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Wijffels G, Sullivan ML, Stockwell S, Briscoe S, Pearson R, Li Y, Macs AM, Sejian V, McCulloch R, Olm JCW, Cawdell-Smith J, Gaughan JB. Comparing the responses of grain-fed feedlot cattle under moderate heat load and during subsequent recovery with those of feed-restricted thermoneutral counterparts: blood cells and inflammatory markers. Int J Biometeorol 2024; 68:211-227. [PMID: 38092991 PMCID: PMC10794350 DOI: 10.1007/s00484-023-02584-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
Given the climate projections for livestock rearing regions globally, understanding the inflammatory status of livestock under various heat loads will be informative to animal welfare and management. A survey of plasma inflammatory markers was conducted, and blood leucocyte counts followed to investigate the capacity of the ~ 500 kg grain fed Black Angus steer to respond to and recover from a moderate heat load challenge. Two sequential cohorts of 12 steers were housed in climate-controlled rooms (CCR) for 18 days. A thermally challenged (TC) group (n = 2 × 6) experienced five consecutive periods: PreChallenge, Challenge, and Recovery within the CCR, and 40 days in outdoor pens (PENS and Late PENS). PreChallenge (5 days) and Recovery (7 days) delivered thermoneutral conditions, whereas in Challenge the TC steers experienced a diurnal temperature range of 28-35 °C. A feed-restricted thermoneutral (FRTN) treatment (n = 2 × 6) was run concurrently to differentiate between responses to reduced feed intake alone and moderate heat stress. Blood neutrophil counts were particularly sensitive to moderate heat load with higher numbers during Challlenge and in PENs. The plasma concentrations of TNFα and IL-1β were depressed in the TC group compared to the FRTN counterparts and remained so for 40 days after Challenge. Linear relationships of the concentrations of IL-1β, IL-10, and haptoglobin with rumen temperature or dry matter intake detected in the FRTN group were altered or absent in the TC group. The findings suggest significant impacts of moderate heat load on the inflammatory status of feedlot cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Wijffels
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, St Lucia, Qld, 4067, Australia.
| | - M L Sullivan
- School of Agriculture and Food, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Qld, 4343, Australia
| | - S Stockwell
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, St Lucia, Qld, 4067, Australia
| | - S Briscoe
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, St Lucia, Qld, 4067, Australia
| | - R Pearson
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, St Lucia, Qld, 4067, Australia
| | - Y Li
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, St Lucia, Qld, 4067, Australia
| | - A M Macs
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, St Lucia, Qld, 4067, Australia
| | - V Sejian
- Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Veterinary Education and Research, Kurumbapet, Puducherry, 605009, India
| | - R McCulloch
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, St Lucia, Qld, 4067, Australia
| | - J C W Olm
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Qld, 4343, Australia
| | - J Cawdell-Smith
- School of Agriculture and Food, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Qld, 4343, Australia
| | - J B Gaughan
- School of Agriculture and Food, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Qld, 4343, Australia
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4
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Dambrova M, Makrecka-Kuka M, Kuka J, Vilskersts R, Nordberg D, Attwood MM, Smesny S, Sen ZD, Guo AC, Oler E, Tian S, Zheng J, Wishart DS, Liepinsh E, Schiöth HB. Acylcarnitines: Nomenclature, Biomarkers, Therapeutic Potential, Drug Targets, and Clinical Trials. Pharmacol Rev 2022; 74:506-551. [PMID: 35710135 DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.121.000408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Acylcarnitines are fatty acid metabolites that play important roles in many cellular energy metabolism pathways. They have historically been used as important diagnostic markers for inborn errors of fatty acid oxidation and are being intensively studied as markers of energy metabolism, deficits in mitochondrial and peroxisomal β -oxidation activity, insulin resistance, and physical activity. Acylcarnitines are increasingly being identified as important indicators in metabolic studies of many diseases, including metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, depression, neurologic disorders, and certain cancers. The US Food and Drug Administration-approved drug L-carnitine, along with short-chain acylcarnitines (acetylcarnitine and propionylcarnitine), is now widely used as a dietary supplement. In light of their growing importance, we have undertaken an extensive review of acylcarnitines and provided a detailed description of their identity, nomenclature, classification, biochemistry, pathophysiology, supplementary use, potential drug targets, and clinical trials. We also summarize these updates in the Human Metabolome Database, which now includes information on the structures, chemical formulae, chemical/spectral properties, descriptions, and pathways for 1240 acylcarnitines. This work lays a solid foundation for identifying, characterizing, and understanding acylcarnitines in human biosamples. We also discuss the emerging opportunities for using acylcarnitines as biomarkers and as dietary interventions or supplements for many wide-ranging indications. The opportunity to identify new drug targets involved in controlling acylcarnitine levels is also discussed. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This review provides a comprehensive overview of acylcarnitines, including their nomenclature, structure and biochemistry, and use as disease biomarkers and pharmaceutical agents. We present updated information contained in the Human Metabolome Database website as well as substantial mapping of the known biochemical pathways associated with acylcarnitines, thereby providing a strong foundation for further clarification of their physiological roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maija Dambrova
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia (M.D., M.M.-K., J.K., R.V., E.L.); Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, (D.N., M.M.A., H.B.S.); Department of Psychiatry, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany (S.S., Z.D.S.); and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (A.C.G., E.O., S.T., J.Z., D.S.W.)
