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Qiu L, Su J, Fu Y, Zhang K. Genetic and Transcriptome Analyses of Callus Browning in Chaling Common Wild Rice ( Oryza rufipogon Griff.). Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:2138. [PMID: 38136960 PMCID: PMC10742633 DOI: 10.3390/genes14122138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Callus browning during tissue culture of indica rice is genotype dependent, thus limiting the application of genetic transformation for editing-assisted breeding and elucidation of gene function. Here, using 124 introgression lines (HCLs) derived from a cross between the indica rice 9311 and Chaling common wild rice and 2059 SNPs for single-point and interval analysis, we identified two major QTLs, qCBT7 on chromosome 7 and qCBT10 on chromosome 10, related to callus browning, explaining 8-13% of callus browning. Moreover, we performed RNA-seq of two introgression lines with low callus browning, HCL183 and HCL232, with Oryza. rufipogon introgression fragments on chromosomes 10 and 7, respectively. Three candidate genes (Os07g0620700, Os10g0361000, and Os10g0456800) with upregulation were identified by combining interval mapping and weighted gene coexpression network analysis using the DEGs. The qRT-PCR results of the three candidate genes were consistent with those of RNA-seq. The differentiation of indica and japonica subspecies Oryza. sativa and Oryza. rufipogon suggests that these candidate genes are possibly unique in Oryza. rufipogon. GO analyses of hub genes revealed that callus browning may be mainly associated with ethylene and hormone signaling pathways. The results lay a foundation for future cloning of qCBT7 or qCBT10 and will improve genetic transformation efficiency in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Kun Zhang
- National Center for Evaluation of Agricultural Wild Plants (Rice), Department of Plant Genetics and Breeding, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (L.Q.); (J.S.); (Y.F.)
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Wold-McGimsey F, Krosch C, Alarcón-Reverte R, Ravet K, Katz A, Stromberger J, Mason RE, Pearce S. Multi-target genome editing reduces polyphenol oxidase activity in wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) grains. Front Plant Sci 2023; 14:1247680. [PMID: 37786514 PMCID: PMC10541959 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1247680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Introduction Polyphenol oxidases (PPO) are dual activity metalloenzymes that catalyse the production of quinones. In plants, PPO activity may contribute to biotic stress resistance and secondary metabolism but is undesirable for food producers because it causes the discolouration and changes in flavour profiles of products during post-harvest processing. In wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), PPO released from the aleurone layer of the grain during milling results in the discolouration of flour, dough, and end-use products, reducing their value. Loss-of-function mutations in the PPO1 and PPO2 paralogous genes on homoeologous group 2 chromosomes confer reduced PPO activity in the wheat grain. However, limited natural variation and the proximity of these genes complicates the selection of extremely low-PPO wheat varieties by recombination. The goal of the current study was to edit all copies of PPO1 and PPO2 to drive extreme reductions in PPO grain activity in elite wheat varieties. Results A CRISPR/Cas9 construct with one single guide RNA (sgRNA) targeting a conserved copper binding domain was used to edit all seven PPO1 and PPO2 genes in the spring wheat cultivar 'Fielder'. Five of the seven edited T1 lines exhibited significant reductions in PPO activity, and T2 lines had PPO activity up to 86.7% lower than wild-type. The same construct was transformed into the elite winter wheat cultivars 'Guardian' and 'Steamboat', which have five PPO1 and PPO2 genes. In these varieties PPO activity was reduced by >90% in both T1 and T2 lines. In all three varieties, dough samples from edited lines exhibited reduced browning. Discussion This study demonstrates that multi-target editing at late stages of variety development could complement selection for beneficial alleles in crop breeding programs by inducing novel variation in loci inaccessible to recombination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Forrest Wold-McGimsey
- Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Caitlynd Krosch
- Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Rocío Alarcón-Reverte
- Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
- Sustainable Soils and Crops, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Karl Ravet
- Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Andrew Katz
- Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - John Stromberger
- Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Richard Esten Mason
- Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Stephen Pearce
- Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
- Sustainable Soils and Crops, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
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Deng X, Huang J, Zhang M, Wei X, Song H, Wang Y, Xin J, Sun H, Liu J, Yang D, Li J, Yang M. Metabolite profiling and screening of callus browning-related genes in lotus (Nelumbo nucifera). Physiol Plant 2023; 175:e14027. [PMID: 37882309 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.14027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
Callus browning is a major drawback to lotus callus proliferation and regeneration. However, the underlying mechanism of its formation remains largely unknown. Herein, we aimed to explore the metabolic and molecular basis of lotus callus browning by combining histological staining, high-throughput metabolomics, and transcriptomic assays for lotus callus at three browning stages. Histological stained brown callus cross sections displayed severe cell death symptoms, accompanied by an obvious accumulation of polyphenols and lignified materials. Widely targeted metabolomics revealed extensively decreased accumulation of most detected flavonoids and benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs), as well as a few phenolic acids, amino acids and their derivatives in callus with browning symptoms. Conversely, the contents of most detected tannins were significantly increased. Subsequent comparative transcriptomics identified a set of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) associated with the biosynthesis and regulation of flavonoids and BIAs in lotus. Notably, callus browning was coupled with significantly up-regulated expression of two polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and 17 peroxidase (POD) encoding genes, while the expression of ethylene associated genes remained at marginal levels. These results suggest that lotus callus browning is primarily controlled at the level of metabolism, wherein the oxidation of flavonoids and BIAs is crucially decisive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianbao Deng
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- Aquatic Plant Research Center, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Jinghao Huang
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Life Sciences, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Minghua Zhang
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xue Wei
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Life Sciences, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Heyun Song
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yuxin Wang
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jia Xin
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Heng Sun
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- Aquatic Plant Research Center, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Juan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- Aquatic Plant Research Center, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Dong Yang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- Aquatic Plant Research Center, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Jing Li
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Life Sciences, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Mei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- Aquatic Plant Research Center, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
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Sui X, Meng Z, Dong T, Fan X, Wang Q. Enzymatic browning and polyphenol oxidase control strategies. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2023; 81:102921. [PMID: 36965297 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2023.102921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/18/2023] [Indexed: 03/27/2023]
Abstract
Significant amounts of fresh and fresh-cut fruits and vegetables are wasted every year due to enzymatic browning. Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) is the key enzyme involved in the enzymatic browning. In the past decades, various methods have been developed to inhibit browning of various fresh produce items. However, for most fresh horticultural produce, ideal measures accepted by industries and consumers are still scarce. This review provides up-to-date knowledge of browning control technologies, including physical methods, chemical methods such as natural inhibitors, molecular biotechnology, and nanotechnology. In addition, we propose some ideas to improve the efficacies of these strategies with fewer side effects. To better inhibit tissue browning, new research directions are also discussed, for example, regulation of PPO substrate techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Sui
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, 61 Daizong Street, Tai'an, 271018 Shandong, China; Postharvest Lab., National Engineering Research Center of Apple, China
| | - Zan Meng
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, 61 Daizong Street, Tai'an, 271018 Shandong, China; Postharvest Lab., National Engineering Research Center of Apple, China
| | - Tiantian Dong
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, 61 Daizong Street, Tai'an, 271018 Shandong, China; Postharvest Lab., National Engineering Research Center of Apple, China
| | - Xuetong Fan
- USDA, ARS, Eastern Regional Research Center, 600 E. Mermaid Lane, PA 19454, USA.
| | - Qingguo Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, 61 Daizong Street, Tai'an, 271018 Shandong, China; Postharvest Lab., National Engineering Research Center of Apple, China.
