Development of an early memories of warmth and safeness scale and its relationship to psychopathology

Relationship Between Warm Childhood Memories and Mobile Phone Addiction: A Moderated Mediation Model

Childhood experiences have an important effect on mobile phone addiction, but the relationship between positive childhood experiences and mobile phone addiction and its underlying mechanisms should be explored further. This study aims to explore a model linking early memories of warmth and safeness to mobile phone addiction via the mediating role of alexithymia and moderating role of negative coping styles. A total of 379 Chinese college students (Mage = 19.80 years, SD = 1.38; 240 females) completed a questionnaire consisting of the Early Memories of Warmth and Safeness Scale, Toronto Alexithymia Scale, Mobile Phone Addiction Scale, and Negative Coping Styles Scale. Results indicate that early memories of warmth and safeness are negatively correlated with mobile phone addiction, and alexithymia plays a mediating role in the link between early memories of warmth and safeness and mobile phone addiction. In addition, negative coping styles significantly moderate the relationship between early memories of warmth and safeness and alexithymia, specifically, the negative association between early memories of warmth and safeness and alexithymia is highly significant at high (vs. low) negative coping styles levels. The findings suggest that early memories of warmth and safeness are an important protective factor against mobile phone addiction, which enrich the literature on mobile phone addiction and provide empirical support for the prevention of mobile phone addiction.

Validation of the Italian version of the Neuroception of Psychological Safety Scale (NPSS)

Research on the neuroscience of fear in both humans and non-humans has suggested that a lack of acquisition of safety cues might be a biological hallmark of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Danger perception, and in particular, feeling as one's own life is in danger, is thought to represent a major predictor of PTSD. Persistent danger perception is concurrently associated with a persistence of lack of safety. However, despite several research efforts, no validated psychometric tools exist regarding psychological safety as a unique core construct in the domain of a soothing-contentment system. By including social, compassionate, and bodily components, the Neuroception of Psychological Safety Scale (NPSS), neurophysiologically rooted in the polyvagal theory, aims to specifically assess psychological safety. Originally developed in English, we employed a rather large non clinical sample to validate our Italian translation of the NPSS (n = 338) and the scale was found to retain a three-factor structure. In light of its positive moderate correlations with the Unconditional Self-Kindness Scale (ρ = 0.376) and the Self-Compassion Scale-Short-Form (ρ = 0.481), good convergent validity and robust psychometric properties were shown by the NPSS. The Subjective Traumatic Outlook Questionnaire (ρ = -0.283) and the three subscales of the Body Perception Questionnaire-22-Body Awareness (ρ = -0.103), Supradiaphragmatic Reactivity (ρ = -0.234), and Body Awareness/Subdiaphragmatic Reactivity (ρ = -0.146)-were found to have weak negative correlations with the NPSS, which further demonstrated its good discriminant validity. Eventually, the NPSS was found to show good test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.922; three-week time interval), and its usage is fostered in clinical and research contexts where the evaluation of psychological safety is of relevance.

Depression, Anxiety, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Following Intimate Partner Violence: The Role of Self-Criticism, Guilt, and Gender Beliefs

Intimate partner violence (IPV) predicts anxiety, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), yet the role of cognition in these pathways is poorly understood. This study explored whether self-criticism, guilt, and gender beliefs predicted psychological symptoms, using self-report data from 50 Colombian female IPV survivors with diverse socioeconomic statuses. Self-criticism and guilt were high and significantly associated with IPV. Self-criticism significantly predicted depression and PTSD, whilst only guilt predicted anxiety. Traditional gender role beliefs were associated with emotional abuse, but not with self-criticism, guilt, or symptoms. In conclusion, self-criticism and guilt are important treatment targets for female IPV survivors, regardless of gender beliefs.

Feasibility, acceptability, and depression outcomes of a randomized controlled trial of Mindful Self-Compassion for Teens (MSC-T) for adolescents with subsyndromal depression

INTRODUCTION

Adolescents are experiencing high rates of depressive symptoms, with negative consequences to their long-term health. Group-based, mindful self-compassion programs show promise in mitigating the development of more significant depression in at-risk adolescents. However, the lack of well-designed, active control conditions has limited the ability to examine the efficacy of such interventions.

METHODS

Fifty-nine adolescents (Mage  = 15.81, 70% female) with subsyndromal depressive symptoms from the Southeastern US were randomized to group-based Mindful Self-Compassion for Teens (N = 30) or a newly developed active control Healthy Lifestyles group (N = 29) during 2018 and 2019. Participants attended 8 weekly "main" sessions followed by 6 monthly continuation sessions. The feasibility and acceptability of participation in both groups were measured using attrition, attendance, credibility, and satisfaction data. Depression scores were collected weekly, and self-compassion scores were collected five times across 36 weeks.

RESULTS

Both groups were equally feasible and acceptable during the 8-week program period; however, monthly continuation sessions were poorly attended in both groups. The risk of developing clinically significant depression was 2.6 times higher in the control group compared with the self-compassion group (p = .037) across 36 weeks. Depression significantly decreased in the self-compassion group, while it significantly increased in the control group. Both groups increased significantly in reports of self-compassion. These findings are on par with results noting the efficacy of cognitive-based interventions for high-risk adolescents; follow-up studies with larger sample sizes should be conducted to confirm these findings.

CONCLUSIONS

Initial examination suggests Mindful Self-Compassion for Teens programming is feasible, acceptable, and efficacious in preventing the development of clinically significant depression in adolescents with subsyndromal depression. Future studies may benefit from refinements to the self-compassion measurement and/or the attention control condition; moreover, larger sample sizes are needed to confirm results.

