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Santaniello A, Cimmino I, Dipineto L, Agognon AL, Beguinot F, Formisano P, Fioretti A, Menna LF, Oriente F. Zoonotic Risk of Encephalitozoon cuniculi in Animal-Assisted Interventions: Laboratory Strategies for the Diagnosis of Infections in Humans and Animals. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021; 18:ijerph18179333. [PMID: 34501921 PMCID: PMC8430659 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18179333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 08/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The involvement of animals for therapeutic purposes has very ancient roots. To date, it is clear that animal-assisted interventions (AAIs), in addition to ensuring the replacement of missing or deficient affects, improves psychophysiological parameters connected to human health. However, AAI could potentially present risks related to the transmission of infectious agents from animals to humans. Among these microorganisms, E. cuniculi is a microspore which induces pathological effects (fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, breathlessness, respiratory symptoms, and weakness) in both humans and animals. Consequently, an accurate and fast diagnosis of E. cuniculi infection, as well as the identification of new diagnostic approaches, is of fundamental importance. This literature review was carried out to provide an extensive and comprehensive analysis of the most recent diagnostic techniques to prevent and care for E. cuniculi-associated risks in the AAI field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Santaniello
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, Federico II University of Naples, 80134 Naples, Italy; (L.D.); (A.F.)
- Correspondence: (A.S.); (L.F.M.); Tel.: +39-081-253-6134 (A.S.)
| | - Ilaria Cimmino
- Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Federico II University of Naples, 80131 Naples, Italy; (I.C.); (A.L.A.); (F.B.); (P.F.); (F.O.)
| | - Ludovico Dipineto
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, Federico II University of Naples, 80134 Naples, Italy; (L.D.); (A.F.)
| | - Ayewa Lawoe Agognon
- Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Federico II University of Naples, 80131 Naples, Italy; (I.C.); (A.L.A.); (F.B.); (P.F.); (F.O.)
| | - Francesco Beguinot
- Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Federico II University of Naples, 80131 Naples, Italy; (I.C.); (A.L.A.); (F.B.); (P.F.); (F.O.)
| | - Pietro Formisano
- Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Federico II University of Naples, 80131 Naples, Italy; (I.C.); (A.L.A.); (F.B.); (P.F.); (F.O.)
| | - Alessandro Fioretti
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, Federico II University of Naples, 80134 Naples, Italy; (L.D.); (A.F.)
| | - Lucia Francesca Menna
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, Federico II University of Naples, 80134 Naples, Italy; (L.D.); (A.F.)
- Correspondence: (A.S.); (L.F.M.); Tel.: +39-081-253-6134 (A.S.)
| | - Francesco Oriente
- Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Federico II University of Naples, 80131 Naples, Italy; (I.C.); (A.L.A.); (F.B.); (P.F.); (F.O.)
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Cray C, Liebl MP, Arheart K, Peschke R, Künzel F, Joachim A. Comparison of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunofluorescence test for determination of anti-Encephalitozoon cuniculi antibodies in sera from rabbits with different clinical and histopathological presentations. J Exot Pet Med 2020. [DOI: 10.1053/j.jepm.2019.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Rodríguez-Tovar LE, Nevárez-Garza AM, Trejo-Chávez A, Hernández-Martínez CA, Hernández-Vidal G, Zarate-Ramos JJ, Castillo-Velázquez U. Encephalitozoon cuniculi: Grading the Histological Lesions in Brain, Kidney, and Liver during Primoinfection Outbreak in Rabbits. J Pathog 2016; 2016:5768428. [PMID: 27022485 PMCID: PMC4789044 DOI: 10.1155/2016/5768428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2015] [Accepted: 01/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This is the first confirmed report of Encephalitozoon cuniculi (E. cuniculi) in farm meat rabbits located in Northern Mexico. Eighty young rabbits exhibited clinical signs of this zoonotic emerging disease, like torticollis, ataxia, paresis, circling, and rolling. Samples of brain, kidney, and liver were examined for histology lesions. For the first time the lesions caused by E. cuniculi were graded according to their severity (I, II, and III) and the size of the granulomas (Types A, B, and C). The main cerebral injuries were Grade III, coinciding with the presence of Type C granulomas. The cerebral lesions were located in the cortex, brain stem, and medulla. The renal lesions were also Grade III distributed throughout cortex and renal medulla, with no granuloma formation. The involvement of hypersensitivity Types III and IV is suggested. All of the rabbits were seropositive to E. cuniculi by CIA testing, suggesting that this zoonotic and emerging pathogen is widely distributed among animals intended for human consumption. We believe this work could be used as a guide when examining E. cuniculi and will provide direction to confirm the diagnosis of this pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis E. Rodríguez-Tovar
- Cuerpo Académico de Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Calle Francisco Villa s/n, Ex-Hacienda El Canadá, 66050 Escobedo, NL, Mexico
| | - Alicia M. Nevárez-Garza