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Wang Y, Yang X, Xu G, Ye X, Ji Y, Lou X, Su J, Sun C, Fu Y, Zhang K. Mapping quantitative trait loci associated with callus browning in Dongxiang common wild rice (Oryza rufipogon Griff.). Mol Biol Rep 2023. [PMID: 36692673 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-023-08279-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Genetic transformation of indica rice (Oryza sativa ssp. indica) is limited by callus browning, which results in poor in vitro tissue culturability. Elucidating the genes in common wild rice (Oryza rufipogon Griff.) that control callus browning is fundamental for improving the tissue culturability of indica rice varieties. METHODS AND RESULTS We used a population of 129 O. rufipogon (Dongxiang common wild rice; DXCWR) introgression lines in the elite cultivar GC2 (Oryza sativa ssp. indica) background and 159 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) associated with callus browning. We evaluated callus browning based on the indices of callus browning rate (CBR), callus browning index (CBI), and standard callus browning index (SCBI). CONCLUSIONS We detected 30 QTLs associated with callus browning across all lines, mapping to chromosomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, and 12. These genomic regions were repeatedly associated with differences in CBR, CBI, and SCBI. The alleles from DXCWR showed additive effects in reducing callus browning. We identified new QTLs near the markers RM247 and RM7003 on chromosome 12, indicating that these QTLs are unique to DXCWR. Furthermore, we identified six introgression lines with significantly lower callus browning. These lines will be useful germplasms for genetic transformation and fine-mapping of the culturability trait.
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Bhat SN, Khalil A, Nazir N, Mir MA, Khan I, Mubashir SS, Dar MS, Wani SH, Hossain MA. In Vitro Prevention of Browning in Persian Walnut (Juglans regia L.) cv. Sulaiman. IJPB 2022; 13:330-42. [DOI: 10.3390/ijpb13030027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The present investigation was undertaken to standardize the media and the anti-browning regime in order to minimize the phenolic browning of an in vitro culture of Persian walnut cv. Sulaiman. The experiments involved two types of explants, forced and unforced shoot tips, two types of media, Driver and Kuniyuki Walnut (DKW) medium andMurashige and Skooģs (MS) medium, and three types of anti-browning agents, namely, Polyvinylpyrrolidone, ascorbic acid and activated charcoal at 150, 350 and 550 mg/L each. The investigation was replicated thrice under a completely randomized design. Forced shoot tips of cv. Sulaiman on DKW medium showed the best performance in terms of least browning (13.6 ± 10.5%) and highest survival percentage of explants (74.5 ± 2.4%) when treated with ascorbic acid at 550 mg/L. However, unforced shoot tips in MS medium did not perform well and manifested maximum browning (52.9 ± 5.2%). Based on the results, we conclude that incorporation of ascorbic acid in the DKW medium significantly reduced the media and explant browning, thus, it could set the basis of successful in vitro-propagation of walnuts.
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Martínez-Silvestre KE, Santiz-Gómez JA, Luján-Hidalgo MC, Ruiz-Lau N, Sánchez-Roque Y, Gutiérrez-Miceli FA. Effect of UV-B Radiation on Flavonoids and Phenols Accumulation in Tempisque ( Sideroxylon capiri Pittier) Callus. Plants (Basel) 2022; 11:473. [PMID: 35214805 PMCID: PMC8875756 DOI: 10.3390/plants11040473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Tempisque (Sideroxylon capiri Pittier) is classified as a threatened species and has been reported with a high content of phenols and flavonoids in the leaves. The use of abiotic elicitors such as radiation has been reported due to the changes it produces in the metabolism of plants by activating their defense mechanisms and increasing the biosynthesis of bioactive compounds with antioxidant capacity such as phenols and flavonoids. Therefore, the aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of UV-B radiation on growth parameters and the synthesis of bioactive compounds in in vitro culture of tempisque callus. For the callus induction, we used thidiazuron (TDZ) and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) at 0, 0.5 and 1 mg/L. Calluses were exposed to UV-B radiation (0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 h/day) for two and four weeks. The highest callus formation index was obtained with TDZ and 2,4-D at 1 mg/mL. The greatest increase in the concentration of phenols and flavonoids was detected in the fourth week with 4 h of exposure per day. The highest concentrations of quercetin (230 µg/g dry weight), kaempferol (235 µg/g dry weight) and gallic acid (240 µg/g dry weight) were found in callus obtained from leaves explants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina E. Martínez-Silvestre
- Tecnológico Nacional de México, División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Instituto Tecnológico de Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Carretera Panamericana Km 1080, Tuxtla Gutiérrez 29050, Chiapas, Mexico; (K.E.M.-S.); (J.A.S.-G.); (M.C.L.-H.)
| | - José Alfredo Santiz-Gómez
- Tecnológico Nacional de México, División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Instituto Tecnológico de Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Carretera Panamericana Km 1080, Tuxtla Gutiérrez 29050, Chiapas, Mexico; (K.E.M.-S.); (J.A.S.-G.); (M.C.L.-H.)
| | - María Celina Luján-Hidalgo
- Tecnológico Nacional de México, División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Instituto Tecnológico de Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Carretera Panamericana Km 1080, Tuxtla Gutiérrez 29050, Chiapas, Mexico; (K.E.M.-S.); (J.A.S.-G.); (M.C.L.-H.)
| | - Nancy Ruiz-Lau
- Cátedra CONACYT—Tecnológico Nacional de México-Instituto Tecnológico de Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Carretera Panamericana Km 1080, Tuxtla Gutiérrez 29050, Chiapas, Mexico;
| | - Yazmin Sánchez-Roque
- Dirección de Ingeniería Agroindustrial, Universidad Politécnica de Chiapas, Carretera Tuxtla Gutiérrez-Portillo Zaragoza Km 21+500, Colonia Las Brisas, Suchiapa 29150, Chiapas, Mexico;
| | - Federico A. Gutiérrez-Miceli
- Tecnológico Nacional de México, División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Instituto Tecnológico de Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Carretera Panamericana Km 1080, Tuxtla Gutiérrez 29050, Chiapas, Mexico; (K.E.M.-S.); (J.A.S.-G.); (M.C.L.-H.)