"Help Me Control My Impulses!": Adolescent Impulsivity and Its Negative Individual, Family, Peer, and Community Explanatory Factors

The literature shows that impulsivity, prevalent in adolescence, is negatively linked with a variety of psychosocial factors (e.g., positive interpersonal relationships, emotion regulation); however, there is limited research examining the relative contribution of multiple factors for this trait nor exploring how these factors influence the associations between impulsivity and risk-related outcomes. Drawing on multiple components of the unified theory of development (i.e., psychological variables, peers subsystem, community subsystem, family processes subsystem), this cross-sectional study aims to identify explanatory psychosocial variables (i.e., early memories of warmth and safeness, rational decision-making style, resilience, emotion regulation, coping, parental attachment, social group attachment, satisfaction with school and family-related variables) that are negatively related with impulsivity, in younger (13-15) and older (16-19 years) adolescents, and explore their moderating role in the associations between this trait and some risk-related outcomes (i.e., verbal aggression, anger, self-harm, other high-risk behaviors). A representative sample of 6894 adolescents (52.9% female) living in the Azores (Portugal), with ages ranging from 13 to 19 (M = 15.4), was used. Two stepwise multiple regressions, one for each age group, revealed that only emotion regulation, parental attachment, and social group attachment had a negative effect on impulsivity in both age groups; additionally, satisfaction with teachers also had this effect in younger adolescents. The first three variables weakened the positive associations between impulsivity and the risk-related outcomes. These results suggest that the psychological system and all subsystems of the social context measured play a relevant role in explaining adolescent impulsivity and that it may be reduced by promoting emotion regulation, positive parenting practices, healthier relationships with peers, and healthier relationships with teachers.

Shame Memory's Impact on Depression among Junior Middle School Students: A Moderated Mediation Model

(1) Objective: While recent studies have shed light on the effects of shame memories on mental well-being, there is still limited understanding of the underlying mechanisms linking shame memories and depression. Based on the biopsychosocial model and cognitive therapy theory, this study examined the association between shame memory and depression and the indirect role of emotion management and self-criticism. (2) Methods: A total of 1004 junior high school students were measured with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, the event impact scale, the self-criticism scale of the depressive experiences questionnaire, and the emotional intelligence scale. (3) Results: Shame memory had a significant positive correlation with depression. The relationship between shame memory and depression was partially mediated by self-criticism. Emotional management was found to regulate the latter half of the mediating effect of shame memory on depression. (4) Conclusions: Self-criticism plays a mediating role in the relationship between shame memory and depression, as well as emotion management plays a moderating role between self-criticism and depression. This perspective will contribute to the growing body of knowledge about the impact of shame memories on depression among junior high school children but also offers a feasible plan for follow-up intervention.

The integrative process promoted by EMDR in dissociative disorders: neurobiological mechanisms, psychometric tools, and intervention efficacy on the psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic

Dissociative disorders (DDs) are characterized by a discontinuity in the normal integration of consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, bodily representation, motor control, and action. The life-threatening coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has been identified as a potentially traumatic event and may produce a wide range of mental health problems, such as depression, anxiety disorders, sleep disorders, and DD, stemming from pandemic-related events, such as sickness, isolation, losing loved ones, and fear for one's life. In our conceptual analysis, we introduce the contribution of the structural dissociation of personality (SDP) theory and polyvagal theory to the conceptualization of the COVID-19 pandemic-triggered DD and the importance of assessing perceived safety in DD through neurophysiologically informed psychometric tools. In addition, we analyzed the contribution of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) to the treatment of the COVID-19 pandemic-triggered DD and suggest possible neurobiological mechanisms of action of the EMDR. In particular, we propose that, through slow eye movements, the EMDR may promote an initial non-rapid-eye-movement sleep stage 1-like activity, a subsequent access to a slow-wave sleep activity, and an oxytocinergic neurotransmission that, in turn, may foster the functional coupling between paraventricular nucleus and both sympathetic and parasympathetic cardioinhibitory nuclei. Neurophysiologically informed psychometric tools for safety evaluation in DDs are discussed. Furthermore, clinical and public health implications are considered, combining the EMDR, SDP theory, and polyvagal conceptualizations in light of the potential dissociative symptomatology triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Impact of early memories and current experiences of warmth and safeness on adolescents' psychological distress

A variable-centered and a person-centered approach were performed to examine the role of early memories of warmth and safeness (EMWS) and current experiences of warmth and safeness (CEWS) on depressive and anxious symptoms among adolescents from community and residential youth care (RYC) settings. Variable-centered results revealed EMWS were only indirectly (through CEWS) associated with depressive and anxious symptoms. Person-centered outcomes allowed to identify four different profiles based on EMWS and CEWS, which differed on depressive and anxious symptoms. EMWS and CEWS seem to play an important role in psychological distress during adolescence. CEWS seem to have a protective role on RYC adolescents' psychological distress, even when EMWS were poor.

The Enhancing Role of Emotion Regulation in the Links between Early Positive Memories and Self-harm and Suicidal Ideation in Adolescence

Adolescence is a critical developmental period associated with an increased variety of interrelated risks and vulnerabilities. Previous studies have found associations between early memories of warmth and safeness, as well as emotion regulation, and self-harm and suicidal ideation in adolescence. Additionally, these early emotional memories have been found to be positively linked with some indicators of emotion regulation during this period. The present cross-sectional study extends prior research by exploring the moderating role of emotion regulation in the relationships between early memories of warmth and safeness, as well as each of the following risk-related outcomes in adolescence, in younger (i.e., 13-15) and older (i.e., 16-19) adolescents: suicidal ideation and self-harm and its associated functions (i.e., automatic and social reinforcement. Three self-report measures of these early emotional memories, emotion regulation, and risk-related outcomes, and a sample of 7918 Portuguese adolescents (53.3% females), with ages ranging from 13 to 19 (M_age = 15.5), were used. In both age groups, at high levels of emotion regulation, early memories of warmth and safeness had a greater (negative) effect on suicidal ideation and the automatic reinforcement function of self-harm, compared to at average and low levels of emotion regulation. These findings highlight the enhancing role of emotion regulation on the associations between early memories of warmth and safeness and some risk-related outcomes in adolescents, both younger and older, which reveals the relevance of targeting emotion regulation when preventing or tackling these outcomes, regardless of adolescents' levels of early memories of warmth and safeness.

