradshaw
- Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Central Veterinary Laboratory, Backweston Laboratory Complex, Celbridge, Co. Kildare, Ireland.
| | - M Casey
- Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Central Veterinary Laboratory, Backweston Laboratory Complex, Celbridge, Co. Kildare, Ireland.
| | - M Keane
- Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Cork Blood Testing Laboratory, Model, Farm Road, Cork, Ireland.
| | - G McGrath
- Centre for Veterinary Epidemiology and Risk Analysis, UCD School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - D Sammin
- Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Central Veterinary Laboratory, Backweston Laboratory Complex, Celbridge, Co. Kildare, Ireland.
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Lazutka J, Spakova A, Sereika V, Lelesius R, Sasnauskas K, Petraityte-Burneikiene R. Saliva as an alternative specimen for detection of Schmallenberg virus-specific antibodies in bovines. BMC Vet Res 2015; 11:237. [PMID: 26370849 PMCID: PMC4570040 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-015-0552-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Schmallenberg virus (SBV), discovered in continental Europe in late 2011, causes mild clinical signs in adult ruminants, including diarrhoea and reduced milk yield. However, fetal infection can lead to severe malformation in newborn offspring. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) are commercially available for detection of SBV-specific antibodies in bovine sera and milk. Here we describe the development and evaluation of an indirect ELISA based on a yeast derived recombinant SBV nucleocapsid protein (N) for the detection of SBV-specific antibodies in bovine saliva. Development of a non-invasive test to detect antibodies in individual bovine saliva samples could potentially provide a test suitable for calves and adult cattle. The aim of this study was to investigate the agreement between the levels of antibodies (IgG) measured in milk and sera, and the level of antibodies (IgG and IgA) in saliva, in comparison with the antibody levels detected in sera and milk with commercially available test. Results Serum, milk and saliva samples from 58 cows were collected from three dairy herds in Lithuania and tested for the presence of SBV-specific antibodies. The presence of IgG antibodies was tested in parallel serum and milk samples, while the presence of IgA and IgG antibodies was tested in saliva samples. The presence of SBV-specific IgG and IgA in saliva was tested using an indirect ELISA based on a yeast-derived recombinant N protein. The presence of SBV-specific IgG in milk and sera was tested in parallel using a commercial recombinant protein based test. The sensitivities of the newly developed tests were as follows: 96 % for the IgG serum assay and 94 % for the IgG milk assay and 85 % and 98 % for IgG and IgA in saliva tests, when compared with data generated by a commercial IgG assay. Conclusions Data from testing the saliva IgG and IgA and also the milk and serum IgG with indirect SBV-specific ELISAs showed close agreement with the commercial serum and milk IgG assay data. The level of IgG in saliva was notably lower in comparison to IgA. The newly developed method exhibits the potential to serve as an easily transferable tool for epidemiological studies. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-015-0552-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justas Lazutka
- Institute of Biotechnology, Vilnius University, V. A. Graiciuno 8, 02241, Vilnius, Lithuania.
| | - Aliona Spakova
- Institute of Biotechnology, Vilnius University, V. A. Graiciuno 8, 02241, Vilnius, Lithuania.
| | - Vilimas Sereika
- Institute of Microbiology and Virology, Veterinary Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Tilzes 18, 47181, Kaunas, Lithuania.
| | - Raimundas Lelesius
- Institute of Microbiology and Virology, Veterinary Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Tilzes 18, 47181, Kaunas, Lithuania.
| | - Kestutis Sasnauskas
- Institute of Biotechnology, Vilnius University, V. A. Graiciuno 8, 02241, Vilnius, Lithuania.