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Murata M. Food chemistry and biochemistry of enzymatic browning. FSTR 2022. [DOI: 10.3136/fstr.fstr-d-21-00130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Masatsune Murata
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Tokyo University of Agriculture
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9
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Wang Y, Huang N, Ye N, Qiu L, Li Y, Ma H. An Efficient Virus-Induced Gene Silencing System for Functional Genomics Research in Walnut ( Juglans regia L.) Fruits. Front Plant Sci 2021; 12:661633. [PMID: 34249033 PMCID: PMC8261060 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.661633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.) is a leading source of woody oil in warm temperate regions and has high nutritional and medicinal values. It also provides both tree nuts and woody products. Nevertheless, incomplete characterization of the walnut genetic system limits the walnut gene function analysis. This study used the tobacco rattle virus (TRV) vector to construct an infectious pTRV-JrPDS recombinant clone. A co-culture inoculation method utilizing Agrobacterium was screened out from four inoculation methods and optimized to set up an efficient virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) system for J. regia fruit. The optimized VIGS-TRV system induced complete photobleaching phenotype on the walnut fruits of four cultivars, and the JrPDS transcript levels decreased by up to 88% at 8 days post-inoculation (dpi). While those of browning-related J. regia polyphenol oxidase (PPO) genes JrPPO1 and JrPPO2 decreased by 67 and 80% at 8 dpi, respectively, accompanied by a significant reduction in fruit browning phenotype. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis screening and Western Blot showed that the PPO protein levels were significantly reduced. Moreover, a model of TRV-mediated VIGS system for inoculating J. regia fruit with efficient silence efficiency via co-culture was developed. These results indicate that the VIGS-TRV system is an efficient tool for rapid gene function analysis in J. regia fruits.
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Wedger MJ, Schumann AC, Gross BL. Candidate genes and signatures of directional selection on fruit quality traits during apple domestication. Am J Bot 2021; 108:616-627. [PMID: 33837962 DOI: 10.1002/ajb2.1636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE During plant domestication, traits can be subject to a variety of types of selection, ranging from strong directional selection for traits such as seed or fruit size to diversifying selection for traits like color or flavor. These types of selection interact with other evolutionary processes including genetic bottlenecks and interspecific gene flow to generate different levels of genetic diversity across the genome and at target genes in domesticated lineages, but little is known about the impacts of these processes in perennial fruit crops. METHODS We used sequence capture by hybridization to examine patterns of diversity at a suite of candidate domestication and anonymous background genes in domesticated apple (Malus ×domestica) in comparison to its wild relatives Malus sieversii and Malus orientalis. RESULTS We found no change in average diversity at these candidate domestication genes across the three species. However, a subset of the genes did exhibit patterns of very high or very low diversity in M. ×domestica compared to its progenitor, M. sieversii. Of the genes with characterized function, the low-diversity genes mainly contributed to fruit quality traits like color and flavor, predicted to be under conscious, directional selection relatively late in the domestication process, while the high-diversity genes included a variety of functions. CONCLUSIONS Overall, these results are consistent with predictions based on the likely timing and nature of selection during domestication and open new avenues for understanding genes with high diversity in a perennial crop compared to its wild relatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marshall J Wedger
- Department of Biology, Washington University, Campus Box 1137, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Abby C Schumann
- Minnesota Poultry Testing Laboratory, P.O. Box 126, 622 Bus. Hwy 71 NE, Wilmar, MN, 56201, USA
| | - Briana L Gross
- Department of Biology, University of Minnesota Duluth, 207 Swenson Science Building, 1035 Kirby Drive, Duluth, MN, 55812, USA
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Ramabulana AT, Steenkamp PA, Madala NE, Dubery IA. Application of Plant Growth Regulators Modulates the Profile of Chlorogenic Acids in Cultured Bidens pilosa Cells. Plants (Basel) 2021; 10:437. [PMID: 33668870 DOI: 10.3390/plants10030437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Plant cell culture offers an alternative to whole plants for the production of biologically important specialised metabolites. In cultured plant cells, manipulation by auxin and cytokinin plant growth regulators (PGRs) may lead to in vitro organogenesis and metabolome changes. In this study, six different combination ratios of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and benzylaminopurine (BAP) were investigated with the aim to induce indirect organogenesis from Bidens pilosa callus and to investigate the associated induced changes in the metabolomes of these calli. Phenotypic appearance of the calli and total phenolic contents of hydromethanolic extracts indicated underlying biochemical differences that were investigated using untargeted metabolomics, based on ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC–qTOF–MS), combined with multivariate data analysis. The concentration and combination ratios of PGRs were shown to induce differential metabolic responses and, thus, distinct metabolomic profiles, dominated by chlorogenic acids consisting of caffeoyl- and feruloyl-derivatives of quinic acid. Although organogenesis was not achieved, the results demonstrate that exogenous application PGRs can be used to manipulate the metabolome of B. pilosa for in vitro production of specialised metabolites with purported pharmacological properties.
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Cai X, Wei H, Liu C, Ren X, Thi LT, Jeong BR. Synergistic Effect of NaCl Pretreatment and PVP on Browning Suppression and Callus Induction from Petal Explants of Paeonia Lactiflora Pall. 'Festival Maxima'. Plants (Basel) 2020; 9:E346. [PMID: 32182923 PMCID: PMC7154888 DOI: 10.3390/plants9030346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 03/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Browning is prevalent in tissue cultures of Paeonia lactiflora Pall. (herbaceous peony), and severely affects and restricts the growth and differentiation of the explants. In this study, dipping excised explants in a sodium chloride (NaCl) solution as a pretreatment, adding polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) to the culture medium, storing planted explants at 4 °C for 24 h, and transferring planted explants to a new medium after 24 h were considered as browning-suppression methods in tissue cultures of herbaceous peony 'Festival Maxima'. The treated petal explants were cultured in a culture room with a 16-hour photoperiod, 25 °C temperature, and 80% relative humidity in darkness for 4 to 8 weeks. The results demonstrated that dipping excised explants in a 0.5 g·L-1 NaCl solution, adding 0.5 g·L-1 PVP to the medium, storing planted explants at 4 °C for 24 h, and transferring planted explants to the same fresh medium after 24 h could effectively inhibit browning. Adding PVP to the medium led to the greatest browning suppression percentage of 95%. Storing planted explants at 4 °C for 24 h reduced the effectiveness of other treatments in suppressing browning. After 8 weeks, dipping excised explants in a NaCl solution resulted in the highest callus induction percentage of 75%, while storing explants at 4 °C for 24 h suppressed callus formation. It was observed in all treatments that decreases in browning was accompanied with higher levels of phenols and lower activities of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and polyphenoloxidase (PPO). Overall, the results suggest that dipping in a NaCl solution was effective in alleviating the browning issues of herbaceous peony tissue cultures, and had positive synergistic effects with PVP on browning suppression and callus induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Cai
- Institute of Agriculture and Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Korea;
- School of Nuclear Technology and Chemistry & Biology, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, Hubei, China
| | - Hao Wei
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK21 Plus Program), Graduate School, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Korea; (H.W.); (C.L.); (X.R.); (L.T.T.)