Development and initial validation of a short form of the Memories of Home and Family Scale

The Memories of Home and Family Scale (MHFS; Shevlin et al., 2022) was developed as a multidimensional measure of subjective memories of experiences at home and with family during childhood. Due to the length of the scale, a short version of the MHFS (MHFS-SF) has been developed. Data were from Wave 7 of the COVID-19 Psychological Research Consortium Study (C19PRC-UK), a population based UK survey (N = 1405). Two items with the highest factor loadings from each of the six dimensions of the original MHFS were selected for inclusion. Confirmatory factor analytic (CFA) models were estimated to test the dimensionality of the scale. Convergent and discriminant validity were tested by examining associations with criterion variables. CFA results supported the multidimensionality of the scale. MHFS-SF total and sub-scale scores were negatively correlated with measures of depression, anxiety, loneliness, and paranoia, and were positively correlated with wellbeing. Regression analyses revealed that MHFS-SF total and sub-scale scores significantly predicted loneliness, paranoia, and wellbeing, even after accounting for age, gender, and current internalising symptoms. Results from this study suggest that the MHFS-SF scores retain the excellent psychometric properties of the original scale while improving efficiency. The MHFS-SF demonstrated high levels of convergent and discriminant validity with mental health and wellbeing measures. Future research should seek to validate the MHFS-SF in different populations and assess its usefulness in clinical settings.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42844-023-00097-x.

Early Emotional Experiences and Prosocial Behavior among Chinese Adolescents: The Roles of Psychological Suzhi and Subjective Socioeconomic Status

Prosocial behavior plays a vital role in adolescents’ well-being and social functioning, with the recall of early emotional experiences being a major influence. Positive experiences such as early memories of warmth and safeness (EMWS) contribute to prosocial interpersonal characteristics, whereas adverse experiences such as child psychological abuse and neglect (CPAN) lead to social withdrawal or behavioral problems. The direct effects of EMWS and CPAN on prosocial behavior were investigated in this study, along with the mediation effect of psychological suzhi and the moderation effect of subjective socioeconomic status (SSS). A sample of 948 adolescents (Mage = 14.05 years, SD = 1.68 years; 43.6% females) was randomly recruited to complete self-report questionnaires. Correlation results indicated that EMWS promoted prosocial behavior, whereas CPAN was negatively associated with prosocial behavior. Path analyses confirmed the mediating role of psychological suzhi on the effects of EMWS and CPAN on prosocial behavior. SSS was shown to moderate the effects of EMWS on prosocial behavior and CPAN on psychological suzhi. Compared to lower SSS, higher SSS would reinforce the positive impact of EMWS on prosocial behavior and exacerbate the negative impact of CPAN on psychological suzhi. The current study provided new insight into understanding the underlying mechanisms of prosocial behavior from the perspective of early emotional experiences.

Measuring positive memories of home and family during childhood: The development and initial validation of the 'Memories of Home and Family Scale'

There is a burgeoning evidence base highlighting the positive influence of benevolent childhood experiences (BCEs), even in the context of adversity. However, few measures are available to assess BCEs. The current study sought to develop and validate a measure which assesses positive recollections of experiences and emotions at home and with family during childhood called the 'Memories of Home and Family Scale'(MHFS). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was employed to test the latent structure of the preliminary MHFS item scores in a sample of university students from the United Kingdom (N = 624). Following selection of the best-fitting model and final items for inclusion in the scale, total and subscale scores were correlated with a range of mental health outcomes. CFA results indicated that the latent structure of the MHFS items was best represented by a correlated six-factor first-order model. The final MHFS demonstrated high levels of internal reliability and convergent validity.

Affective Representation of Early Relationships with Parents and Current Anxiety and Depression

Research on the role of early relationships with parents on youth's anxiety and depression, especially in collectivist societies such as China, is limited. To fill this gap, we investigated the unique role of early relationship with mothers and fathers, respectively, in Chinese youth's anxiety and depression outcomes. The participants were 347 Chinese college students from 20 provinces. They first separately rated the frequency of experiencing 13 emotions (e.g., anger) from recalling early relationships with their mothers and fathers, then completed the Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale and the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale. Logistic regression was performed to determine the unique contribution of early relationships with mothers and fathers, respectively, to the participants' clinical-level anxiety and depression. Based on the final model of our logistical regression, we found that an increase in negative affective representation of early relationship with the mother was associated with a higher likelihood of clinical level anxiety (OR = 3.58; 95% CI = 1.32-9.70), while an increase in positive affective representation of early relationship with the mother was associated with a lower likelihood of clinical-level depression (OR = 0.47; 95% CI = 0.25-0.87). Furthermore, an increase in negative affective representation of early relationship with the father was associated with a higher likelihood of clinical-level anxiety (OR = 3.36; 95% CI = 1.37-8.26) and depression (OR = 3.68; 95% CI = 1.59-8.52), above and beyond their affective representation of early relationship with the mother.