- Cuerpo Académico de Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Calle Francisco Villa s/n, Ex-Hacienda El Canadá, 66050 Escobedo, NL, Mexico
| | - Armando Trejo-Chávez
- Cuerpo Académico de Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Calle Francisco Villa s/n, Ex-Hacienda El Canadá, 66050 Escobedo, NL, Mexico
| | - Carlos A. Hernández-Martínez
- Cuerpo Académico de Nutrición y Forrajes, Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Calle Francisco Villa s/n, Ex-Hacienda El Canadá, 66050 Escobedo, NL, Mexico
| | - Gustavo Hernández-Vidal
- Cuerpo Académico de Patobiología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Calle Francisco Villa s/n, Ex-Hacienda El Canadá, 66050 Escobedo, NL, Mexico
| | - Juan J. Zarate-Ramos
- Cuerpo Académico de Epidemiología Veterinaria, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Calle Francisco Villa s/n, Ex-Hacienda El Canadá, 66050 Escobedo, NL, Mexico
| | - Uziel Castillo-Velázquez
- Cuerpo Académico de Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Calle Francisco Villa s/n, Ex-Hacienda El Canadá, 66050 Escobedo, NL, Mexico
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Cray C, Perritt E, Hughes C, Belgrave RL. Serological survey for antibody to Encephalitozoon cuniculi in horses in the USA. Parasitol Res 2014; 113:2757-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-014-3930-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2014] [Accepted: 04/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To provide an updated perspective of the most common parasitic infections occurring in solid-organ transplant (SOT) recipients. RECENT FINDINGS Parasitic infections are an emerging problem in SOT programs and represent a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. Transplantation in endemic areas - including medical tourism, international travel and migration - justify the necessity of considering parasitic infections in the differential diagnosis of posttransplant complications. Molecular techniques, such as PCR, may improve the diagnostic accuracy and help during the follow-up. SUMMARY Parasitic infections are an uncommon but potentially severe complication in SOT recipients. An increase of donors emigrated from tropical areas and more posttransplant patients traveling to endemic areas have led to a rise in parasitic infections reported among SOT recipients. Transplant physicians should get familiar with parasitic infections and promote adherence to preventive measures in SOT recipients.
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Rodriguez-Tovar LE, Speare DJ, Markham RJF. Fish microsporidia: immune response, immunomodulation and vaccination. Fish Shellfish Immunol 2011; 30:999-1006. [PMID: 21352922 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2011.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2010] [Revised: 02/15/2011] [Accepted: 02/16/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Immune response to fish microsporidia is still unknown and there are current research trying to elucidate the events involved in the immune response to this parasite. There is evidence suggesting the role of innate immune response and it is clear that adaptive immunity plays an essential part for eliminating and then mounting a solid resistance against subsequent microsporidian infections. This review article discusses the main mechanisms of resistance to fish microsporidia, which are considered under four main headings. 1) Innate immunity: the inflammatory tissue reaction associated with fish microsporidiosis has been studied at the ultrastructural level, providing identification of many of the inflammatory cells and molecules that are actively participating in the spore elimination, such as macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophilic granular cells, soluble factors and MHC molecules. 2) Adaptive immunity: the study of the humoral response is relatively new and controversial. In some cases, the antibody response is well established and it has a protective role, while in other situations, the immune response is not protective or it is depressed. Study of the cellular response against fish microsporidia is still in its infancy. Although the nature of the microsporidian infection suggests participation of cellular mechanisms, few studies have focused on the cellular immune response of infected fish. 3) Immunomodulation: glucans are compounds that can modulate the immune system and potentiate resistance to microorganisms. These compounds have been proposed that can interact with receptors on the surface of leukocytes that result in the stimulation on non-specific immune responses. 4) Vaccination: little is known about a biological product that could be used as a vaccine for preventing this infection in fish. In the Loma salmonae experience, one of the arguments that favor the production of a vaccine is the development in fish of resistance, associated to a cellular immune response. A recently proved spore-based vaccine to prevent microsporidial gill disease in salmon has recently shown its efficacy by considerably reducing the incidence of infection. This recent discovery would be first anti-microsporidian vaccine that is effective against this elusive parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis E Rodriguez-Tovar
- Departamento de Inmunología, Cuerpo Académico Patobiología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Fco. Villa s/n, Unidad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Ex-Hacienda El Canadá, Escobedo N.L. 66050, Mexico.