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Dominguez M, Gache K, Touratier A, Perrin JB, Fediaevsky A, Collin E, Bréard E, Sailleau C, Viarouge C, Zanella G, Zientara S, Hendrikx P, Calavas D. Spread and impact of the Schmallenberg virus epidemic in France in 2012-2013. BMC Vet Res 2014; 10:248. [PMID: 25312811 PMCID: PMC4210488 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-014-0248-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 10/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Schmallenberg virus (SBV) emerged in Europe in 2011 and caused a widespread epidemic in ruminants. In France, SBV emergence was monitored through a national multi-stakeholder surveillance and investigation system. Based on the monitoring data collected from January 2012 to August 2013, we describe the spread of SBV in France during two seasons of dissemination (vector seasons 2011 and 2012) and we provide a large-scale assessment of the impact of this new disease in ruminants. Results SBV impact in infected herds was primarily due to the birth of stillborns or deformed foetuses and neonates. Congenital SBV morbidity level was on average moderate, although higher in sheep than in other ruminant species. On average, 8% of lambs, 3% of calves and 2% of kids born in SBV-infected herds showed typical congenital SBV deformities. In addition, in infected herds, farmers reported retrospectively a lower prolificacy during the vector season, suggesting a potential impact of acute SBV infection during mating and early stages of gestation. Conclusions Due to the lack of available control and prevention measures, SBV spread quickly in the naive ruminant population. France continues to monitor for SBV, and updated information is made available online on a regular basis [http://www.plateforme-esa.fr/]. Outbreaks of congenital SBV are expected to occur sporadically from now on, but further epidemics may also occur if immunity at population level declines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgane Dominguez
- Epidemiological Surveillance Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Maisons-Alfort, France.
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Afonso A, Abrahantes JC, Conraths F, Veldhuis A, Elbers A, Roberts H, Van der Stede Y, Méroc E, Gache K, Richardson J. The Schmallenberg virus epidemic in Europe—2011–2013. Prev Vet Med 2014; 116:391-403. [DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2014.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2013] [Revised: 02/08/2014] [Accepted: 02/28/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Roberts HC, Elbers ARW, Conraths FJ, Holsteg M, Hoereth-Boentgen D, Gethmann J, van Schaik G. Response to an emerging vector-borne disease: surveillance and preparedness for Schmallenberg virus. Prev Vet Med 2014; 116:341-9. [PMID: 25236564 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2014.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2013] [Revised: 08/27/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Surveillance for new emerging animal diseases from a European perspective is complicated by the non-harmonised approach across Member States for data capture, recording livestock populations and case definitions. In the summer of 2011, a new vector-borne Orthobunyavirus emerged in Northern Europe and for the first time, a coordinated approach to horizon scanning, risk communication, data and diagnostic test sharing allowed EU Member States to develop early predictions of the disease, its impact and risk management options. There are many different systems in place across the EU for syndromic and scanning surveillance and the differences in these systems have presented epidemiologists and risk assessors with concerns about their combined use in early identification of an emerging disease. The emergence of a new disease always will raise challenging issues around lack of capability and lack of knowledge; however, Schmallenberg virus (SBV) gave veterinary authorities an additional complex problem: the infection caused few clinical signs in adult animals, with no indication of the possible source and little evidence about its spread or means of transmission. This paper documents the different systems in place in some of the countries (Germany and the Netherlands) which detected disease initially and predicted its spread (to the UK) and how information sharing helped to inform early warning and risk assessment for Member States. Microarray technology was used to identify SBV as a new pathogen and data from the automated cattle milking systems coupled with farmer-derived data on reporting non-specific clinical signs gave the first indications of a widespread issue while the UK used meteorological modelling to map disease incursion. The coordinating role of both EFSA and the European Commission were vital as are the opportunities presented by web-based publishing for disseminating information to industry and the public. The future of detecting emerging disease looks more positive in the light of this combined approach in the EU.
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Affiliation(s)
- H C Roberts
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Nobel House, 17 Smith Square, London SW1P 3JR, UK.