| | - Marina Makrecka-Kuka
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia (M.D., M.M.-K., J.K., R.V., E.L.); Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, (D.N., M.M.A., H.B.S.); Department of Psychiatry, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany (S.S., Z.D.S.); and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (A.C.G., E.O., S.T., J.Z., D.S.W.)
| | - Janis Kuka
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia (M.D., M.M.-K., J.K., R.V., E.L.); Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, (D.N., M.M.A., H.B.S.); Department of Psychiatry, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany (S.S., Z.D.S.); and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (A.C.G., E.O., S.T., J.Z., D.S.W.)
| | - Reinis Vilskersts
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia (M.D., M.M.-K., J.K., R.V., E.L.); Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, (D.N., M.M.A., H.B.S.); Department of Psychiatry, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany (S.S., Z.D.S.); and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (A.C.G., E.O., S.T., J.Z., D.S.W.)
| | - Didi Nordberg
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia (M.D., M.M.-K., J.K., R.V., E.L.); Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, (D.N., M.M.A., H.B.S.); Department of Psychiatry, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany (S.S., Z.D.S.); and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (A.C.G., E.O., S.T., J.Z., D.S.W.)
| | - Misty M Attwood
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia (M.D., M.M.-K., J.K., R.V., E.L.); Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, (D.N., M.M.A., H.B.S.); Department of Psychiatry, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany (S.S., Z.D.S.); and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (A.C.G., E.O., S.T., J.Z., D.S.W.)
| | - Stefan Smesny
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia (M.D., M.M.-K., J.K., R.V., E.L.); Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, (D.N., M.M.A., H.B.S.); Department of Psychiatry, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany (S.S., Z.D.S.); and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (A.C.G., E.O., S.T., J.Z., D.S.W.)
| | - Zumrut Duygu Sen
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia (M.D., M.M.-K., J.K., R.V., E.L.); Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, (D.N., M.M.A., H.B.S.); Department of Psychiatry, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany (S.S., Z.D.S.); and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (A.C.G., E.O., S.T., J.Z., D.S.W.)
| | - An Chi Guo
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia (M.D., M.M.-K., J.K., R.V., E.L.); Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, (D.N., M.M.A., H.B.S.); Department of Psychiatry, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany (S.S., Z.D.S.); and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (A.C.G., E.O., S.T., J.Z., D.S.W.)
| | - Eponine Oler
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia (M.D., M.M.-K., J.K., R.V., E.L.); Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, (D.N., M.M.A., H.B.S.); Department of Psychiatry, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany (S.S., Z.D.S.); and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (A.C.G., E.O., S.T., J.Z., D.S.W.)
| | - Siyang Tian
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia (M.D., M.M.-K., J.K., R.V., E.L.); Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, (D.N., M.M.A., H.B.S.); Department of Psychiatry, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany (S.S., Z.D.S.); and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (A.C.G., E.O., S.T., J.Z., D.S.W.)
| | - Jiamin Zheng
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia (M.D., M.M.-K., J.K., R.V., E.L.); Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, (D.N., M.M.A., H.B.S.); Department of Psychiatry, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany (S.S., Z.D.S.); and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (A.C.G., E.O., S.T., J.Z., D.S.W.)
| | - David S Wishart
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia (M.D., M.M.-K., J.K., R.V., E.L.); Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, (D.N., M.M.A., H.B.S.); Department of Psychiatry, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany (S.S., Z.D.S.); and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (A.C.G., E.O., S.T., J.Z., D.S.W.)
| | - Edgars Liepinsh
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia (M.D., M.M.-K., J.K., R.V., E.L.); Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, (D.N., M.M.A., H.B.S.); Department of Psychiatry, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany (S.S., Z.D.S.); and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (A.C.G., E.O., S.T., J.Z., D.S.W.)
| | - Helgi B Schiöth
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia (M.D., M.M.-K., J.K., R.V., E.L.); Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, (D.N., M.M.A., H.B.S.); Department of Psychiatry, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany (S.S., Z.D.S.); and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (A.C.G., E.O., S.T., J.Z., D.S.W.)