| | - Chen Liu
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK21 Plus Program), Graduate School, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Korea; (H.W.); (C.L.); (X.R.); (L.T.T.)
| | - Xiuxia Ren
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK21 Plus Program), Graduate School, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Korea; (H.W.); (C.L.); (X.R.); (L.T.T.)
| | - Luc The Thi
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK21 Plus Program), Graduate School, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Korea; (H.W.); (C.L.); (X.R.); (L.T.T.)
| | - Byoung Ryong Jeong
- Institute of Agriculture and Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Korea;
- School of Nuclear Technology and Chemistry & Biology, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, Hubei, China
- Research Institute of Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Korea
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Zhang K, Su J, Xu M, Zhou Z, Zhu X, Ma X, Hou J, Tan L, Zhu Z, Cai H, Liu F, Sun H, Gu P, Li C, Liang Y, Zhao W, Sun C, Fu Y. A common wild rice-derived BOC1 allele reduces callus browning in indica rice transformation. Nat Commun 2020; 11:443. [PMID: 31974373 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-14265-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Callus browning, a common trait derived from the indica rice cultivar (Oryza sativa L.), is a challenge to transformation regeneration. Here, we report the map-based cloning of BROWNING OF CALLUS1 (BOC1) using a population derived from crossing Teqing, an elite indica subspecies exhibiting callus browning, and Yuanjiang, a common wild rice accession (Oryza rufipogon Griff.) that is less susceptible to callus browning. We show that BOC1 encodes a SIMILAR TO RADICAL-INDUCED CELL DEATH ONE (SRO) protein. Callus browning can be reduced by appropriate upregulation of BOC1, which consequently improves the genetic transformation efficiency. The presence of a Tourist-like miniature inverted-repeat transposable element (Tourist MITE) specific to wild rice in the promoter of BOC1 increases the expression of BOC1 in callus. BOC1 may decrease cell senescence and death caused by oxidative stress. Our study provides a gene target for improving tissue culturability and genetic transformation. Callus browning heavily affects indica rice transformation regeneration. Here, the authors show transposon insertion in the promoter of BOC1 gene, encoding a SIMILAR TO RADICAL-INDUCED CELL DEATH ONE protein, can upregulate its expression and decrease callus browning in cultivated rice by releasing oxidative stress.
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15
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Bailey-Serres J, Parker JE, Ainsworth EA, Oldroyd GED, Schroeder JI. Genetic strategies for improving crop yields. Nature 2019; 575:109-118. [PMID: 31695205 PMCID: PMC7024682 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-019-1679-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 481] [Impact Index Per Article: 96.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The current trajectory for crop yields is insufficient to nourish the world's population by 20501. Greater and more consistent crop production must be achieved against a backdrop of climatic stress that limits yields, owing to shifts in pests and pathogens, precipitation, heat-waves and other weather extremes. Here we consider the potential of plant sciences to address post-Green Revolution challenges in agriculture and explore emerging strategies for enhancing sustainable crop production and resilience in a changing climate. Accelerated crop improvement must leverage naturally evolved traits and transformative engineering driven by mechanistic understanding, to yield the resilient production systems that are needed to ensure future harvests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Bailey-Serres
- Center for Plant Cell Biology and Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA.
- Institute of Environmental Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Jane E Parker
- Department of Plant-Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research and Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Cologne, Germany
| | - Elizabeth A Ainsworth
- Global Change and Photosynthesis Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | | | - Julian I Schroeder
- Cell and Developmental Biology Section, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
- Food and Fuel for the 21st Century, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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Yokotani N, Uraji M, Hara M, Hihara S, Hatanaka T, Oda K. Low accumulation of chlorogenic acids represses reddening during flesh browning in Japanese peach “Okayama PEH7”. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2017; 81:147-152. [DOI: 10.1080/09168451.2016.1234926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
In peaches, fruit flesh browns unattractively after peeling or cutting. A recently developed cultivar, Okayama PEH7, was distinct from other Japanese cultivars, including Okayama PEH8, with respect to its reduced browning potential. Homogenate prepared from Okayama PEH7 flesh had significantly less reddening during the browning reaction. Okayama PEH7 had less soluble phenolic compounds and higher polyphenol oxidase activity than Okayama PEH8. Reduced browning was observed even when phenols prepared from Okayama PEH7 were incubated with crude extract from Okayama PEH8, suggesting that phenols lower the browning potential of Okayama PEH7. In Okayama PEH7, contents of chlorogenic acid and its isomers were about one-tenth compared to Okayama PEH8. Exogenous addition of chlorogenic acid to Okayama PEH7 homogenate increased the browning potential and visibly enhanced reddening. These results indicate that the reduced browning of Okayama PEH7 flesh is due to a defect in chlorogenic acid accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Yokotani
- Research Institute for Biological Sciences, Okayama Prefectural Technology Center for Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, Kibichuo, Japan
| | - Misugi Uraji
- Research Institute for Biological Sciences, Okayama Prefectural Technology Center for Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, Kibichuo, Japan
| | - Miyuki Hara
- Research Institute for Biological Sciences, Okayama Prefectural Technology Center for Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, Kibichuo, Japan
| | - Seisuke Hihara
- Research Institute for Agriculture, Okayama Prefectural Technology Center for Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, Akaiwa, Japan
| | - Tadashi Hatanaka
- Research Institute for Biological Sciences, Okayama Prefectural Technology Center for Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, Kibichuo, Japan
| | - Kenji Oda
- Research Institute for Biological Sciences, Okayama Prefectural Technology Center for Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, Kibichuo, Japan