| | - A R W Elbers
- Central Veterinary Institute, Part of Wageningen UR, Houtribweg 39, 8221 RA Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - F J Conraths
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Seestr. 55, 16868 Wusterhausen, Germany
| | - M Holsteg
- Landwirtschaftskammer Nordrhein-Westfalen, Cattle Health Service, Germany
| | | | - J Gethmann
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Seestr. 55, 16868 Wusterhausen, Germany
| | - G van Schaik
- GD Animal Health, Arnsbergstraat 7, 7413 EZ Deventer, The Netherlands
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Luttikholt S, Veldhuis A, van den Brom R, Moll L, Lievaart-Peterson K, Peperkamp K, van Schaik G, Vellema P. Risk factors for malformations and impact on reproductive performance and mortality rates of Schmallenberg virus in sheep flocks in the Netherlands. PLoS One 2014; 9:e100135. [PMID: 24937443 PMCID: PMC4061107 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0100135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Accepted: 05/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In Northwestern Europe, an epizootic outbreak of congenital malformations in newborn lambs due to infection with Schmallenberg virus (SBV) started at the end of 2011. The objectives of this study were to describe clinical symptoms of SBV infection, the effect of infection on mortality rates, and reproductive performance in sheep, as well as to identify and quantify flock level risk factors for SBV infections resulting in malformations in newborn lambs. A case-control study design was used, with 93 case flocks that had notified malformed lambs and 84 control flocks with no such lambs. Overall animal seroprevalence in case flocks was estimated at 82.0% (95% CI: 74.3–87.8), and was not significantly different from the prevalence in control flocks being 76.4% (95% CI: 67.2–83.6). The percentages of stillborn lambs or lambs that died before weaning, repeat breeders, and lambs with abnormal suckling behaviour were significantly higher in case flocks compared to control flocks. However, effect of SBV infection on mortality rates and reproductive performance seemed to be limited. Multivariable analysis showed that sheep flocks with an early start of the mating season, i.e. before August 2011 (OR = 33.1; 95% CI: 10.0–109.8) and in August 2011 (OR = 8.2; 95% CI: 2.7–24.6) had increased odds of malformations in newborn lambs caused by SBV compared to sheep flocks with a start of the mating season in October 2011. Other flock-level risk factors for malformations in newborn lambs were purchase of silage (OR 5.0; 95% CI: 1.7–15.0) and flocks with one or more dogs (OR = 3.3; 95% CI: 1.3–8.3). Delaying mating until October could be a potential preventive measure for naïve animals to reduce SBV induced losses. As duration of immunity after infection with SBV is expected to last for several years, future SBV induced congenital malformations are mainly expected in offspring of early mated seronegative animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia Luttikholt
- Department of Small Ruminant Health, GD Animal Health, Deventer, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| | - Anouk Veldhuis
- Department of Epidemiology, GD Animal Health, Deventer, The Netherlands
| | - René van den Brom
- Department of Small Ruminant Health, GD Animal Health, Deventer, The Netherlands
| | - Lammert Moll
- Department of Small Ruminant Health, GD Animal Health, Deventer, The Netherlands
| | | | - Klaas Peperkamp
- Department of Pathology, GD Animal Health, Deventer, The Netherlands
| | | | - Piet Vellema
- Department of Small Ruminant Health, GD Animal Health, Deventer, The Netherlands
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Harris KA, Eglin RD, Hayward S, Milnes A, Davies I, Cook AJC, Downs SH. Impact of Schmallenberg virus on British sheep farms during the 2011/2012 lambing season. Vet Rec 2014; 175:172. [PMID: 24795165 PMCID: PMC4145415 DOI: 10.1136/vr.102295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
British sheep farmers were invited to complete a questionnaire about the impact of Schmallenberg virus (SBV) on animal health, welfare and their own emotional wellbeing during the 2011–2012 lambing season, through Defra and Farming Industry websites, letters to farmers who had requested SBV laboratory tests and advertisement at Sheep 2012. The 494 responders included SBV confirmed (positive by RT-PCR) (n=76), SBV suspected by farmer (n=140) or SBV not suspected (n=278). Percentage of barren ewes was similar across SBV groups, however, lamb and ewe losses were higher on responder farms where SBV was confirmed or suspected. The median percentages of all lambs born (and lambs born deformed ) that died within one week of birth was 10.4 per cent (5.5 per cent), 7.0 per cent (2.9 per cent) and 5.3 per cent (0 per cent), respectively, on SBV confirmed, suspected and not suspected farms (P<0.001). Eight to 16 per cent of SBV confirmed or suspected farms reported lamb mortality of ≥40 per cent. Farmer perceived impact was greater where SBV was confirmed or suspected (P<0.001): 25 per cent reported a high impact on emotional wellbeing (4 per cent of SBV not suspected), 13 per cent reported a high impact on flock welfare and financial performance and 6 per cent were less likely to farm sheep next year because of SBV (<2 per cent in SBV not suspected). Overall, SBV impact has been large relative to reported sheep loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Harris