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5
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Karunanidhi A, Van’t Land C, Rajasundaram D, Grings M, Vockley J, Mohsen AW. Medium branched chain fatty acids improve the profile of tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates in mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation deficient cells: A comparative study. J Inherit Metab Dis 2022; 45:541-556. [PMID: 35076099 PMCID: PMC9090965 DOI: 10.1002/jimd.12480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 01/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/06/2022]
Abstract
Inherited errors of mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation (FAO) are life threatening, even with optimum care. FAO is the major source of energy for heart and is critical for skeletal muscles especially during physiologic stress. Clinical trials revealed that triheptanoin (commercially known as Dojolvi; C7G), improved heart function and decreased hypoglycemia in long chain FAO disorders, but other symptoms including rhabdomyolysis persisted, suggesting suboptimal tissue distribution/utilization of heptanoic acid (C7) conjugates and/or rapid liver breakdown. In this study, medium branched chain fatty acids were tested as potential anaplerotic treatments in fibroblasts from patients deficient in very long chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (VLCAD), long chain 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase (LCHAD), trifunctional protein (TFP), and carnitine palmitoyltransferase II (CPT II). Cells were cultured to near confluency and treated with C7, 2,6-dimethylheptanoic acid (dMC7), 6-amino-2,4-dimethylheptanoic acid (AdMC7), or 4,8-dimethylnonanoic acid (dMC9) for 72 h and targeted metabolomics performed. The profile of TCA cycle intermediates was improved in cells treated with these branched chain fatty acids compared with C7. Intracellular propionate was higher in AdMC7 treated cells compared with C7 in VLCAD, LCHAD, and TFP deficient cell lines. With AdMC7 treatment, succinate was higher in CPT II and VLCAD deficient cells, compared with C7. Malate and glutamate were consistently higher in AdMC7 treated VLCAD, LCHAD, TFP, and CPT II deficient cells compared with the C7 treatment. The results provide the impetus to further evaluate and consider branched chain fatty acids as viable anaplerotic therapy for fatty acid oxidation disorders and other diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anuradha Karunanidhi
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Clinton Van’t Land
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Dhivyaa Rajasundaram
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Mateus Grings
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- PPG Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Jerry Vockley
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Al-Walid Mohsen
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
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6
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Strittmatter N, Kanvatirth P, Inglese P, Race AM, Nilsson A, Dannhorn A, Kudo H, Goldin RD, Ling S, Wong E, Seeliger F, Serra MP, Hoffmann S, Maglennon G, Hamm G, Atkinson J, Jones S, Bunch J, Andrén PE, Takats Z, Goodwin RJA, Mastroeni P. Holistic Characterization of a Salmonella Typhimurium Infection Model Using Integrated Molecular Imaging. J Am Soc Mass Spectrom 2021; 32:2791-2802. [PMID: 34767352 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.1c00240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
A more complete and holistic view on host-microbe interactions is needed to understand the physiological and cellular barriers that affect the efficacy of drug treatments and allow the discovery and development of new therapeutics. Here, we developed a multimodal imaging approach combining histopathology with mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) and same section imaging mass cytometry (IMC) to study the effects of Salmonella Typhimurium infection in the liver of a mouse model using the S. Typhimurium strains SL3261 and SL1344. This approach enables correlation of tissue morphology and specific cell phenotypes with molecular images of tissue metabolism. IMC revealed a marked increase in immune cell markers and localization in immune aggregates in infected tissues. A correlative computational method (network analysis) was deployed to find metabolic features associated with infection and revealed metabolic clusters of acetyl carnitines, as well as phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine plasmalogen species, which could be associated with pro-inflammatory immune cell types. By developing an IMC marker for the detection of Salmonella LPS, we were further able to identify and characterize those cell types which contained S. Typhimurium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Strittmatter
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, U.K
| | - Panchali Kanvatirth
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0ES, U.K
| | - Paolo Inglese
- Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Alan M Race
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, U.K
| | - Anna Nilsson
- Medical Mass Spectrometry Imaging, Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
- Science for Life Laboratory, Spatial Mass Spectrometry, Uppsala University, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Andreas Dannhorn
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, U.K
| | - Hiromi Kudo
- Division of Digestive Diseases, Section of Pathology, Imperial College London, St. Mary's Hospital, London W2 1NY, U.K
| | - Robert D Goldin
- Division of Digestive Diseases, Section of Pathology, Imperial College London, St. Mary's Hospital, London W2 1NY, U.K
- Department of Cellular Pathology, Charing Cross Hospital, London W6 8RF, U.K
| | - Stephanie Ling
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, U.K
| | - Edmond Wong
- Biologics Engineering, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, U.K
| | - Frank Seeliger
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, U.K
| | - Maria Paola Serra
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, U.K
| | - Scott Hoffmann
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, U.K
- BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, U.K
| | - Gareth Maglennon
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, U.K
| | - Gregory Hamm
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, U.K
| | - James Atkinson
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, U.K
| | - Stewart Jones
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, U.K
| | - Josephine Bunch
- Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
- National Centre of Excellence in Mass Spectrometry Imaging (NiCE-MSI), National Physical Laboratory, Teddington TW11 0LW, U.K
| | - Per E Andrén
- Medical Mass Spectrometry Imaging, Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
- Science for Life Laboratory, Spatial Mass Spectrometry, Uppsala University, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Zoltan Takats
- Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Richard J A Goodwin
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, U.K
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, U.K
| | - Pietro Mastroeni
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0ES, U.K
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