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Guo Q, Liu Q, Smith NA, Liang G, Wang MB. RNA Silencing in Plants: Mechanisms, Technologies and Applications in Horticultural Crops. Curr Genomics 2016; 17:476-489. [PMID: 28217004 PMCID: PMC5108043 DOI: 10.2174/1389202917666160520103117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Revised: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the fundamental nature of a molecular process or a biological pathway is often a catalyst for the development of new technologies in biology. Indeed, studies from late 1990s to early 2000s have uncovered multiple overlapping but functionally distinct RNA silencing pathways in plants, including the posttranscriptional microRNA and small interfering RNA pathways and the transcriptional RNA-directed DNA methylation pathway. These findings have in turn been exploited for developing artificial RNA silencing technologies such as hairpin RNA, artificial microRNA, intrinsic direct repeat, 3' UTR inverted repeat, artificial trans-acting siRNA, and virus-induced gene silencing technologies. Some of these RNA silencing technologies, such as the hairpin RNA technology, have already been widely used for genetic improvement of crop plants in agriculture. For horticultural plants, RNA silencing technologies have been used to increase disease and pest resistance, alter plant architecture and flowering time, improve commercial traits of fruits and flowers, enhance nutritional values, remove toxic compounds and allergens, and develop high-value industrial products. In this article we aim to provide an overview of the RNA silencing pathways in plants, summarize the existing RNA silencing technologies, and review the current progress in applying these technologies for the improvement of agricultural crops particularly horticultural crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qigao Guo
- College of Horticulture & Landscape Architecture, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400716, China
| | - Qing Liu
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation Agriculture (CSIRO), ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Neil A Smith
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation Agriculture (CSIRO), ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Guolu Liang
- College of Horticulture & Landscape Architecture, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400716, China
| | - Ming-Bo Wang
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation Agriculture (CSIRO), ACT 2601, Australia
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Nishitani C, Hirai N, Komori S, Wada M, Okada K, Osakabe K, Yamamoto T, Osakabe Y. Efficient Genome Editing in Apple Using a CRISPR/Cas9 system. Sci Rep 2016; 6:31481. [PMID: 27530958 PMCID: PMC4987624 DOI: 10.1038/srep31481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Genome editing is a powerful technique for genome modification in molecular research and crop breeding, and has the great advantage of imparting novel desired traits to genetic resources. However, the genome editing of fruit tree plantlets remains to be established. In this study, we describe induction of a targeted gene mutation in the endogenous apple phytoene desaturase (PDS) gene using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Four guide RNAs (gRNAs) were designed and stably transformed with Cas9 separately in apple. Clear and partial albino phenotypes were observed in 31.8% of regenerated plantlets for one gRNA, and bi-allelic mutations in apple PDS were confirmed by DNA sequencing. In addition, an 18-bp gRNA also induced a targeted mutation. These CRIPSR/Cas9 induced-mutations in the apple genome suggest activation of the NHEJ pathway, but with some involvement also of the HR pathway. Our results demonstrate that genome editing can be practically applied to modify the apple genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chikako Nishitani
- NARO Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea Science, 2-1 Fujimoto, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8605, Japan
| | - Narumi Hirai
- NARO Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea Science, 2-1 Fujimoto, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8605, Japan
| | - Sadao Komori
- Faculty of Agriculture, Iwate University, 3-18-8 Ueda, Morioka, Iwate 020-8550, Japan
| | - Masato Wada
- NARO Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea Science, 92-24, Nabeyashiki, Shimokuriyagawa, Morioka, Iwate 020-0123, Japan
| | - Kazuma Okada
- NARO Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea Science, 92-24, Nabeyashiki, Shimokuriyagawa, Morioka, Iwate 020-0123, Japan
| | - Keishi Osakabe
- Faculty of Bioscience and Bioindustry, Tokushima University, 2-1 Josanjima, Tokushima 770-8513, Japan
| | - Toshiya Yamamoto
- NARO Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea Science, 2-1 Fujimoto, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8605, Japan
| | - Yuriko Osakabe
- Faculty of Bioscience and Bioindustry, Tokushima University, 2-1 Josanjima, Tokushima 770-8513, Japan
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Chi M, Bhagwat B, Tang G, Xiang Y. Knockdown of Polyphenol Oxidase Gene Expression in Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) with Artificial MicroRNAs. Methods Mol Biol 2016; 1405:163-178. [PMID: 26843174 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3393-8_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
It is of great importance and interest to develop crop varieties with low polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity for the food industry because PPO-mediated oxidative browning is a main cause of post-harvest deterioration and quality loss of fresh produce and processed foods. We recently demonstrated that potato tubers with reduced browning phenotypes can be produced by inhibition of the expression of several PPO gene isoforms using artificial microRNA (amiRNA) technology. The approach introduces a single type of 21-nucleotide RNA population to guide silencing of the PPO gene transcripts in potato tissues. Some advantages of the technology are: small RNA molecules are genetically transformed, off-target gene silencing can be avoided or minimized at the stage of amiRNA designs, and accuracy and efficiency of the processes can be detected at every step using molecular biological techniques. Here we describe the methods for transformation and regeneration of potatoes with amiRNA vectors, detection of the expression of amiRNAs, identification of the cleaved product of the target gene transcripts, and assay of the expression level of PPO gene isoforms in potatoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Chi
- Pacific Agri-Food Research Center, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 4200 Highway 97, Box 5000, Summerland, BC, Canada, V0H 1Z0
- College of Forestry, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Basdeo Bhagwat
- Pacific Agri-Food Research Center, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 4200 Highway 97, Box 5000, Summerland, BC, Canada, V0H 1Z0
| | - Guiliang Tang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, 49931, USA
- Provincial State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop Science, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yu Xiang
- Pacific Agri-Food Research Center, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 4200 Highway 97, Box 5000, Summerland, BC, Canada, V0H 1Z0.
