Systematic review and meta-analysis of physical activity interventions to increase elementary children's motor competence: a comprehensive school physical activity program perspective

BACKGROUND

Regular participation in physical activity (PA) benefits children's health and well-being and protects against the development of unhealthy body weight. A key factor in children's PA participation is their motor competence (MC). The comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP) framework offers a way to classify existing PA interventions that have included children's MC development and understand the potential avenues for supporting children's MC. However, there have been no systematic reviews or meta-analyses of PA interventions and their effects on the MC of elementary school children (aged 5-12 years) from a CSPAP perspective.

METHODS

This study was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement. We searched seven electronic databases (PubMed/Medline, Embase, ERIC, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL, Web of Science, and PsycINFO) for articles on 29 November 2021. The CSPAP framework was used to categorize the different intervention approaches. This review was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020179866).

RESULTS

Twenty-seven studies were included in the review, and twenty-six studies were included in the meta-analysis. A wide range of PA intervention approaches (e.g., single component or multicomponent) within the context of the CSPAP framework appear to be promising pathways in enhancing children's MC. The results of the aggregate meta-analysis presented that effect sizes for the development of MC from pre-and post- intervention ranged from moderate to large (Hedges' g = 0.41-0.79). The analysis revealed that the predicted moderators, including study length, delivery agent, and study design, did not result in statistically significant moderate variations in MC outcomes. There was, however, considerable heterogeneity in study design, instruments, and study context, and studies were implemented in over 11 countries across diverse settings.

CONCLUSIONS

This study uniquely contributes to the literature through its primary focus on the effectiveness of PA interventions on elementary children's MC. This review emphasizes the importance of customizing CSPAP to fit the specific characteristics of each school setting, including its environmental, demographic, and resource attributes. The effectiveness of CSPAP, particularly its physical education (PE) component, is significantly enhanced when these programs are adapted to address the unique needs of each school. This adaptation can be effectively achieved through targeted professional teacher training, ensuring that PE programs are not only contextually relevant but also optimized for maximum impact in diverse educational environments. Researchers and practitioners should pursue how to effectively translate the evidence into practice to better conceptualize CSPAPs designed for children's MC development.

Effects of exercise training programs on motor skills of individuals with intellectual disabilities: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

Motor skills are involved in many physical activities and are prerequisites for the performance of sport skills. The purpose of this systematic review was to examine the effects of exercise training programs (ETP) on the motor skills of individuals with intellectual disabilities (IwID).

METHODS

Primary sources were obtained from four databases including PubMed, SCOPUS, CENTRAL, and Web of Science. The search period covered years from inception to October 26th, 2023. Inclusion criteria were as follows: Population: IwID; Intervention: ETP; Comparator: motor skills vs. nontraining control; Outcomes: motor skills outcomes. Standardized mean differences, weighted mean differences, and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated using both random and fixed-effect models for outcomes.

RESULTS

A total of 14 studies involving 586 participants were included in the systematic review. The results of the present meta-analysis showed that ETP improved composite motor skills (1.28 95% CI: [0.86, 1.70], p = 0.001), gross motor skills (0.91, 95% CI: [0.62,1.19], p = 0.001), fine motor skills (0.74, 95% CI: [0.21,1.27], p = 0.01) and fine-gross motor skills (0.64, 95% CI: [0.29, 1.00], p = 0.001).

CONCLUSION

The results meta-analysis demonstrated that ETP improves the motor skills of IwID. Therefore, it is recommended to apply ETP to improve the motor skills of the IwID.

Balance Recovery Strategy in Children With and Without Hearing or Visual Impairments

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to examine the balance recovery strategy in children with hearing (HI) and visual impairments (VI) compared with those without these disorders.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study featured a cross-sectional design with subjects (N = 45) placed within one of three equally stratified purposive groups (HI, VI, and comparison) within the age range of 9-13 years (mean = 11.43, SD = 1.5). Balance recovery strategy was measured in static and after-perturbation conditions by a four-camera Vicon system used to record three-dimensional lower body kinematic data. A repeated-measures analysis of variance (3 × 2, Group × Condition) was utilized to analyze data. Significance was set at p ≤ .05.

RESULTS

In the static condition, the results of the study showed that there was no significant difference between the groups in the ankle joint sway (p > .05). In hip joint sway, VI children had greater sway compared with comparison (p = .001) and HI children (p = .02). Also, HI children had greater sways than comparison (p = .02). In the after-perturbation condition, the results showed that VI children had greater sway in the hip and ankle joints than HI children (p = .001) and comparison (p = .001) to restore and maintain balance.

CONCLUSION

It seems that comparison as well as higher proportion VI children use a hip strategy to maintain and restore balance. Also, it seems that HI children use a different strategy (ankle strategy) to maintain and restore balance compared with comparison and VI children.

The impacts of exercise training programs on balance in children with hearing loss: A systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE

According to the prevalence of balance disorders among children with hearing loss (HL), researchers used exercise programs to improve balance in children with HL. So, the present systematic review and meta-analysis briefly summarize findings regarding the impacts of exercise training programs on balance in children with HL.