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Didier ES, Bowers LC, Martin AD, Kuroda MJ, Khan IA, Didier PJ. Reactive nitrogen and oxygen species, and iron sequestration contribute to macrophage-mediated control of Encephalitozoon cuniculi (Phylum Microsporidia) infection in vitro and in vivo. Microbes Infect 2010; 12:1244-51. [PMID: 20888426 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2010.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2010] [Revised: 09/02/2010] [Accepted: 09/16/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Encephalitozoon cuniculi (Phylum Microsporidia) infects a wide range of mammals, and replicates within resting macrophages. Activated macrophages, conversely, inhibit replication and destroy intracellular organisms. These studies were performed to assess mechanisms of innate immune responses expressed by macrophages to control E. cuniculi infection. Addition of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species inhibitors to activated murine peritoneal macrophages statistically significantly, rescued E. cuniculi infection ex vivo. Mice deficient in reactive oxygen species, reactive nitrogen species, or both survived ip inoculation of E. cuniculi, but carried significantly higher peritoneal parasite burdens than wild-type mice at 1 and 2 weeks post inoculation. Infected peritoneal macrophages could still be identified 4 weeks post inoculation in mice deficient in reactive nitrogen species. L-tryptophan supplementation of activated murine peritoneal macrophage cultures ex vivo failed to rescue microsporidia infection. Addition of ferric citrate to supplement iron, however, did significantly rescue E. cuniculi infection in activated macrophages and further increased parasite replication in non-activated macrophages over non-treated resting control macrophages. These results demonstrate the contribution of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, as well as iron sequestration, to innate immune responses expressed by macrophages to control E. cuniculi infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth S Didier
- Division of Microbiology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, 18703 Three Rivers Road, Covington, LA 70433, USA.
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Abstract
Parasitic infections are an uncommon but potentially severe complication in solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients. An increase in donors who have emigrated from tropical areas and more transplant recipients traveling to endemic areas have led to a rise in parasitic infections reported among SOT recipients. Clinicians should include these infections in their differential diagnosis and promote adherence to preventive measures in SOT recipients.
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Cray C, Arcia G, Schneider R, Kelleher SA, Arheart KL. Evaluation of the usefulness of an ELISA and protein electrophoresis in the diagnosis of Encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in rabbits. Am J Vet Res 2009; 70:478-82. [PMID: 19335103 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.70.4.478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE-To evaluate the usefulness of an antibody detection ELISA and protein electrophoresis (PE) for diagnosing Encephalitozoon cuniculi (ECUN) infection in pet rabbits. ANIMALS-203 pet rabbits. PROCEDURES-Serum and plasma samples from pet rabbits were submitted from veterinary clinics within the United States. Participating veterinarians completed a questionnaire that was used to classify rabbits as clinically normal (n=33), suspected of having an ECUN infection (103), or clinically abnormal but not suspected of having an ECUN infection (67). An ELISA for detection of serum or plasma IgG against ECUN was developed by use of commercially available reagents. Results of the ELISA and PE were used to detect ECUN infection. RESULTS-A high seroprevalence of antibody against ECUN was detected in all 3 groups of rabbits. In rabbits suspected of having an ECUN infection, the mean IgG titer was 1.7 times as high as the values in the other rabbit groups. Rabbits suspected of having an ECUN infection and those that were simply clinically abnormal had a higher concentration of gamma-globulins than clinically normal rabbits. This increase in globulins concentration was accompanied by a decrease in the albumin-to-globulin ratio. Results of the ELISA and PE were significantly different between clinically normal rabbits and those suspected of having an ECUN infection. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE-The combination of an ELISA and PE may aid in the diagnosis of ECUN infection in pet rabbits. IMPACT FOR HUMAN MEDICINE-Because ECUN is a potential zoonotic agent, diagnostic methods for pet rabbits need to be improved to protect human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn Cray
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33101, USA
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Omalu I, Duhlinska D, Anyanwu G, Pam V, Inyama P. IMMUNE RESPONSIVENESS ASSOCIATED WITH EXPERIMENTAL ENCEPHALITOZOON INTESTINALIS INFECTION IN IMMUNOCOMPETENT RATS. Indian J Med Microbiol 2007; 25:209-213. [DOI: 10.1016/s0255-0857(21)02107-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Rodriguez-Tovar LE, Markham RJF, Speare DJ, Sheppard J. Cellular immunity in salmonids infected with the microsporidial parasite Loma salmonae or exposed to non-viable spores. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2006; 114:72-83. [PMID: 16934335 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2006.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2005] [Revised: 07/10/2006] [Accepted: 07/11/2006] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Following a per os challenge of naive rainbow trout with live spores of Loma salmonae, head kidney mononuclear cells (MNC) in culture were able to proliferate in response to crude soluble parasite extract or intact dead spores. A significant response was seen by week 2 post-exposure and a maximum response developed by week 6 or 8, respectively. During this initial challenge, spore filled cysts developed on the gills of challenged fish, and the cysts ruptured by week 12 as is typical for microsporidial gill disease of salmonids (MGDS). Two weeks following this, fish were re-challenged with live spores, and in these fish an enhanced in vitro proliferative response of MNC was immediately apparent, and spore filled cysts did not develop. In contrast, when naive trout were given dead spores by intraperitoneal injection, the most pronounced proliferative responses of MNC developed earlier (week 2 PE) and the response was greater when cells were incubated in vitro with dead spores rather than with crude soluble extract. When these fish were re-challenged per os with live spores, a heightened proliferation in MNC was observed 4 weeks after this exposure and the fish likewise resisted development of xenomas. In fish infected orally or injected intraperitoneally with spores, a marked increase in the response to the mitogen concanavalin A was seen for 22 weeks post-exposure when compared to controls not receiving any spores.