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, AHVLA, Weybridge, UK
| | - R D Eglin
- Science Strategy and Planning, AHVLA, Weybridge, UK
| | - S Hayward
- Science Strategy and Planning, AHVLA, Weybridge, UK
| | | | | | - A J C Cook
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, AHVLA, Weybridge, UK School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
| | - S H Downs
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, AHVLA, Weybridge, UK
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Gubbins S, Turner J, Baylis M, van der Stede Y, van Schaik G, Abrahantes JC, Wilson AJ. Inferences about the transmission of Schmallenberg virus within and between farms. Prev Vet Med 2014; 116:380-90. [PMID: 24857371 PMCID: PMC4204990 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2014.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2013] [Revised: 02/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In the summer of 2011 Schmallenberg virus (SBV), a Culicoides-borne orthobunyavirus, emerged in Germany and The Netherlands and subsequently spread across much of Europe. To draw inferences about the transmission of SBV we have developed two models to describe its spread within and between farms. The within-farm model was fitted to seroprevalence data for cattle and sheep farms in Belgium and The Netherlands, with parameters estimated using approximate Bayesian computation. Despite the short duration of viraemia in cattle and sheep (mean of 3–4 days) the within-farm seroprevalence can reach high levels (mean within-herd seroprevalence >80%), largely because the probability of transmission from host to vector is high (14%) and SBV is able to replicate quickly (0.03 per day-degree) and at relatively low temperatures (threshold for replication: 12.3 °C). Parameter estimates from the within-farm model were then used in a separate between-farm model to simulate the regional spread of SBV. This showed that the rapid spread of SBV at a regional level is primarily a consequence of the high probability of transmission from host to vector and the temperature requirements for virus replication. Our results, obtained for a region of the UK in a typical year with regard to animal movements, indicate that there is no need to invoke additional transmission mechanisms to explain the observed patterns of rapid spread of SBV in Europe. Moreover, the imposition of movement restrictions, even a total movement ban, has little effect on the spread of SBV at this scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Gubbins
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK.
| | - Joanne Turner
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston, Cheshire CH64 7TE, UK
| | - Matthew Baylis
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston, Cheshire CH64 7TE, UK
| | - Yves van der Stede
- Unit of Co-ordination Veterinary Diagnosis-Epidemiology and Risk Assessment, CODA-CERVA, Groeselenberg 99, 1180 Brussels, Belgium; Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | | | | | - Anthony J Wilson
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
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Wernike K, Conraths F, Zanella G, Granzow H, Gache K, Schirrmeier H, Valas S, Staubach C, Marianneau P, Kraatz F, Höreth-Böntgen D, Reimann I, Zientara S, Beer M. Schmallenberg virus-two years of experiences. Prev Vet Med 2014; 116:423-34. [PMID: 24768435 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2014.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2013] [Revised: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 03/23/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
In autumn 2011, a novel species of the genus Orthobunyavirus of the Simbu serogroup was discovered close to the German/Dutch border and named Schmallenberg virus (SBV). Since then, SBV has caused a large epidemic in European livestock. Like other viruses of the Simbu serogroup, SBV is transmitted by insect vectors. Adult ruminants may show a mild transient disease, while an infection during a critical period of pregnancy can lead to severe congenital malformation, premature birth or stillbirth. The current knowledge about the virus, its diagnosis, the spread of the epidemic, the impact and the possibilities for preventing infections with SBV is described and discussed.
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Valas S, Baudry C, Ehrhardt N, LeVen A, Thirion M, Aubert C, Vialard J. Serosurvey of Schmallenberg Virus Infection in the Highest Goat-Specialized Region of France. Transbound Emerg Dis 2014; 62:e85-8. [DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. Valas
- Niort Laboratory; Ruminant Retrovirus Unit; Anses; F-79024 Niort France
| | - C. Baudry
- Niort Laboratory; Ruminant Retrovirus Unit; Anses; F-79024 Niort France
| | - N. Ehrhardt
- Bureau Régional Interprofessionnel du Lait de Chèvres de Charentes-Poitou (BRILAC); F-86550 Mignaloux-Beauvoir France
| | - A. LeVen
- Niort Laboratory; Ruminant Retrovirus Unit; Anses; F-79024 Niort France
| | - M. Thirion
- Niort Laboratory; Ruminant Retrovirus Unit; Anses; F-79024 Niort France
| | - C. Aubert
- Niort Laboratory; Ruminant Retrovirus Unit; Anses; F-79024 Niort France
| | - J. Vialard
- Niort Laboratory; Ruminant Retrovirus Unit; Anses; F-79024 Niort France
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Affiliation(s)
- Mike Glover
- Torch Farm Vets, Horsepond Meadow, South Molton, Devon EX36 4EJ
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