METHODS

Science Direct, MEDLINE/PubMed, SCOPUS, LILACS, CINAHL, CENTRAL, Web of Science, PEDro, and Google Scholar were searched from inception until November 11th, 2023. Two independent researchers analyzed and extracted the data from potential papers whose eligibility was confirmed. Then, the PEDro scale was used to obtain quality assessment scores. The total PEDro score is 11 and incorporates the presentation of statistical analysis and evaluation criteria of internal validity. Studies that scored 7-11 were considered methodologically "high", 5 to 6 were "fair", and ≤4 were considered "poor".

RESULTS

10 studies involving a total of 304 participations were included in the systematic review. Our results demonstrate that exercise training programs positively impact static balance (p = 0.001) with level 1a evidence, the postural sway (p = 0.001) with level 1a evidence, and dynamic balance (p = 0.001) with level 1a evidence in children with HL.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this systematic review and meta-analysis related to studies with excellent methodological quality revealed that the intended training programs significantly impact postural sway along with static and dynamic balance in children with HL. It is recommended that future exercise training programs be paired with rehabilitation programs for children with HL.

Effects of proprioception and core stability training on gait parameters of deaf adolescents: a randomized controlled trial

The current study aimed to explore the effects of proprioception versus core stability training over 8 weeks on the gait parameters of deaf adolescents. A total of 20 deaf adolescents were randomized into two groups: one group receiving proprioception training (PT, n = 10), another group receiving core stability training (CST, n = 10), and eleven typically developing adolescents assigned into the control group (CON; n = 11). Gait was recorded by two digital cameras; then, using the Kinovea software, the parameters of gait included: gait velocity, cadence, stride length, stride time, stance time, and swing time were calculated in terms of percentages of the walking cycle. After 8 weeks of PT, no significant differences were observed for all gait parameters between PT and control groups (p > 0.05). Also, after 8 weeks of CST, no significant differences were observed in gait velocity and cadence between the CST and control groups (p > 0.05). However, after 8 weeks of CST, stride length (p = 0.02) was higher in the control group; Stride time (p = 0.03), stance time (p = 0.04) and swing time (p = 0.04) were higher in the CST group. Moreover, after 8 weeks of PT, values showed significant improvements in all gait parameters (p = 0.001). Also, after 8 weeks of CST, values showed significant improvements in gait velocity and cadence (p = 0.001), but no significant differences were observed in other gait parameters (p > 0.05). The findings of this study indicated that PT improved all gait parameters, whereas CST improved gait velocity and cadence. The results of the present study also demonstrated that PT had a greater effect on gait parameters of deaf adolescents compared with CST. It seems that PT induces more training effects than CTS for enhancing gait parameters of deaf adolescents.Trial registration: Clinical trial registry number: IRCT20170312033029N2. URL: https://en.irct.ir/trial/25584 .

Measurement properties of Brief-BESTest scores from children, adolescents, and youth with visual impairments

Purpose: This study aimed to vet the measurement properties of Brief-BESTest scores in children, adolescents, and youth with visual impairment and blindness (YVI). Methods: A cross-sectional sample of YVI (N = 101) completed the Brief-BESTest, a modified version of the Y-Balance Test, the 360-degree turn test, bipedal quiet stance, and Activity-Specific Balance Confidence Scales. Thirty-seven YVI completed test-retest of the Brief-BESTest using a one-year interval. Using classical test theory, various forms of total and item-level Brief-BESTest score reliability and validity were investigated in YVI. Results: All inter-rater reliability coefficients were ≥ .80. When considering the eight items of the Brief-BESTest, 27 of the 28 possible correlations were statistically significant (p<.05). Various internal consistency and item difficulty results were strong. When taking total Brief-BESTest scores and their association with the complementary balance tasks/metrics into account, 11 of 13 associations were statistically significant (p<.05) providing strong convergent validity evidence. Being multimorbid and degree of vision significantly predicted total Brief-BESTest scores (p<.001) suggesting construct (i.e. known groups) validity. Numerous test-retest results (e.g. coefficients, limits of agreement) following the one-year interval were indicative of score stability. Conclusion: Practitioners and researchers should have confidence in, and consider adopting, the Brief-BESTest to examine multidimensional balance in YVI.

Balance Control in Individuals With Visual Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Individuals with visual impairment have balance deficits; therefore, this systematic review aimed to provide comprehensive insights into the balance control of individuals with visual impairments when compared with individuals with full vision.

METHODS

Primary sources were obtained from eight databases including PubMed, LILACS, Science Direct, SCOPUS, CINAHL, PEDro, CENTRAL, and Web of Science. The search period covered years from inception to January 10, 2022.

RESULTS

A total of 20 studies with 29 trials with 1,280 participants were included in the systematic review. The results showed that individuals with sight had better static and dynamic balance than individuals with visual impairment (p = .001). However, individuals with visual impairment had significantly better static balance with visual perturbation and stronger static balance with visual and proprioception perturbation (p = .001). Furthermore, individuals with sight had better balance control than individuals with visual impairment who participated in sports (p = .001). Finally, individuals with visual impairment who participated in sports had better balance control than sedentary people with visual impairment (p = .001).