Exploring working memory, self-criticism, and rumination as factors related to self-harm

The prevalence of self-harm and the relative emotional influences are well understood, but certain cognitive factors such as working memory, rumination, and self-criticism are not fully explored. The aim of the current study is to examine specific aspects of cognition to explore their influence on self-harming behaviors. Participants included 101 undergraduates from a British University. Factors were measured using the Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire, Ruminative Response Scale, and the Automated Working Memory Assessment. Findings indicated a greater incidence of self-harming behaviors among those who demonstrated higher depressive symptoms, but depression scores were not significantly related to self-harm. Additionally, a binary logistic regression indicated that self-criticism was associated with the presence of self-harming behavior, and a Classification and Regression Trees found that the single strongest predictor of self-harming behavior was a belief that love needs to be continually earned from others. Incorporating treatments that reduce self-criticism, such as improving self-compassion with Compassionate Mind Training, may address underlying mechanisms that trigger self-harm behavior. Keywords: rumination, depression, self-criticism, working memory, self-harm.

Development and Validation of the Current Experiences of Warmth and Safeness Scale in Community and Residential Care Adolescents

Interpersonal experiences of warmth and safeness have a key role on emotion regulation and social development during childhood and adolescence. This paper presents a new and brief scale designed to assess the adolescents' perception of current experiences of warmth and safeness (CEWSS-A). Its dimensionality and psychometric properties were investigated using a Portuguese sample of 453 adolescents from the community and 319 adolescents from residential care facilities. A confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the 12-item scale has a one-factor measurement model. The CEWSS-A showed adequate internal consistency in the different samples (α > .92) and construct validity in relation to external variables. The CEWSS-A proved to be group invariant. Community adolescents reported a higher frequency of current experiences of warmth and safeness in comparison with residential care participants, and boys showed significantly higher scores than girls, within both samples. The CEWSS-A is an appropriate self-report measure for clinical and research purposes.

Early shaming experiences and psychological distress: The role of experiential avoidance and self-compassion

OBJECTIVES

Early shaming experiences have been suggested to be associated with later psychopathological symptoms. Understanding this relationship is complex, due to a number of psychological processes potentially influencing this. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to further explore the nature of the mediating effect of experiential avoidance in the association between early shame experiences and psychological distress, and whether self-compassion moderates this relationship by mitigating the effects of this.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional design was conducted using self-report measures of early shaming experiences, experiential avoidance, self-compassion, and psychological distress.

METHOD

An online study of 556 participants, comprised of participants from the general population and university students participated within this online study.

RESULTS

The moderated mediation model explained 51% of variance within depressive symptoms. Experiential avoidance was found to mediate the association between early shaming experiences and depressive symptoms. This mediating relationship was shown to be moderated by self-compassion, with higher levels of self-compassion being associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms across all levels of experiential avoidance levels (low, medium, and high).

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that self-compassion may play a significant buffering role within attenuating the effects of experiential avoidance associated with depressive symptoms. Such findings present important clinical and theoretical implications in further understanding the protective role of self-compassion within early shaming experiences and the relationship between depressive symptoms.

PRACTITIONER POINTS

Early shaming experiences have been linked to later psychological distress. Experiential avoidance identified a core underlying psychological process in the relationship between early shaming experiences and psychological distress. Self-compassion offers a range of protective features that may alleviate the effects of experiential avoidance and depressive symptoms. Self-compassion-based interventions that target experiential avoidance may offer greater reductions within depressive symptoms.

Childhood Experiences and Intimate Partner Violence Among Kenyan Males: Mediation by Self-Esteem and Impulsivity

This study evaluates associations between childhood social environments and current intimate partner conflict tactics in early adulthood. The subsample for this study (n = 251 men) were participants in a larger community-based study of men's mental and behavioral health in semirural Kenya. A survey questionnaire was administered by trained interviewers, including validated recall measures from childhood, collective self-esteem and impulsivity, and the conflict tactics scale short form. Analyses utilized regression and mediation methods. The recall measures evaluated the degree of relational warmth and safety recalled from early childhood and forms of abuse, neglect and dysfunction present in the childhood home. Collective self-esteem assessed the perceived value of one's social groups and one's value as a member of these groups. Impulsivity measured the propensity to act without thinking. The conflict tactics scale evaluates the presence and frequency of specific behaviors following intimate partner conflict, which lead to two factors-negotiation-based tactics and violence tactics. More early memories of relational warmth, responsiveness, and safety during childhood predict fewer violent intimate conflict tactics. More adverse childhood experiences predict more violent conflict tactics and fewer negotiation-based conflict tactics. Self-esteem and impulsivity mediated associations between recalled childhood experiences and conflict tactics. Further research is required to explore other predisposing factors, psychological processes, and cultural and social norms surrounding the use of violent and nonviolent intimate partner conflict resolution by young men in Sub-Saharan Africa. Violence prevention strategies and policies should explicitly link intimate partner violence prevention with prevention of violence against boys. Interventions should recognize men who perpetrate intimate partner violence are more likely victims of violent childhoods than men who do not perpetrate intimate partner violence. Promoting collective self-esteem and reducing impulsivity among young men may reduce violence against women.

Affiliative interactions and body and eating-related difficulties in adolescent girls: The effects of fears of compassion and feelings of social safeness

The need to examine the associations between emotion regulation and mental health and well-being among adolescents is increasingly recognized. Adolescence is a critical time characterized by increased vulnerability towards emotional struggles and difficulties, especially related with body image and eating behaviours. Thus, it seems particularly important to analyse the processes and mechanisms underlying the relationships between several risk factors (such as the lack of early affiliative memories) and body and eating-related difficulties, in this specific developmental phase. The current study intended to examine whether early affiliative memories are significantly associated with body and eating-related difficulties (i.e., body image shame and eating psychopathology severity), and whether this association is mediated by lower feelings of social safeness and increased levels of fears of receiving compassion from others. This cross-sectional study was conducted with 231 adolescent girls from the community, aged between 12 and 18, who completed self-report measures. Data were examined through descriptive and correlational statistics, and the adequacy of the model was performed via path analysis. Path analysis results revealed that fears of receiving compassion from others and low feelings of social safeness mediated the relationship between early affiliative memories and body and eating-related difficulties. The path model accounted for the variances in the following way: 27% of feelings of social safeness; 23% of fears of receiving compassion from others; 28% of body-image shame; and 54% of eating psychopathology severity, revealing a very good fit. These findings emphasize the relevance of assessing and working on potential processes underlying the adoption of disordered body and eating attitudes and behaviours, not only but especially in female adolescents with scarce recall of early affiliative experiences with close ones.