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Affiliation(s)
- L E Rodriguez-Tovar
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PEI, Canada C1A 4P3
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Childs-Sanford SE, Garner MM, Raymond JT, Didier ES, Kollias GV. Disseminated microsporidiosis due to Encephalitozoon hellem in an Egyptian fruit bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus). J Comp Pathol 2006; 134:370-3. [PMID: 16709419 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2006.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2005] [Accepted: 01/03/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Disseminated microsporidiosis was diagnosed in an adult female Egyptian fruit bat that died unexpectedly in a zoo. Gross findings, which were minimal, included poor body condition, bilateral renomegaly, and mottling of the liver. Histopathological lesions, which were particularly pronounced in the urogenital tract and liver, consisted primarily of inflammation associated with intracytoplasmic microsporidian spores. Polymerase chain reaction -based methods were used to establish the identity of the microsporidian as Encephalitozoon hellem. E. hellem is an emerging cause of human and avian disease, manifested mainly as opportunistic infection in immunosuppressed patients. This report describes the first documented case of E. hellem in a non-human mammalian species.
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Affiliation(s)
- S E Childs-Sanford
- Section of Wildlife Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
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Abstract
Microsporidia are long-known parasitic organisms of almost every animal group, including invertebrates and vertebrates. Microsporidia emerged as important opportunistic pathogens in humans when AIDS became pandemic and, more recently, have also increasingly been detected in otherwise immunocompromised patients, including organ transplant recipients, and in immunocompetent persons with corneal infection or diarrhea. Two species causing rare infections in humans, Encephalitozoon cuniculi and Brachiola vesicularum, had previously been described from animal hosts (vertebrates and insects, respectively). However, several new microsporidial species, including Enterocytozoon bieneusi, the most prevalent human microsporidian causing human immunodeficiency virus-associated diarrhea, have been discovered in humans, raising the question of their natural origin. Vertebrate hosts are now identified for all four major microsporidial species infecting humans (E. bieneusi and the three Encephalitozoon spp.), implying a zoonotic nature of these parasites. Molecular studies have identified phenotypic and/or genetic variability within these species, indicating that they are not uniform, and have allowed the question of their zoonotic potential to be addressed. The focus of this review is the zoonotic potential of the various microsporidia and a brief update on other microsporidia which have no known host or an invertebrate host and which cause rare infections in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Mathis
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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Franzen C, Hartmann P, Salzberger B. Cytokine and nitric oxide responses of monocyte-derived human macrophages to microsporidian spores. Exp Parasitol 2005; 109:1-6. [PMID: 15639133 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2004.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2004] [Revised: 07/30/2004] [Accepted: 10/14/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Microsporidia are obligate intracellular parasites that emerged as opportunistic pathogens since the onset of the AIDS pandemic. They are capable of disseminating through the body using macrophages as vehicles. We incubated human macrophages with spores of all three Encephalitozoon spp. as well as with Vittaforma corneae, and the number of intracellular spores per cell was determined by fluorescence microscopy. Cell culture supernatants were collected and the content of TNF-alpha, INF-gamma, IL-10, and of nitric oxide was determined. Microsporidian spores did not induce a nitric oxide response in macrophages and there was a negative correlation between the number of intracellular spores and the amount of nitric oxide. TNF-alpha, INF-gamma, and IL-10 increased after simulation of macrophages with microsporidian spores but for TNF-alpha and INF-gamma no clear correlation of cytokine levels with the number of intracellular spores could be observed. A modulation of the nitric oxide response by intracellular microsporidia may contribute to the survival of microsporidia within the macrophage by a mechanism yet unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Franzen
- Department of Internal Medicine I, University of Regensburg, 93042 Regensburg, Germany.
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Millership JJ, Didier ES, Okhuysen PC, Maddry JA, Kwong CD, Chen X, Snowden KF. In vitro and in vivo evaluation of aminopeptidase inhibitors as antimicrosporidial therapies. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2002; Suppl:95S-98S. [PMID: 11906096 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2001.tb00468.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J J Millership
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, USA
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