CONCLUSION

Individuals with visual impairment have defects in both dynamic and static balance when compared to individuals with sight. In addition, balance improved with increasing age in individuals with visual impairment while balance control was dependent on the proprioception and vestibular systems. Also, individuals with sight had better balance than individuals with visual impairment who participated in sports and individuals with visual impairment who participated in sports compared with sedentary people with visual impairment.

SKIPping With PALS: Exploring Parental Engagement in a Motor Intervention for Their Preschool Children

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore how parent involvement influenced the effectiveness of a movement intervention targeting gross motor skills and physical activity behavior in preschool-aged boys and girls. Methods: Parents received training at monthly school-based sessions and online to implement the movement intervention once per month at school and once per week at home across 6 months (N = 104; Mage = 48.30 months, SD = 6.90). Children completed the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 at baseline and wore physical activity trackers 24/7 for six weeks during the intervention. COVID-19 disrupted the intervention and prevented immediate post testing. Children (N = 60; Mage = 60.86 months, SD = 6.57) who returned to the center one year later completed gross motor skill retention testing. Results: For each additional school-based session attended by the parents (up to six), children's locomotor and manipulative skills were 1.87 and 1.95 points higher, respectively, at the start of the following academic year. For physical activity, each session increase in attendance at the school-based component of the intervention resulted in an additional 1455 steps in average weekly step count. Conclusion: Increased parent engagement demonstrated greater change in gross motor skills and larger acute physical activity responses. Understanding barriers that impact the level of parental intervention engagement (i.e., dose) also provides insight into why some children learn and others do not within a parent-led intervention. Although the implementation and results of this study were impacted by COVID, these data can help researchers optimize future intervention strategies.

Balance Control in Individuals with Hearing Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Comprehensive insights into balance control of individuals with hearing impairment are compared with individuals with hearing. Primary sources were obtained from 7 databases including PubMed, LILACS, SCOPUS, CINAHL, PEDro, CENTRAL, and Web of Science. The search period extended from inception until January 5, 2022. The systematic review included 24 studies and 27 trials, with a total of 2,148 participants. The meta-analysis showed a significant difference in the average balance control between individuals with hearing impairment and individuals with hearing, with individuals with hearing having a favorable advantage (p = 0.001). Additionally, average balance control was found to be in favor of individuals with hearing (p = 0.001) when comparing individuals with hearing impairment who participated in sports. Finally, individuals with hearing impairment who participated in sports demonstrated a significantly higher average difference in balance control (p = 0.001) when compared to sedentary people with hearing impairment. Our meta-analysis results indicate a balance defect in individuals with hearing impairment compared to individuals with hearing. In addition, with increasing age, the balance in individuals with hearing impairment improved. Additionally, the dependence of individuals with hearing impairment on the visual and proprioception systems to maintain balance increased. Finally, there was more dependence on the proprioception than the visual system, while individuals with hearing had stronger average balance control than individuals with hearing impairment who participated in sports, when compared to sedentary people with hearing impairment.

"You Throw Like a Girl!": Young Children's Gender Stereotypes About Object Control Skills

Purpose: Understanding if children hold stereotypes about motor skills, may partially explain differences in object control performance between young boys and girls. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine whether young boys and girls held stereotypes related to object control skills. Methods: Children (N = 84) ages three years four months to five years seven months (Mage = 4.6 years, SD = .58) completed the Test of Gross Motor Development-Second Edition and a modified version of the Children's Occupations, Activities and Traits Measure. Spearman Rho correlations examined associations between children's stereotypes and actual object control skills performance. We then examined differences between boys' and girls' gender stereotypes (three for each category) and object control skills via independent samples t-tests. Results: Results showed significant associations between gender stereotypes toward object control skills and actual object control skills for girls (ρ = -.31--.53, p < .05) but not for boys (ρ = .10-.14, p > .05). Concurrently, girls showed significantly lower object control skills than boys (t[82] = 2.01; p = .042, d = .44) as well as significantly higher gender stereotypes across all three categories (p < .05, d = .54-1.77). Conclusion: These data indicated that girls, not boys, held gender stereotypes about object control skills in concert with lower object control skill performances. Future research should evaluate the impacts of an integrated gross motor intervention which seeks to change gender stereotypes and concurrently improve object control skill performance.