Hungarian version of the Family Relationship Questionnaire (FRQ)

The purpose of this paper is to examine the validity of the Family Relationship Questionnaire (FRQ) in Hungary. The FRQ was filled out together with the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) by 1017 healthy Hungarian people. The original factor structure of the FRQ did not fit well in the Hungarian sample, but with some modifications – based on modification indices – adequate fit indices could arise. The FRQ scales showed significant relations (moderate to high) with the PBI which confirmed the convergent validity of the scales. Four of the FRQ scale turned to be cross-culturally valid scales. The reliability and validity of Dominance scale in Western cultures should further be examined.

Spirituality as compensation for low-quality social environments in childhood among young Kenyan men

This study explores the role of spirituality as a coping mechanism for poor social conditions in childhood, asking whether spirituality moderates poor childhood social conditions and suicide ideation, self-rated health and collective self-esteem among young Kenyan men. Measured outcomes were worse among men who recalled fewer memories of relational warmth and safety in childhood, and better among men who reported higher spirituality. Consistent with the "religion as attachment" framework, spirituality significantly moderated associations between suicide ideation, self-rated health and childhood relational warmth and safety. Contrary to expectations, the association between low childhood warmth and safety and collective self-esteem was exacerbated, rather than compensated for, by higher spirituality. We consider whether "a safe harbor" may exist for people higher in spirituality to accept and critique social arrangements, and whether such a situation might illuminate another way spirituality compensates for poor social environments.

Depression in Institutionalized Adolescents: The Role of Memories of Warmth and Safeness, Shame and Self-criticism

Institutionalization is a current problem, related to several indicators of psychological maladjustment. In the same way, there are several studies that point to the role of shame and self-criticism in the development of psychopathology. Therefore, our study explored, in institutionalized adolescents, whether early memories of warmth and safeness (EMWS) were associated to depression through external shame and self-criticism. The sample included 171 institutionalized adolescents (60.2% girls; Mage = 15.56; SD = 1.49). Depression, EMWS, external shame and self-criticism were assessed. The EMWS didn't show a direct effect on depression, exerting its effect indirectly through external shame and self-criticism. The relationship between EMWS and self-criticism was fully mediated by external shame, and the relationship between external shame and depression was fully mediated by self-criticism. In conclusion, the way the individual sees and relates to the self seems to impact on psychological adjustment and in the development of psychopathology. The fact that external shame and self-criticism fully mediated the relationship between EMWS and depression emphasizes the relevance of preventive and therapeutic approaches that aim to promote a healthier way of relating to the self.

The relationship between self-criticism and suicide probability

The relationship of self-to-self relating and suicide has received attention in explanatory models of suicide. However, exploration of specific types of self-relationships, namely feelings of inadequacy (associated with perfectionism), self-attacking and the ability to be kind and nurturing towards the self has received limited attention in a suicidal population. The present study assessed the relative contribution of self-criticism to suicide probability, alongside established predictors of suicidal ideation; hopelessness, depression, defeat and entrapment. Participants completed measures of inadequacy, self-attacking, self-reassurance, defeat, entrapment, depression and hopelessness (N = 101). A correlation, regression and mediation analysis was undertaken. Results demonstrated that self-attacking has a direct relationship with suicide probability, alongside established predictors; entrapment and hopelessness. Depressive symptomology was not found to be a significant predictor of suicide probability in this population. Addressing particularly hostile forms of self-criticism may be a promising area in terms of future research and clinical practice. Entrapment continues to be a significant predictor of suicide risk and interventions that target this experience should be explored.

The Early Memories of Warmth and Safeness Scale: Dimensionality and Measurement Invariance

OBJECTIVES

Research has shown that rearing styles and early emotional memories, especially those related to feelings of threat or safeness, play a key role in subsequent emotional and social adjustment throughout the lifespan. Several authors have argued for the study of early memories of warmth and safeness rather than rearing styles. The Early Memories of Warmth and Safeness Scale (EMWSS) has proven to be a valid instrument to do so. This study adds to previous research about the EMWSS by investigating its dimensionality throughout confirmatory analysis procedures and its measurement invariance between male and females in an adult sample.

METHODS

A sample of 502 adults (51.2% female, Mean age = 36.46 years, SD = 13.79) recruited from a community sample in Portugal was collected. In addition to the EMWSS, participants completed measures of recall of parental rearing behavior, attachment, self-criticism, self-reassuring, self-compassion and psychopathology.

RESULTS

A one-factor measurement model revealed a good fit to the data and the instrument showed excellent internal consistency, with a Cronbach alpha of .96. The EMWSS also proved to be gender invariant. Regarding construct validity, the EMWSS was found to be associated with external variables in the expected direction.

LIMITATIONS

The convenience sample used might be not representative of the general population.

CONCLUSION

This work highlights the relevance of the EMWSS in helping to advance knowledge on how early memories of warmth and safeness impact on psychopathological outcomes, and of making it available for use in research and clinical settings.