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Kaushik P, Andújar I, Vilanova S, Plazas M, Gramazio P, Herraiz FJ, Brar NS, Prohens J. Breeding Vegetables with Increased Content in Bioactive Phenolic Acids. Molecules 2015; 20:18464-81. [PMID: 26473812 PMCID: PMC6332125 DOI: 10.3390/molecules201018464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Vegetables represent a major source of phenolic acids, powerful antioxidants characterized by an organic carboxylic acid function and which present multiple properties beneficial for human health. In consequence, developing new varieties with enhanced content in phenolic acids is an increasingly important breeding objective. Major phenolic acids present in vegetables are derivatives of cinnamic acid and to a lesser extent of benzoic acid. A large diversity in phenolic acids content has been found among cultivars and wild relatives of many vegetable crops. Identification of sources of variation for phenolic acids content can be accomplished by screening germplasm collections, but also through morphological characteristics and origin, as well as by evaluating mutations in key genes. Gene action estimates together with relatively high values for heritability indicate that selection for enhanced phenolic acids content will be efficient. Modern genomics and biotechnological strategies, such as QTL detection, candidate genes approaches and genetic transformation, are powerful tools for identification of genomic regions and genes with a key role in accumulation of phenolic acids in vegetables. However, genetically increasing the content in phenolic acids may also affect other traits important for the success of a variety. We anticipate that the combination of conventional and modern strategies will facilitate the development of a new generation of vegetable varieties with enhanced content in phenolic acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prashant Kaushik
- Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera 14, Valencia 46022, Spain.
| | - Isabel Andújar
- Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera 14, Valencia 46022, Spain.
| | - Santiago Vilanova
- Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera 14, Valencia 46022, Spain.
| | - Mariola Plazas
- Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera 14, Valencia 46022, Spain.
| | - Pietro Gramazio
- Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera 14, Valencia 46022, Spain.
| | - Francisco Javier Herraiz
- Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera 14, Valencia 46022, Spain.
| | - Navjot Singh Brar
- Department of Vegetable Science, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125001, India.
| | - Jaime Prohens
- Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera 14, Valencia 46022, Spain.
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Cheng Y, Liu L, Zhao G, Shen C, Yan H, Guan J, Yang K. The effects of modified atmosphere packaging on core browning and the expression patterns of PPO and PAL genes in ‘Yali’ pears during cold storage. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2015; 60:1243-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2014.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Gramazio P, Prohens J, Plazas M, Andújar I, Herraiz FJ, Castillo E, Knapp S, Meyer RS, Vilanova S. Location of chlorogenic acid biosynthesis pathway and polyphenol oxidase genes in a new interspecific anchored linkage map of eggplant. BMC Plant Biol 2014; 14:350. [PMID: 25491265 PMCID: PMC4279458 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-014-0350-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Eggplant is a powerful source of polyphenols which seems to play a key role in the prevention of several human diseases, such as cancer and diabetes. Chlorogenic acid is the polyphenol most present in eggplant, comprising between the 70% and 90% of the total polyphenol content. Introduction of the high chlorogenic acid content of wild relatives, such as S. incanum, into eggplant varieties will be of great interest. A potential side effect of the increased level polyphenols could be a decrease on apparent quality due to browning caused by the polyphenol oxidase enzymes mediated oxidation of polyphenols. We report the development of a new interspecific S. melongena × S. incanum linkage map based on a first backcross generation (BC1) towards the cultivated S. melongena as a tool for introgressing S. incanum alleles involved in the biosynthesis of chlorogenic acid in the genetic background of S. melongena. RESULTS The interspecific genetic linkage map of eggplant developed in this work anchor the most informative previously published genetic maps of eggplant using common markers. The 91 BC1 plants of the mapping population were genotyped with 42 COSII, 99 SSRs, 88 AFLPs, 9 CAPS, 4 SNPs and one morphological polymorphic markers. Segregation marker data resulted in a map encompassing 1085 cM distributed in 12 linkage groups. Based on the syntheny with tomato, the candidate genes involved in the core chlorogenic acid synthesis pathway in eggplant (PAL, C4H, 4CL, HCT, C3'H, HQT) as well as five polyphenol oxidase (PPO1, PPO2, PPO3, PPO4, PPO5) were mapped. Except for 4CL and HCT chlorogenic acid genes were not linked. On the contrary, all PPO genes clustered together. Candidate genes important in domestication such as fruit shape (OVATE, SISUN1) and prickliness were also located. CONCLUSIONS The achievements in location of candidate genes will allow the search of favorable alleles employing marker-assisted selection in order to develop new varieties with higher chlorogenic content alongside a lower polyphenol oxidase activity. This will result into an enhanced product showing a lower fruit flesh browning with improved human health properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pietro Gramazio
- />Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain
| | - Jaime Prohens
- />Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain
| | - Mariola Plazas
- />Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain
| | - Isabel Andújar
- />Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain
| | - Francisco Javier Herraiz
- />Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain
| | - Elena Castillo
- />Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain
| | - Sandra Knapp
- />Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD UK
| | - Rachel S Meyer
- />Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, New York University, 12 Waverly Place, New York, NY 10003 USA
- />Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, New York University Abu Dhabi Research Institute, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Santiago Vilanova
- />Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain
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Amaki K, Saito E, Taniguchi K, Joshita K, Murata M. Role of Chlorogenic Acid Quinone and Interaction of Chlorogenic Acid Quinone and Catechins in the Enzymatic Browning of Apple. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2014; 75:829-32. [DOI: 10.1271/bbb.100444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Wang J, Liu B, Xiao Q, Li H, Sun J. Cloning and expression analysis of litchi (Litchi Chinensis Sonn.) polyphenol oxidase gene and relationship with postharvest pericarp browning. PLoS One 2014; 9:e93982. [PMID: 24763257 PMCID: PMC3998928 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0093982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2013] [Accepted: 03/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) plays a key role in the postharvest pericarp browning of litchi fruit, but its underlying mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we cloned the litchi PPO gene (LcPPO, JF926153), and described its expression patterns. The LcPPO cDNA sequence was 2120 bps in length with an open reading frame (ORF) of 1800 bps. The ORF encoded a polypeptide with 599 amino acid residues, sharing high similarities with other plant PPO. The DNA sequence of the ORF contained a 215-bp intron. After carrying out quantitative RT-PCR, we proved that the LcPPO expression was tissue-specific, exhibiting the highest level in the flower and leaf. In the pericarp of newly-harvested litchi fruits, the LcPPO expression level was relatively high compared with developing fruits. Regardless of the litchi cultivar and treatment conditions, the LcPPO expression level and the PPO activity in pericarp of postharvest fruits exhibited the similar variations. When the fruits were stored at room temperature without packaging, all the pericarp browning index, PPO activity and the LcPPO expression level of litchi pericarps were reaching the highest in Nandaowuhe (the most rapid browning cultivar), but the lowest in Ziniangxi (the slowest browning cultivar) within 2 d postharvest. Preserving the fruits of Feizixiao in 0.2-μm plastic bag at room temperature would decrease the rate of pericarp water loss, delay the pericarp browning, and also cause the reduction of the pericarp PPO activity and LcPPO expression level within 3 d postharvest. In addition, postharvest storage of Feizixiao fruit stored at 4°C delayed the pericarp browning while decreasing the pericarp PPO activity and LcPPO expression level within 2 d after harvest. Thus, we concluded that the up-regulation of LcPPO expression in pericarp at early stage of postharvest storage likely enhanced the PPO activity and further accelerated the postharvest pericarp browning of litchi fruit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiabao Wang