An Examination of Motor Competence Profiles in Preschool Children: A Latent Profile Analysis

Purpose: Identifying profiles of preschoolers' motor competence (MC) is essential for providing accurate and targeted intervention. However, little is known regarding children's MC profiles, more specifically how skills may present in unique clusters. The purposes of the study were to explore MC profiles of U.S. children ages 3-6 years, quantify the uniqueness of these profiles, and examine differences by age, gender, race, geographic region, socioeconomic status, and Body Mass Index z-scores. Methods: Participants included children (N = 582, n_girls = 296) aged 3-6 years (M_age = 4.97, SD = .75) enrolled in one of seven early childhood education centers (Alabama, Louisiana, Ohio [× 2], South Carolina [× 2], Texas). Each child's MC was assessed with the 12 skills comprising the TGMD-2. Latent profile analysis was performed using the 12 MC skills. Results: Five profiles of MC emerged, three of which show developing MC but in varying combinations. Wald tests revealed possible MC advantages for preschool children who are older, boys, reside in an urban region, and are of higher socioeconomic status, but only for the proficient MC profile. Conclusion: By uncovering five unique latent MC profiles, professionals should consider the presentation/origins of each profile and use such knowledge to create targeted, individualized MC interventions in American preschoolers. From a research perspective, the implications of this study suggest that researchers should consider person-oriented approaches examining individual skill scores (vs. summed subscale scores) whenever possible.

Perceived Motor Competence Mediates the Relationship Between Gross Motor Skills and Physical Activity in Youth With Visual Impairments

Children with visual impairments typically demonstrate lower levels of motor competence, physical activity, and perceived motor competence compared to their peers without visual impairments. Stodden and colleagues purport that perceived motor competence mediates the relationship between motor competence and physical activity for youth without visual impairments. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to test whether perceived motor competence mediates the relationship between motor competence and physical activity for youth with visual impairments. Methods: Participants (N = 138; boys = 81, girls = 57) were age 9-18 years (M_age = 13.37, SD = 2.34) with visual impairments. Participants completed the Test of Gross Motor Development-3, the Test of Perceived Physical Competence-VI, and the Physical Activity Questionnaire. Results: Locomotor skills predicted perceived motor competence, which predicted physical activity. Perceived motor competence showed a mediation effect on the path from locomotor skills to physical activity. There was no significant relationship between locomotor skills and physical activity. Conclusion: The results from this study provide initial evidence to support the hypothesis proposed by Stodden and colleagues. These data provide a rationale to include both perceived and actual motor competence within targeted intervention strategies to increase physical activity behaviors for youth with visual impairments. Future research should consider following participants longitudinally to test the roles of perceived and actual motor competence as factors supporting positive developmental trajectories for health.

The Psychometric Properties for the Test of Perceived Physical Competence for Youths with Visual Impairments

Introduction

Limited inquiries exist for perceptions of physical competence for people with visual impairments, since there are no specific, psychometrically tested scales. The purpose of this study was to establish the psychometric properties of the Test of Perceived Physical Competence (TPPC) for individuals with visual impairments aged 9–19 years. Methods: Experts ( N = 12) provided feedback for content and face validity. Then, after assessing 179 individuals with visual impairments, McDonald’s Omega, and Confirmatory Factor Analyses were used to evaluate the internal consistency and structure. Finally, results of the TPPC were compared with the Self-Perception Profiles for Children/Adolescents for divergent validity. Results: The standardized root mean square residual result of 0.053 and the Comparative Fit Index result of 0.95 indicated acceptable fit. The percent of variation in each item explained by the factor varied from 44% (item 3) to 63% (item 6). McDonald’s Omega for the one-factor scale is 0.987, and the perceived physical competence subscale of the Self-Perception Profiles for Children and TPPC have a Spearman correlation coefficient of 0.469 (95% confidence interval = 0.269–0.630). Discussion: Having a psychometrically strong scale to measure perceived physical competence of individuals with visual impairments is the first step in being able to replicate current, seminal research among this unique population. This adaptation of Harter’s perceived physical competence subscale uniquely assesses the child’s perceptions of physical competence among peers with visual impairments. This measure, coupled with the power to examine its predictive abilities, is important for children and adolescents with visual impairments, since they possess great tendencies for obesity and sedentary behavior. Implications for practitioners: If practitioners would like to change tendencies for obesity and sedentary behavior, then, they must include perceptions of physical competence as a latent construct. Now, practitioners can feel confident to do so for this highly vulnerable population.

Preschoolers Build Fundamental Motor Skills Critical to an Active Lifestyle: The All 4 Kids© Intervention Study

This pragmatic, real world study examined the effects of the All 4 Kids^© intervention on preschoolers' mastery of movement skills and determined whether the instruction had greater impact than natural development. Methods included a quasi-experimental intervention-comparison subsample of 379 children (COMPARISON) and a pretest-posttest design with convenience scale-up sampling of 2817 preschoolers (SCALE-UP). Children receiving education and dance instruction 3 times/week for 8 weeks were assessed using the Preschool Movement Assessment to evaluate skills pre and post intervention. Using repeated measures ANOVA, McNemar and Wilcoxon signed ranks tests, preschooler's participation in the intervention resulted in greater improvement in 12 movement skills (F = 83.451, df = 1, p < 0.001, η p 2 = 0.555), balance (p = 0.028), hopping (t = -3.545, df = 112, p = 0.001) and crossing the midline (p < 0.001) than natural development (COMPARISON). In the SCALE-UP study, children significantly improved in all measures based on post-intervention scores. Significant differences were observed between Hispanic and non-Hispanic children for the 12-skills (b = -0.758, se = 0.161, p < 0.001) using hierarchical linear models; boys' and girls' scores were not differentially impacted by the intervention. Therefore, implementation of interventions focused on fundamental movement skill development have the potential to remediate secular motor skill decline in young children.