Potential contributing roles of early affiliative memories, social safeness and body appreciation to adolescents' well-being

Interpersonal and body image-related factors have been associated with adolescents' well-being. Since data on positive body image in adolescence and its relationship with well-being remain scarce, the present study explored the roles of early affiliative memories, social safeness, and body appreciation in adolescents' well-being. Path analysis' results showed that social safeness and body appreciation mediated the relationship between early affiliative memories and physical, psychological and school environment well-being. This suggests that not only early affiliative memories are important for adolescents' well-being but also current feelings of social belonging and body appreciation. Future longitudinal studies should further confirm these results.

Cultural patterns in autobiographical memory of childhood: Comparison of Chinese, Russian, and Uzbek samples

In the present study, I examined whether the regular patterns of variables that referred to mental representation of the entire childhood in young adults might be associated with the different types of cultural selves proposed by Kagitcibasi's model of family change. In this model, three types of cultural selves (heteronomous-related self, autonomous-separated self, and autonomous-related self) are merged with culturally specific styles of parenting and childhood experience. Chinese, Russian, and Uzbekistani participants (N = 439) visualized their childhood on timelines. The exploratory factor analysis suggested a three-factor solution. Factor 1 combined memories of achievements and vicarious memories; that is, memories representing events that happened to other people. In my point of view, in contrast to "we-memories," vicarious memories portray a readiness to view other people as a valuable part of one's own life, but in the context of well-defined self-boundaries. Therefore, they denote the kind of relatedness which does not contradict autonomy. Because Factor 1 was found to be the most articulated in the Chinese sample, it was linked to the autonomous-related self, with the focus on directive function of autobiographical memory. Factor 2 was composed of the abundance of recollections, the early age of first memory, and prolonged childhood. Due to the highest scores being achieved on Factor 2 in the Russian sample, it was attributed to the autonomous-separated self, employing predominantly a self-reflective function of autobiographical memory. Factor 3 consisted of memories of attending social groups, positive emotional bias, and a tendency to mention one's own birth. Taking into account that the Uzbeks achieved the highest scores on this factor, it was interpreted as a mnemonic database of a heteronomous-related self, predominantly associated with social bonding and emotion regulation functions. Taken together, the findings highlight the assumption that childhood memories reveal a cultural self.

Mental health and childhood memories among rural Kenyan men: Considering the role of spirituality in life-course pathways

Globally there is high morbidity due to mental illnesses, necessitating research on positive mental health and new models of mental health promotion. This study investigates the mediating role of spirituality to known pathways between childhood social exposures and adult mental health outcomes-hope, meaning in life and depression among young Kenyan men. Using the "religion as attachment" framework, we investigate whether childhood attachment conditions predict lower scores of daily spiritual experiences, and whether this pathway mediates associations between childhood attachment conditions and current depression, meaning in life, and hope. Spirituality significantly mediated associations between childhood attachments and adult mental health.

The soothing-affiliation system and body appreciation: recollected and present affect

Attachment and affiliation-related affect has been stated to be a powerful regulator of human development, maturation, well-being and health. Accordingly, as research on positive body image has evolved, data on the association between non-judgmental interpersonal relationships and body appreciation has emerged. The present study sought to explore a model linking memories of early affiliative relationships with body appreciation via higher current social safeness and the experience of positive affect in a sample of Portuguese women aged between 18 and 50 years (N = 286). Online data collection occurred throughout 2017. The multivariate analyses of the hypothesized model revealed good fit to the data, and results showed that early memories of warmth and safeness were associated with body appreciation via higher current social safeness and higher safeness/contentment affect. Safeness/contentment affect was the positive affect revealed as being more strongly related to body appreciation. These results provide strong support for the importance of early and current emotional bonds for women's body appreciation and suggest that therapists should consider the cultivation of affiliation skills when promoting positive body image.

Compassion-focused imagery reduces shame and is moderated by shame, self-reassurance and multisensory imagery vividness

Compassion-focused imagery (CFI) is an emotion-regulation technique involving visualization of a person, animal or object offering one compassion, to generate feelings of safeness. It is proven to increase self-compassion and reduce negative affect. This study explores two hypotheses not previously investigated: i) which sensory modalities can stimulate compassionate affect; and ii) whether presentation of pictorial stimuli can enhance CFI. Additionally, we examine iii) whether CFI can reduce shame and iv) whether self-criticism inhibits CFI, since previous studies have involved small samples or methodological limitations. After completing measures of self-criticism, selfreassurance and imagery abilities in five sensory modalities, participants (n=160) were randomly assigned to look at compassionate images during CFI (visual input), compassionate images before CFI (priming), or abstract images (control). Participants trialled CFI then rated compassionate affect and completed open-response questions. Before and after CFI, participants recalled a shame-based memory and rated state shame. Correlational analyses explored whether self-criticism, self-reassurance, and multisensory imagery abilities moderated outcomes. CFI significantly reduced shame regarding a recalled memory, particularly for those high in shame. Compassionate affect was predicted by imagery vividness in visual and bodily-sensation modalities. Self-criticism predicted poorer CFI In multiple regressions, self-reassurance predicted poorer CFI outcomes but self-criticism did not. Between-group effects did not emerge. Qualitative data suggested that pictures helped some participants but hindered others. CFI is a promising technique for shame-prone clients, but may be challenging for those with low imagery abilities or unfamiliar with self-reassurance. Multiple senses should be engaged.

Pain in relation to emotion regulatory resources and self-compassion: a non-randomized correlational study involving recollected early childhood experiences and insecure attachment

Background

Pain is common in most diseases and is usually treated by medical and physical approaches (medications, exercise). Limited attention has been given to whether non-medical approaches (such as emotion regulation abilities including self-compassion) can help further reduce the pain experienced. Scleroderma (systemic sclerosis), a painful and complex autoimmune connective tissue and vascular disease, was examined in this study in relation to psychological aspects of pain and the links of pain to (1) early life experiences, (2) current insecure attachment style, (3) physiological arousal (negative, hyper-arousal), and (4) personal emotion regulation (self-compassion). Knowledge about these relationships may help in the treatment of pain.