- Environment and Plant Protection Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agriculture Sciences, Haikou, Hainan, China
- * E-mail:
| | - Baohua Liu
- Environment and Plant Protection Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agriculture Sciences, Haikou, Hainan, China
| | - Qian Xiao
- Environment and Plant Protection Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agriculture Sciences, Haikou, Hainan, China
| | - Huanling Li
- Environment and Plant Protection Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agriculture Sciences, Haikou, Hainan, China
| | - Jinhua Sun
- Environment and Plant Protection Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agriculture Sciences, Haikou, Hainan, China
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Chi M, Bhagwat B, Lane WD, Tang G, Su Y, Sun R, Oomah BD, Wiersma PA, Xiang Y. Reduced polyphenol oxidase gene expression and enzymatic browning in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) with artificial microRNAs. BMC Plant Biol 2014; 14:62. [PMID: 24618103 PMCID: PMC4007649 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-14-62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2013] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Polyphenol oxidase (PPO), often encoded by a multi-gene family, causes oxidative browning, a significant problem in many food products. Low-browning potatoes were produced previously through suppression of PPO gene expression, but the contribution of individual PPO gene isoform to the oxidative browning process was unknown. Here we investigated the contributions of different PPO genes to total PPO protein activity, and the correlations between PPO protein level, PPO activity and tuber tissue browning potential by suppression of all previously characterized potato PPO genes, both individually and in combination using artificial microRNAs (amiRNAs) technology. RESULTS Survey of the potato genome database revealed 9 PPO-like gene models, named StuPPO1 to StuPPO9 in this report. StuPPO1, StuPPO2, StuPPO3 and StuPPO4 are allelic to the characterized POTP1/P2, POT32, POT33 and POT72, respectively. Fewer ESTs were found to support the transcriptions of StuPPO5 to StuPPO8. StuPPO9 related ESTs were expressed at significant higher levels in pathogen-infected potato tissues. A series of browning phenotypes were obtained by suppressing StuPPO1 to StuPPO4 genes alone and in combination. Down-regulation of one or several of the PPO genes did not usually cause up-regulation of the other PPO genes in the transgenic potato tubers, but resulted in reduced PPO protein levels. The different PPO genes did not contribute equally to the total PPO protein content in the tuber tissues, with StuPPO2 accounting for ~ 55% as the major contributor, followed by StuPPO1, ~ 25-30% and StuPPO3 and StuPPO4 together with less than 15%. Strongly positive correlations between PPO protein level, PPO activity and browning potential were demonstrated in our analysis. Low PPO activity and low-browning potatoes were produced by simultaneous down-regulation of StuPPO2 to StuPPO4, but the greatest reduction occurred when StuPPO1 to StuPPO4 were all suppressed. CONCLUSION StuPPO1 to StuPPO4 genes contributed to browning reactions in tuber tissues but their effect was not equal. Different PPO genes may be regulated independently reflecting their diversified functions. Our results show that amiRNAs can be used to suppress closely related members of highly conserved multi-gene family. This approach also suggests a new strategy for breeding low-browning crops using small DNA inserts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Chi
- College of Forestry, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Summerland, British Columbia V0H 1Z0, Canada
| | - Basdeo Bhagwat
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Summerland, British Columbia V0H 1Z0, Canada
| | - W David Lane
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Summerland, British Columbia V0H 1Z0, Canada
| | - Guiliang Tang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA
| | - Yinquan Su
- College of Forestry, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Runcang Sun
- College of Forestry, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - B Dave Oomah
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Summerland, British Columbia V0H 1Z0, Canada
| | - Paul A Wiersma
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Summerland, British Columbia V0H 1Z0, Canada
| | - Yu Xiang
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Summerland, British Columbia V0H 1Z0, Canada
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Di Guardo M, Tadiello A, Farneti B, Lorenz G, Masuero D, Vrhovsek U, Costa G, Velasco R, Costa F. A multidisciplinary approach providing new insight into fruit flesh browning physiology in apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.). PLoS One 2013; 8:e78004. [PMID: 24205065 PMCID: PMC3799748 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2013] [Accepted: 09/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In terms of the quality of minimally processed fruit, flesh browning is fundamentally important in the development of an aesthetically unpleasant appearance, with consequent off-flavours. The development of browning depends on the enzymatic action of the polyphenol oxidase (PPO). In the 'Golden Delicious' apple genome ten PPO genes were initially identified and located on three main chromosomes (2, 5 and 10). Of these genes, one element in particular, here called Md-PPO, located on chromosome 10, was further investigated and genetically mapped in two apple progenies ('Fuji x Pink Lady' and 'Golden Delicious x Braeburn'). Both linkage maps, made up of 481 and 608 markers respectively, were then employed to find QTL regions associated with fruit flesh browning, allowing the detection of 25 QTLs related to several browning parameters. These were distributed over six linkage groups with LOD values spanning from 3.08 to 4.99 and showed a rate of phenotypic variance from 26.1 to 38.6%. Anchoring of these intervals to the apple genome led to the identification of several genes involved in polyphenol synthesis and cell wall metabolism. Finally, the expression profile of two specific candidate genes, up and downstream of the polyphenolic pathway, namely phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO), provided insight into flesh browning physiology. Md-PPO was further analyzed and two haplotypes were characterised and associated with fruit flesh browning in apple.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Di Guardo
- Genomics and Crop Biology Department Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund, Mach, San Michele all’Adige (Trento), Italy
| | - Alice Tadiello
- Genomics and Crop Biology Department Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund, Mach, San Michele all’Adige (Trento), Italy
| | - Brian Farneti
- Department of Fruit Trees & Woody Plant Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giorgia Lorenz
- Genomics and Crop Biology Department Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund, Mach, San Michele all’Adige (Trento), Italy
| | - Domenico Masuero
- Genomics and Crop Biology Department Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund, Mach, San Michele all’Adige (Trento), Italy
| | - Urska Vrhovsek
- Genomics and Crop Biology Department Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund, Mach, San Michele all’Adige (Trento), Italy
| | - Guglielmo Costa
- Department of Fruit Trees & Woody Plant Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Riccardo Velasco
- Genomics and Crop Biology Department Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund, Mach, San Michele all’Adige (Trento), Italy
| | - Fabrizio Costa
- Genomics and Crop Biology Department Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund, Mach, San Michele all’Adige (Trento), Italy
- * E-mail:
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Richter C, Dirks ME, Gronover CS, Prüfer D, Moerschbacher BM. Silencing and heterologous expression of ppo-2 indicate a specific function of a single polyphenol oxidase isoform in resistance of dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) against Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 2012; 25:200-10. [PMID: 22026646 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-04-11-0082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) possesses an unusually high degree of disease resistance. As this plant exhibits high polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity and PPO have been implicated in resistance against pests and pathogens, we analyzed the potential involvement of five PPO isoenzymes in the resistance of dandelion against Botrytis cinerea and Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato. Only one PPO (ppo-2) was induced during infection, and ppo-2 promoter and β-glucuronidase marker gene fusions revealed strong induction of the gene surrounding lesions induced by B. cinerea. Specific RNAi silencing reduced ppo-2 expression only, and concomitantly increased plant susceptibility to P. syringae pv. tomato. At 4 days postinoculation, P. syringae pv. tomato populations were strongly increased in the ppo-2 RNAi lines compared with wild-type plants. When the dandelion ppo-2 gene was expressed in Arabidopsis thaliana, a plant having no PPO gene, active protein was formed and protein extracts of the transgenic plants exhibited substrate-dependent antimicrobial activity against P. syringae pv. tomato. These results clearly indicate a strong contribution of a specific, single PPO isoform to disease resistance. Therefore, we propose that specific PPO isoenzymes be included in a new family of pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Richter
- Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Munster, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Munster, Germany
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LI NY, CAI WM, JIN QL, QIN QP, RAN FL. Molecular Cloning and Expression of Polyphenoloxidase Genes from the Mushroom, Agaricus bisporus. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/s1671-2927(09)60305-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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OKUMURA S, HOSHINO M, JOSHITA K, NISHINOMIYA T, MURATA M. Hinokitiol Inhibits Polyphenol Oxidase and Enzymatic Browning. FSTR 2011. [DOI: 10.3136/fstr.17.251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Yari Khosroushahi A, Naderi-Manesh H, Toft Simonsen H. Effect of Antioxidants and Carbohydrates in Callus Cultures of Taxus brevifolia: Evaluation of Browning, Callus Growth, Total Phenolics and Paclitaxel Production. Bioimpacts 2011; 1:37-45. [PMID: 23678406 DOI: 10.5681/bi.2011.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2011] [Revised: 03/26/2011] [Accepted: 04/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION To control the tissue browning phenomenon, callus growth, total phenolics and paclitaxel production, in the current investigation, we evaluated the effects of citric acid and ascorbic acid (as antioxidants) and glucose, fructose and sucrose in callus cultures of Taxus brevifolia. METHODS To obtain healthy callus/cell lines of Taxus brevifolia, the effects of two antioxidants ascorbic acid (100-1000 mg/L) and citric acid (50-500 mg/L), and three carbohydrates (glucose, fructose and sucrose (5-10 g/L)) were studied evaluating activities of polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (PO) enzymes, callus growth/browning, total phenolics and paclitaxel production. RESULTS These antioxidants (ascorbic acid and citric acid) failed to show significant effects on callus growth, browning intensity or paclitaxel production. However, the carbohydrates imposed significant effects on the parameters studied. High concentrations of both glucose and sucrose increased the browning intensity, thus decreased callus growth. Glucose increased paclitaxel production, but sucrose decreased it. CONCLUSION These results revealed that the browning phenomenon can be controlled through supplementation of the growth media with glucose, sucrose (5 g/L) and fructose (10 g/L), while increased paclitaxel production can be obtain by the optimized media supplemented with glucose (10 g/L), sucrose and fructose (5 g/L).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Yari Khosroushahi
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Faculty of Biological Science, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
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31
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Liu JW, Huang YY, Ding J, Liu C, Xiao XD, Ni DJ. Prokaryotic expression and purification of Camellia sinensis polyphenol oxidase. J Sci Food Agric 2010; 90:2490-2494. [PMID: 20661922 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.4111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) causes the postharvest loss of fruits and vegetables but is also a key factor in the quality development of tea. However, there are no reports on engineered active plant PPO purified from prokaryotic cells. RESULTS In this study the ppo gene of about 1800 bp from Camellia sinensis cv. Yihongzao was successfully cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. The PPOs purified from both the soluble fraction and the inclusion bodies showed activity. In addition, 1.0 × 10(-7) mol L(-1) Cu(2+) and acidic conditions were found to be favourable for the engineered PPO catalysis of catechol oxidation. CONCLUSION This paper represents the first report on C. sinensis ppo expression in E. coli and engineered active PPO purification. The results of the study provide a basis for the large-scale preparation and application of PPO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-wei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Tea Science Department of Horticulture and Forestry Science College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan City 430070, China
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Pesis E, Ebeler SE, de Freitas ST, Padda M, Mitcham EJ. Short anaerobiosis period prior to cold storage alleviates bitter pit and superficial scald in Granny Smith apples. J Sci Food Agric 2010; 90:2114-2123. [PMID: 20607763 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.4060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Californian Granny Smith apples are very susceptible to bitter pit (BP) and superficial scald symptoms that develop during cold storage. The main preventive means are diphenylamine dipping and/or gaseous application of the ethylene inhibitor 1-methylcylclopropene (1-MCP), which is effective against superficial scald but not against BP. This study investigated the efficacy of a non-chemical alternative, low-O(2) (LO2) stress, in preventing these two physiological disorders. RESULTS Application of LO2 stress at 20 degrees C for 10 days prior to cold storage of Granny Smith apples reduced superficial scald and BP incidence and severity during 8 months at 0 degrees C. LO2 treatments induced volatile alcohols and reduced ethylene and 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one (MHO-on) production, thereby reducing superficial scald development after 4 months at 0 degrees C. In addition, LO2-treated fruits had higher pectin methyl esterase (MdPME) gene expression, similar to that of 1-MCP-treated fruits, associated with their higher firmness. Conversion of MHO-on to 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-ol (MHO-ol) in LO2-treated fruits may explain the lower scald development. CONCLUSION The ratio between MHO-on and MHO-ol might serve as an index of superficial scald severity. Reduction of BP symptoms in LO2-treated fruits could be due to accumulation of volatile alcohols in the peel tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edna Pesis
- Department of Postharvest Science of Fresh Produce, The Volcani Center, PO Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel.
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Abstract
This review summarizes the achievements of almost 20 years of recombinant DNA technology applied to apple, grouping the research results into the sections: developing the technology, insect resistance, fungal disease resistance, self-incompatibility, herbicide resistance, fire blight resistance, fruit ripening, allergens, rooting ability, and acceptance and risk assessment. The diseases fire blight, caused by Erwinia amylovora, and scab, caused by Venturia inaequalis, were and still are the prime targets. Shelf life improvement and rooting ability of rootstocks are also relevant research areas. The tools to create genetically modified apples of added value to producers, consumers, and the environment are now available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cesare Gessler
- Plant Pathology, Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zürich, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland.
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