Relationship Between Fundamental Motor Skill Competence, Perceived Physical Competence and Free-Play Physical Activity in Children

Purpose: This study examined the extent to which fundamental motor skill competence (FMSC; locomotor and object control skill competence) and perceived physical competence (PPC) predicted physical activity levels and sedentary behaviors during free-play time at preschool. Method: A total of 72 children (girls n = 33, boys n = 39; M_age = 4.38, SD = .85 years) were recruited from two preschools. Fundamental motor skill competence was measured using the Test of Gross Motor Development - 2nd edition, and PPC was assessed using the physical competence subscale of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance. Physical activity was measured using accelerometers. Results: Children engaged in light physical activity 19.66%, and moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) 36.41%, and sedentary behaviors 43.94% of their free-play time. Since no correlation was observed in light physical activity with any variables, a hierarchical multiple linear regression was run for MVPA and sedentary behaviors. The results illustrated 38.9% of the variance in MVPA during free-play time was predicted by FMSC and PPC, after controlling for age and sex, with locomotor skill competence as a significant predictor (t= 2.98, p < .05). For sedentary behaviors, the 32.9% of the variance during free-play time was predicted by FMSC and PPC, after controlling age and sex, with locomotor skill competence as a significant predictor (t = 2.72, p < .05). Conclusion: The findings highlight the importance of developing FMSC and positive PPC during early childhood to enhance physical activity engagement during free-play.

Comparison of Indirect Calorimetry- and Accelerometry-Based Energy Expenditure During Children's Discrete Skill Performance

Purpose: To compare children's energy expenditure (EE) levels during object projection skill performance (OPSP; e.g., kicking, throwing, striking) as assessed by hip- and wrist-worn accelerometers. Method: Forty-two children (female n = 20, Mage = 8.1 ± 0.8 years) performed three, nine-minute sessions of kicking, over-arm throwing, and striking at performance intervals of 6, 12, and 30 seconds. EE was estimated using indirect calorimetry (COSMED k4b2) and accelerometers (ActiGraph GT3X+) worn on three different locations (hip, dominant-wrist, and non-dominant-wrist) using four commonly used cut-points. Bland-Altman plots were used to analyze the agreement in EE estimations between accelerometry and indirect calorimetry (METS). Chi-square goodness of fit tests were used to examine the agreement between accelerometry and indirect calorimetry. Results: Hip- and wrist-worn accelerometers underestimated EE, compared to indirect calorimetry, during all performance conditions. Skill practice at a rate of two trials per minute resulted in the equivalent of moderate PA and five trials per minute resulted in vigorous PA (as measured by indirect calorimetry), yet was only categorized as light and/or moderate activity by all measured forms of accelerometry. Conclusion: This is one of the first studies to evaluate the ability of hip- and wrist-worn accelerometers to predict PA intensity levels during OPSP in children. These data may significantly impact PA intervention measurement strategies by revealing the lack of validity in accelerometers to accurately predict PA levels during OPSP in children.

Facilitators and Barriers to Movement Integration in Elementary Classrooms: A Systematic Review

PURPOSE

A systematic review was conducted to identify facilitators and barriers to movement integration (MI) in elementary school classrooms.

METHOD

Online databases (Educational Resources Information Center, Google Scholar, PsycINFO, and PubMed) served as data sources for the study. Following the PRISMA guidelines, relevant published research on MI was identified and screened for inclusion in a qualitative synthesis. Content analysis of the included articles (N = 28) was used to identify themes of MI facilitators and barriers. Facilitators and barriers were then categorized using a social-ecological framework.

RESULTS

A total of 12 themes of MI facilitators and barriers were identified and categorized into two social-ecological levels: institutional factors (e.g., administrative support, resources) and intrapersonal factors (e.g., teacher confidence, ease of implementation).

CONCLUSION

This review can inform research and practice aimed at supporting the implementation of MI in elementary classrooms.

Evaluation of a classroom movement integration training delivered in a low socioeconomic school district

Movement integration (MI), which involves infusing physical activity (PA) into general education classrooms, is an evidence-based strategy within whole-of-school approaches for helping children meet the national PA guideline of at least 60 min per day. This study evaluated an MI training delivered in a low socioeconomic elementary school that had recently invested in three movement facilitative classrooms (a kinesthetic classroom and two activity labs). We investigated (a) the training's fidelity in meeting recommended best practices for professional development and (b) school professionals' perspectives of the training. Eight school professionals participated in the study, including five classroom teachers, two activity lab supervisors, and the principal. The researchers used a video of the training to rate the fidelity of the training to best practice recommendations. Interviews, field notes, and informal conversations with participants were qualitatively analyzed for themes. The training received a total fidelity score of 42%. Qualitative findings highlighted participants' varied perspectives of the training's purpose, challenges associated with the training and future recommendations for MI trainings. For MI trainings to be a valuable asset in increasing teachers' value and effective implementation of MI, trainings need to be designed to be in line with best practice recommendations and teachers' perceived needs.