Participants and procedure

Participants (120) from Australia (39) and the United Kingdom (81) completed an online or a hard copy survey; 78 participants remained for analysis after screening.

Results

We found that poor or limited positive early life experiences and a current insecure (dismissive) attachment style contributed significantly to experiencing elevated levels of pain. We also found that negative early life experiences and limited emotion regulation (low self-compassion) predicted hyper-arousal, which in turn was associated with experienced pain. Insecure dismissive attachment style and hyper-arousal were significantly correlated.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that negative childhood experiences and an insecure dismissive attachment style may determine how emotional experiences are regulated or managed by individuals in disease-related pain. Implications include that interventions addressing attachment style and self-compassion may help reduce pain in the individuals concerned, thus helping supplement the effectiveness of current medication and physical approaches.

An Evolutionary Model to Conceptualize Psychopathic Traits Across Community and Forensic Male Youth

Psychopathy has been historically associated with a lack of emotion. However, some authors argue that psychopathy may represent a tendency to externalize the experience of unpleasant emotions, including shame, what could be seen as an adaptive strategy within an evolutionary framework. Nevertheless, empirical research investigating this hypothesis is scarce. Using community (n = 295) and forensic (n = 300) male youth samples and a set of self-report measures, this study tested an evolutionary model involving pathways linking the impact of harsh rearing experiences (traumatic shameful experiences and warmth and safeness experiences) to psychopathic traits, as well as the indirect effects of external shame and shame coping strategies in that association. In addition, this study tested the invariance of this model across samples. Results indicated that the impact of harsh rearing experiences was directly and indirectly (through external shame and shame coping strategies) linked with psychopathic traits. The model explained psychopathic traits in forensic and community samples, though differences in some of the pathways were found across groups. Findings offer support for conceptualizing psychopathic traits as an adaptive strategy to cope with the impact of harsh rearing experiences, opening new pathways to prevention and intervention efforts.

Abuse, invalidation, and lack of early warmth show distinct relationships with self-criticism, self-compassion, and fear of self-compassion in personality disorder

BACKGROUND

Cultivating self-compassion is increasingly recognized as a powerful method to regulate hyperactive threat processes such as shame and self-criticism, but fear of self-compassion (FSC) can inhibit this. These difficulties are underexplored in personality disorder (PD) despite their prevalence. Furthermore, little evidence exists regarding how these factors relate to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and attachment.

METHOD

Fifty-three participants with a diagnosis of PD completed measures including childhood abuse/neglect, invalidation, early warmth, self-compassion, shame, self-criticism, FSC, and anxious/avoidant attachment.

RESULTS

Self-compassion was predicted uniquely by low early warmth; self-inadequacy by invalidation and abuse; and FSC by multiple ACEs. FSC and self-compassion were significantly correlated with self-criticism and shame, but not with one another.

CONCLUSIONS

Low self-compassion and high FSC appear to be distinct problems, substantiating physiological models proposing distinct threat and soothing systems. Results are consistent with theories positing that low self-compassion has distinct origins to shame, self-criticism, and FSC.

Explaining male body attitudes: the role of early peer emotional experiences and shame

PURPOSE

The current study tested a path model that examined the association between early emotional experiences with peers and male body attitudes and whether general feelings of shame and body-focused shame mediate this relationship, while controlling for the effect of body mass index.

METHODS

The sample comprised 241 men from the general community, aged from 18 to 60, who completed an online survey.

RESULTS

Correlation analyses showed that the recall of positive early emotional experiences with peers is inversely linked to shame and negative body attitudes. Path analysis results indicated that early emotional experiences with peers had a direct effect on external shame, and an indirect effect on male negative body attitudes mediated by external shame and body-focused shame. Results confirmed the plausibility of the tested model, which accounted for 40% of the variance of male body attitudes. Findings suggested that men who recall fewer positive early peer emotional experiences tend to perceive that they are negatively viewed by others and present more body image-focused shame experiences. This in turn seems to explain a negative self-appreciation of one's muscularity, body fat and height.

CONCLUSIONS

This study contributes to a better understanding of male body attitudes. Findings suggest that the link between early emotional experiences and male body attitudes may depend on the experience of shame feelings and, particularly, on the extent to which one's body image becomes a source of shame. These data support the relevance of addressing shame experiences when working with men with body image-related difficulties.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V-cross-sectional descriptive study.

How do warmth, safeness and connectedness-related memories and experiences explain disordered eating?

Literature suggested that the recall of early positive experiences have a major impact on the promotion of feelings of connectedness and social safeness, and seems to protect individuals against psychopathology. Recent research has also demonstrated that the absence of these positive rearing memories play a key role on disordered eating-related behaviours. The impact of early affiliative memories on disordered eating do not seem to be direct, and the mechanisms underlying this relationship are scarcely investigated. The present study aimed to clarify how memories of warmth and safeness explain the adoption of disordered eating attitudes, and tested the mediator role of social safeness, external shame and appearance-focused social comparison on aforementioned relationship, in a sample of 277 young women. The tested model explained 36% of eating psychopathology's variance and presented an excellent fit. Path analysis results indicated that the impact of rearing memories on eating psychopathology was fully mediated through the mechanisms of social safeness, external shame and appearance-focused social comparison. Specifically, these findings suggested that the extent to which positive rearing memories are associated with lower levels of disordered eating attitudes is influenced by the current feelings of social safeness and connectedness, which in turn are totally carried by decreased feelings of external shame and by lower endorsement on unfavourable comparison based on physical appearance with proximal targets (peers). These results seem to offer important insights for research and clinical work on body image and eating-related difficulties, suggesting the relevance of promoting warm and safe interactions with others.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V, descriptive study.