Children's metabolic expenditure during object projection skill performance: New insight for activity intensity relativity

Objective: To examine children's energy expenditure (EE) during object projection skill performance at three intensity intervals. Methods: Children's (42, Mage = 8.1) average metabolic equivalents of task (METs) were calculated using a COSMED K4b2 while they repeatedly performed blocks of kicking, throwing (overhand), and striking (two-handed) during 6, 12, and 30-s interval conditions. A repeated-measures analysis of covariance examined differences in METs while controlling for skill level. Results: Data indicated a main effect for interval condition (df = 2, 123, F = 94.36, p <.001, η2 = .605). Post hoc t-tests demonstrated decreasing performance interval times yielded progressively higher METs (p <.001) across the three conditions (30s = 4.5±0.8 METs, 12s = 6.3±1.3, 6s = 8.3±1.6). There also was a main effect for sex (df = 1,120, F = 52.28, p <.001 η2 = .305). Boys demonstrated higher METs at each performance interval (p <.001). Conclusion: Skill practice with a maximum of one trial every 30s resulted in the equivalent of at least moderate physical activity (>4.0 METs) and intervals of 6s demonstrated vigorous physical activity (>7.0 METs). Practicing/performing object projection skills, even at intervals that allow for adequate instruction and feedback (i.e., 1 trial/30s), promotes MVPA in children.

Case study of a health optimizing physical education-based comprehensive school physical activity program

In this article, we report a qualitative case study, in which we examined enablers and barriers related to the development, implementation, and sustainability of a comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP) aligned with the Health Optimizing Physical Education (HOPE) curriculum model at a middle school. Literature on program-diffusion and school-university partnerships guided data collection and analysis. Data sources included semi-structured interviews with the program implementation team (n = 9) and the school's health and physical education teachers (n = 7); a focus group interview with students; documents (e.g., lesson plans), and observations. Constant comparison techniques were used to code and draw out themes from the data. Findings revealed the extensive effort needed for program implementation and highlighted the importance of strong external support mechanisms, conducting needs assessments, and training teachers to market physical activity programming. Partnerships may provide critical support for schools in their efforts to generate and sustain CSPAPs.

Systematically Observed Movement Integration in a Low Socioeconomic School District: A Cross-Sectional, Observational Study

PURPOSE

To describe teacher's integration of activity into general education classroom time (ie, movement integration-MI).

DESIGN

Cross-sectional, observational.

SETTING

Eight elementary schools in a rural, low-income school district.

PARTICIPANTS

Elementary classroom teachers (N = 48).

MEASURE

Classroom teachers were observed using the System for Observing Student Movement in Academic Routines and Transitions (SOSMART) on random, unannounced days during the 2015-16 academic year.

ANALYSIS

Descriptive statistics were calculated for the frequency and types of MI being used.

RESULTS

Of the 9398 SOSMART scans completed, students engaged in movement in 41.3% of the scans. Student movement was observed to be teacher directed in 14.4% and nonteacher directed in 26.9% of scans. Nonteacher-directed movement consisted mostly of transitions ( M = 99.5%) in which movement occurred as a result of preestablished classroom rules, protocols, and organization.

CONCLUSION

This is one of the first studies to provide objective information about MI. These descriptive data lay the groundwork for future correlational and experimental research that can lead to the development of effective intervention design to increase MI use in schools.

Correlates of physical activity among children with visual impairments

BACKGROUND

Children with visual impairments (VI) often reveal higher levels of sedentary time and lower levels of fundamental motor skills (FMS), health-related fitness (HRF) and physical activity (PA) than peers without visual impairments. Extrapolating correlates of HRF and PA are important to develop targeted intervention strategies aimed at improving health- and movement-based outcomes.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to examine associations among FMS (divided into locomotor and object control skills), HRF, and home- and sport-camp based PA measures in children with VI.

METHODS

Children with VI (N = 66; 9-18 years) completed PA, HRF (including cardio-respiratory fitness, muscular strength and endurance), and FMS measures during a seven-day period. Partial and zero-order correlations, which included controlling for age, degree of VI, and BMI z-score were performed.

RESULTS

When controlling for vision, age, and BMI z-score, home-based self-report PA moderately correlated with camp-based accelerometer data (p < .001); home-based and camp-based PA associated with object control and locomotor subscales (p < .001); object control and locomotor skills were the most influential factors above and beyond vision associating with both PA measures. Cardiorespiratory fitness and grip strength were significantly associated with both object control and locomotor skills (p < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Future intervention strategies that target increasing PA and HRF levels for children with VI should consider focusing upon both object control and locomotor skill development.