Recalled Parenting Practices and Psychological Distress in Turkish Emerging Adults: The Role of Self-Criticism

Research investigating the development of psychological problems among children has typically focused on the role of parenting practices. The purpose of this study was to investigate the direct effects of recalled parenting practices (emotional warmth, rejection, and overprotection) on psychological distress and indirect effects through self-criticism. Participants were 410 undergraduate students (290 females and 120 males) with a mean age of 20.10 ( SD = 1.65). Participants completed the measure of My Memories of Upbringing—Egna Minnen Betraffande Uppfostra; Forms of Self Criticizing/Attacking and Self Reassuring Scale; and Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale as self-report measures. Results provided evidence for highly similar patterns of associations among parenting practices, self-criticism, and psychological distress for both maternal and paternal models. Findings showed that parental emotional warmth and rejection were directly related to self-criticism and were indirectly related to psychological distress through self-criticism. Only maternal rejection was directly related to psychological distress. However, maternal and paternal overprotection was not related to psychological distress either directly or indirectly. Moreover, maternal and paternal parenting practices explained 61% and 58% of the variance in psychological distress, respectively. The findings of the present study highlighted the importance of self-criticism and past memories of parenting as intervention targets to support well-being of young people.

The Origins of Fears of Compassion: Shame and Lack of Safeness Memories, Fears of Compassion and Psychopathology

Empirical and clinical research suggests that some individuals find self-generating compassion and receiving compassion from others difficult and aversive. However, it is unclear how these fears of compassion are linked to early experiences and to psychopathological symptoms. This study explores the relationship between shame traumatic memories, centrality of shame memories, early memories of warmth and safeness, fears of compassion, and depression, anxiety and paranoid symptoms. Participants were 302 individuals from the general community population, who completed self-report measures of fears of compassion, shame memories, early affiliative memories, and psychopathology. Shame traumatic and central memories were positively associated with fears of compassion for self, for others and from others, whereas early memories of warmth and safeness were negatively related to such fears. Path analyses revealed that fears of compassion for self and of receiving compassion from others mediated the effects of shame traumatic memory, centrality of shame memory and early memories of warmth and safeness on depressive, anxious and paranoid symptoms. These findings have implications for therapeutic interventions as these fears, as well as the negative shame-based emotional memories fuelling them, may need to be addressed in therapy to assist patients in self-generating and receiving compassion.

The Factor Structure of the Forms of Self-Criticising/Attacking & Self-Reassuring Scale in Thirteen Distinct Populations

There is considerable evidence that self-criticism plays a major role in the vulnerability to and recovery from psychopathology. Methods to measure this process, and its change over time, are therefore important for research in psychopathology and well-being. This study examined the factor structure of a widely used measure, the Forms of Self-Criticising/Attacking & Self-Reassuring Scale in thirteen nonclinical samples (N = 7510) from twelve different countries: Australia (N = 319), Canada (N = 383), Switzerland (N = 230), Israel (N = 476), Italy (N = 389), Japan (N = 264), the Netherlands (N = 360), Portugal (N = 764), Slovakia (N = 1326), Taiwan (N = 417), the United Kingdom 1 (N = 1570), the United Kingdom 2 (N = 883), and USA (N = 331). This study used more advanced analyses than prior reports: a bifactor item-response theory model, a two-tier item-response theory model, and a non-parametric item-response theory (Mokken) scale analysis. Although the original three-factor solution for the FSCRS (distinguishing between Inadequate-Self, Hated-Self, and Reassured-Self) had an acceptable fit, two-tier models, with two general factors (Self-criticism and Self-reassurance) demonstrated the best fit across all samples. This study provides preliminary evidence suggesting that this two-factor structure can be used in a range of nonclinical contexts across countries and cultures. Inadequate-Self and Hated-Self might not by distinct factors in nonclinical samples. Future work may benefit from distinguishing between self-correction versus shame-based self-criticism.

Development of a measure for the assessment of peer-related positive emotional memories

OBJECTIVES

Previous research has demonstrated a link between early experiences of warmth, safeness, and soothing, and positive feelings, health, and well-being outcomes. Although the impact of positive parent-related early relationships and its posterior recall is well documented, research on the recall of warmth and safeness experiences within early peer relationships remains scarce. In fact, it is considered that the protective role of early positive peer relationships deserves intensive research; however, a specific measure that assesses this construct is still to be created. This study describes the development and validation of a new measure designed to assess the recall of early experiences of warmth, safeness, and affection in relation to peers (EMWSS-peers).

DESIGN AND METHODS

Distinct samples, comprising individuals of both genders aged between 18 and 68 years old, were used to test the EMWSS-peers factorial structure through principal axis factoring (PAF) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and to examine its psychometric properties.

RESULTS

Principal axis factoring's results indicated that the 12-item scale presents a one-factor structure explaining a total of 71.50% of the variance. The CFA confirmed the plausibility of this structure. The EMWSS-peers also presented excellent internal consistency and construct, concurrent, and divergent validities.

CONCLUSIONS

The EMWSS-peers seems to be a new avenue for the study of memories of early experiences with friends and colleagues and may entail a relevant contribution to clinical and research fields, particularly for upcoming investigations on the relationship of peer-related affiliative memories with well-being and mental health.

PRACTITIONER POINTS

The EMWSS-peers is a specific measure to assess the recall of warmth and safeness in early peer relationships. The EMWSS-peers is a brief, robust, and reliable self-report instrument. The EMWSS-peers presented excellent internal consistency and construct, concurrent, and divergent validities. The EMWSS-peers may open a new avenue for the study of memories of early peer-related experiences, with potential clinical and research implications.