Head, Toes, Knees, SKIP! Improving Preschool Children's Executive Function Through a Motor Competence Intervention

Executive function skills play a critical role in school readiness for young children and can be improved through targeted intervention. However, children in preschool often experience deficits in multiple developmental domains. Thus, there is a need for integrated interventions that target multiple domains in concert. This study tested whether a proven gross motor skill intervention, Successful Kinesthetic Instruction for Preschoolers (SKIP), also improves preschoolers' executive function. Participants were randomly assigned to either intervention (n = 50) or control (n = 57) conditions. Prior to intervention, executive function and gross motor skills were tested. Intervention occurred for 6 weeks with 30-min sessions twice weekly (dose = 360 min). At posttest, participants in the SKIP condition showed significantly better gross motor and executive function skills than control participants. Results are the first to document the effectiveness of the SKIP intervention in also improving children's executive function.

Influence of Sports Camps and Vision on Perceived Motor Competence in Children and Adolescents who Are Visually Impaired

Introduction

Children with visual impairments (that is, those who have low vision or blindness) often demonstrate lower levels of perceived and actual motor competence and physical activity compared to peers who are sighted. The purpose of this study was to assess the way in which seven-day sports camps specially designed for children with visual impairments affected perceived motor competence as compared to a control condition.

Methods

Children with visual impairments (N = 79), ages 9 to 19 years (M = 12.71, SD = 2.38) completed either the Self-Perception Profile for Children (ages 9 to 13 years) or the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (ages 14 to 19 years) two to three times at two summer camps or at a school for blind students. Two separate 3 (group) × 4 (vision) ANOVAs assessed pretest and posttest differences for perceived motor competence. A 3 (group) × 2 (time) × 4 (vision) repeated-measures ANOVA examined the effects of camp on perceived motor competence from pretest to posttest. Paired samples t-tests were conducted to reveal if levels of perceived motor competence remained stable from posttest to maintenance.

Results

Camp and control groups revealed nonsignificant and similar levels of perceived motor competence at the pretest. By the end of camp one, children improved their perceived motor competence to a much greater and significant degree than did those in the control condition. Similar effects occurred for those who enrolled at camp two, and those participants also revealed significantly greater gains than did those in the control group. A small subsample maintained their gains six weeks after camp one, while control children also remained stable with no change after six weeks.

Discussion

Children's perceived motor competence can be improved through accessible sports camps. This finding is important, since this measure powerfully associates with physical activity.

Implications for practitioners

Physical education teachers can model camp conditions to benefit perceived motor competence throughout the academic year.

Two-year process evaluation of a pilot program to increase elementary children's physical activity during school

The purpose of this study was to examine implementation processes in elementary classrooms during a 2-year (Fall 2014 to Spring 2016) pilot intervention program, Partnerships for Active Children in Elementary Schools (PACES). We examined (a) the effect of PACES on the extent of movement integration (MI) and (b) changes in teachers' perceptions regarding MI. Purposively selected classrooms (grades 1-3) across four schools (3 intervention, 1 control) participated in the study. The sample included classroom teachers (N = 12) in Fall 2014 and Spring 2015, but the number of participants dropped to eight in Fall 2015 and Spring 2016. PACES consisted of three partnership approaches (a virtual community of practice, community-based participatory research, and university service learning) intended to increase the extent of MI in the intervention classrooms. We collected process data using the System for Observing Student Movement in Academic Routines and Transitions (SOSMART) and teacher interviews. PACES did not significantly impact the extent of observed MI. Interviews indicated that the intervention had both strengths and limitations. Building interpersonal support for teachers is important to their use of MI. A different measurement schedule (e.g., collecting MI data each day of the school week) may be required to more thoroughly capture MI instances.

Partnerships for Active Children in Elementary Schools (PACES): First year process evaluation

Movement integration (MI) is a strategy within comprehensive school physical activity programs (CSPAP). School-university partnerships are recommended to leverage teachers' capacity to use MI. A mixed method process evaluation was conducted of the first year of implementing Partnerships for Active Children in Elementary Schools (PACES). Classroom teachers (N=12) from four schools participated. Data were collected in Fall 2014 (baseline) and Spring 2015 (∼ four months of intervention) using the System for Observing Student Movement in Academic Routines and Transitions and semi-structured interviews. There were no significant differences between intervention classrooms and control classrooms MI promotion. Differences approaching significance (U=5, p=0.04, d=1.2) were observed when comparing classrooms that received two (community of practice, community-based participatory research) or three components (two components plus service learning) of the intervention and classrooms that received one (community of practice) or no components. Qualitative findings revealed that teachers in classrooms that were more successful responded more favorably to the intervention components than teachers in classrooms that were less successful. Quantitative and qualitative results supported the effectiveness of community-based participatory research as a component of PACES. This study provides information about MI process variables in the context of a CSPAP intervention.

SKIPing With Head Start Teachers: Influence of T-SKIP on Object-Control Skills

PURPOSE

Children from disadvantaged settings are at risk for delays in their object-control (OC) skills. Fundamental motor skill interventions, such as the Successful Kinesthetic Instruction for Preschoolers (SKIP) Program, are highly successful when led by motor development experts. However, few preschools employ such experts. This study examined the extent to which Head Start teachers delivering an 8-week teacher-led SKIP (T-SKIP) intervention elicited learning of OC skills for Head Start children.

METHOD

Head Start teachers (n = 5) delivered T-SKIP for 8 weeks (450 min). Control teachers (n = 5) implemented the typical standard of practice, or well-equipped free play. All children (N = 122) were pretested and posttested on the OC Skill subscale of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2.

RESULTS

Descriptive analyses at pretest identified 81% of the children were developmentally delayed in OC skills (below the 30th percentile). A 2-level hierarchical linear model demonstrated the effectiveness of T-SKIP with significant differences (β = 4.70), t(8) = 7.02, p < .001, η2 = .56, between T-SKIP children (n = 63) and control children (n = 59) at posttest.

CONCLUSION

Head Start teachers who delivered T-SKIP could bring about positive changes in children's OC skills, thereby remediating the initial developmental delays presented. Control children remained delayed in their OC skills in spite of daily well-equipped free play, giving rise to concerns about their future motor competence and physical activity levels.

Identifying a motor proficiency barrier for meeting physical activity guidelines in children

OBJECTIVES

This study examined the existence of a threshold level (proficiency barrier) of actual motor competence (MC) below which a child is not likely to attain 60min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) per day.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional study.

METHODS

Actual MC was assessed in 326 children (48.5% boys; age=9.50±1.24years) using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2; MVPA was measured with ActiGraph GT3X+accelerometers. Perceived MC, included as a potential mediating variable, was assessed with the Self-Perception Profile for Children. Binary logistic (mediation) regression analyses controlling for sex and a chi-squared test were used to gain insight into the relationship between (the levels of) actual MC and the percentage of children meeting the MVPA guideline.

RESULTS

Actual MC significantly predicted the percentage of children meeting the guideline (B=.03, SE=.01, p<.001), even when controlling for sex. Perceived MC did not mediate this relationship. Children with high actual MC (65-100 percentile) were 2.46 (p=.003) times more likely to meet the guideline than children with low actual MC (0-27 percentile).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study demonstrates the potential impact of low MC on children's MVPA levels and suggests evidence for the existence of a proficiency barrier for meeting MVPA guidelines. Almost 90% of the children whose actual MC is below the 'average' threshold do not meet the MVPA guideline. As more children with higher levels of actual MC meet the guideline than their less competent peers, it is crucial to provide opportunities to sufficiently develop children's actual MC.

Construct validity and reliability of the Test of Perceived Motor Competence for children with visual impairments

The Test of Perceived Motor Competence for children with visual impairments (TPMC-VI) is currently content validated. Further validation and reliability were needed to report the psychometric properties of the TPMC-VI; therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the construct validity and the internal consistency for the TPMC-VI. Children aged 3–8 years with visual impairments completed the TPMC-VI with assistance from their parents or members of the research team. Results indicated that the TPMC-VI is a valid and reliable (α = .68) assessment. Researchers and practitioners can confidently use the TPMC-VI to evaluate children’s perceived motor competence.

Associations among Elementary School Children's Actual Motor Competence, Perceived Motor Competence, Physical Activity and BMI: A Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

Positive associations between motor competence and physical activity have been identified by means of variable-centered analyses. To expand the understanding of these associations, this study used a person-centered approach to investigate whether different combinations (i.e., profiles) of actual and perceived motor competence exist (aim 1); and to examine differences in physical activity levels (aim 2) and weight status (aim 3) among children with different motor competence-based profiles.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Children's (N = 361; 180 boys = 50%; Mage = 9.50±1.24yrs) actual motor competence was measured with the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 and their perceived motor competence via the Self Perception Profile for Children. We assessed physical activity via accelerometers; height through stadiometers, and weight through scales. Cluster analyses (aim 1) and MANCOVAs (aim 2 & 3) were used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

The analysis generated two predictable groups: one group displaying relatively high levels of both actual (M TGMD-2 percentile = 42.54, SD = 2.33) and perceived motor competence (M = 3.42, SD = .37; high-high), and one group with relatively low levels of both (M percentile = 9.71, SD = 3.21; M PMC = 2.52, SD = .35; low-low). One additional group was also identified as having relatively low levels of actual motor competence (M percentile = 4.22, SD = 2.85) but relatively high levels of perceived motor competence (M = 3.52, SD = .30; low-high). The high-high group demonstrated higher daily physical activity (M = 48.39±2.03) and lower BMI (M = 18.13±.43) than the low-low group (MMVPA = 37.93±2.01; MBMI = 20.22±.42). The low-high group had similar physical activity-levels as the low-low group (M = 36.21±2.18) and did not significantly differ in BMI (M = 19.49±.46) from the other two groups.

CONCLUSIONS

A combination of high actual and perceived motor competence is related to higher physical activity and lower weight status. It is thus recommended to expand health interventions in children with components that foster the development of both actual and perceived motor competence. Health professionals should furthermore pay sufficient attention to endorsing children's actual and perceived motor competence.