Comparison of hydric and thermal physiology in an environmentally diverse clade of Caribbean anoles

As the world becomes warmer and precipitation patterns less predictable, organisms will experience greater heat and water stress. It is crucial to understand the factors that predict variation in thermal and hydric physiology among species. This study focuses on investigating the relationships between thermal and hydric diversity, and their environmental predictors, in a clade of Hispaniolan anole lizards, which are part of a broader Caribbean adaptive radiation. This clade, the 'cybotoid' anoles, occupies a wide range of thermal habitats (from sea level to several kilometers above it) and hydric habitats (such as xeric scrub, broadleaf forest, and pine forest), setting up the possibility for ecophysiological specialization among species. Among the thermal traits only cold tolerance is correlated with environmental temperature, and none of our climate variables were correlated with hydric physiology. Nevertheless, we found a negative relationship between heat tolerance (critical thermal maximum) and evaporative water loss at higher temperatures such that more heat tolerant lizards are also more desiccation tolerant at higher temperatures. This finding hints at shared thermal and hydric specialization at higher temperatures, underscoring the importance of considering the interactive effects of temperature and water balance in ecophysiological studies. While ecophysiological differentiation is a core feature of the anole adaptive radiation, our results suggest that close relatives in this lineage do not diverge in hydric physiology and only diverge partially in thermal physiology.

Mother knows best: nest-site choice homogenizes embryo thermal environments among populations in a widespread ectotherm

Species with large geographical ranges provide an excellent model for studying how different populations respond to dissimilar local conditions, particularly with respect to variation in climate. Maternal effects, such as nest-site choice greatly affect offspring phenotypes and survival. Thus, maternal behaviour has the potential to mitigate the effects of divergent climatic conditions across a species' range. We delineated natural nesting areas of six populations of painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) that span a broad latitudinal range and quantified spatial and temporal variation in nest characteristics. To quantify microhabitats available for females to choose, we also identified sites within the nesting area of each location that were representative of available thermal microhabitats. Across the range, females nested non-randomly and targeted microhabitats that generally had less canopy cover and thus higher nest temperatures. Nest microhabitats differed among locations but did not predictably vary with latitude or historic mean air temperature during embryonic development. In conjunction with other studies of these populations, our results suggest that nest-site choice is homogenizing nest environments, which buffers embryos from thermally induced selection and could slow embryonic evolution. Thus, although effective at a macroclimatic scale, nest-site choice is unlikely to compensate for novel stressors that rapidly increase local temperatures. This article is part of the theme issue 'The evolutionary ecology of nests: a cross-taxon approach'.

Thermal-metabolic phenotypes of the lizard Podarcis muralis differ across elevation, but converge in high-elevation hypoxia

In response to a warming climate, many montane species are shifting upslope to track the emergence of preferred temperatures. Characterizing patterns of variation in metabolic, physiological and thermal traits along an elevational gradient, and the plastic potential of these traits, is necessary to understand current and future responses to abiotic constraints at high elevations, including limited oxygen availability. We performed a transplant experiment with the upslope-colonizing common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) in which we measured nine aspects of thermal physiology and aerobic capacity in lizards from replicate low- (400 m above sea level, ASL) and high-elevation (1700 m ASL) populations. We first measured traits at their elevation of origin and then transplanted half of each group to extreme high elevation (2900 m ASL; above the current elevational range limit of this species), where oxygen availability is reduced by ∼25% relative to sea level. After 3 weeks of acclimation, we again measured these traits in both the transplanted and control groups. The multivariate thermal-metabolic phenotypes of lizards originating from different elevations differed clearly when measured at the elevation of origin. For example, high-elevation lizards are more heat tolerant than their low-elevation counterparts (counter-gradient variation). Yet, these phenotypes converged after exposure to reduced oxygen availability at extreme high elevation, suggesting limited plastic responses under this novel constraint. Our results suggest that high-elevation populations are well suited to their oxygen environments, but that plasticity in the thermal-metabolic phenotype does not pre-adapt these populations to colonize more hypoxic environments at higher elevations.

Physiological evolution during adaptive radiation: A test of the island effect in Anolis lizards

Phenotypic evolution is often exceptionally rapid on islands, resulting in numerous, ecologically diverse species. Although adaptive radiation proceeds along various phenotypic axes, the island effect of faster evolution has been mostly tested with regard to morphology. Here, we leveraged the physiological diversity and species richness of Anolis lizards to examine the evolutionary dynamics of three key traits: heat tolerance, body temperature, and cold tolerance. Contrary to expectation, we discovered slower heat tolerance evolution on islands. Additionally, island species evolve toward higher optimal body temperatures than mainland species. Higher optima and slower evolution in upper physiological limits are consistent with the Bogert effect, or evolutionary inertia due to thermoregulation. Correspondingly, body temperature is higher and more stable on islands than on the American mainland, despite similarity in thermal environments. Greater thermoregulation on islands may occur due to ecological release from competitors and predators compared to mainland environments. By reducing the costs of thermoregulation, ecological opportunity on islands may actually stymie, rather than hasten, physiological evolution. Our results emphasize that physiological diversity is an important axis of ecological differentiation in the adaptive radiation of anoles, and that behavior can impart distinct macroevolutionary footprints on physiological diversity on islands and continents.

Geographic variation in thermal sensitivity of early life traits in a widespread reptile

Taxa with large geographic distributions generally encompass diverse macroclimatic conditions, potentially requiring local adaptation and/or phenotypic plasticity to match their phenotypes to differing environments. These eco-evolutionary processes are of particular interest in organisms with traits that are directly affected by temperature, such as embryonic development in oviparous ectotherms. Here we examine the spatial distribution of fitness-related early life phenotypes across the range of a widespread vertebrate, the painted turtle (Chrysemys picta). We quantified embryonic and hatchling traits from seven locations (in Idaho, Minnesota, Oregon, Illinois, Nebraska, Kansas, and New Mexico) after incubating eggs under constant conditions across a series of environmentally relevant temperatures. Thermal reaction norms for incubation duration and hatchling mass varied among locations under this common-garden experiment, indicating genetic differentiation or pre-ovulatory maternal effects. However, latitude, a commonly used proxy for geographic variation, was not a strong predictor of these geographic differences. Our findings suggest that this macroclimatic proxy may be an unreliable surrogate for microclimatic conditions experienced locally in nests. Instead, complex interactions between abiotic and biotic factors likely drive among-population phenotypic variation in this system. Understanding spatial variation in key life-history traits provides an important perspective on adaptation to contemporary and future climatic conditions.

Janzen's Hypothesis Meets the Bogert Effect: Connecting Climate Variation, Thermoregulatory Behavior, and Rates of Physiological Evolution

Understanding the motors and brakes that guide physiological evolution is a topic of keen interest, and is of increasing importance in light of global climate change. For more than half a century, Janzen’s hypothesis has been used to understand how climatic variability influences physiological divergence across elevation and latitude. At the same time, there has been increasing recognition that behavior and physiological evolution are mechanistically linked, with regulatory behaviors often serving to dampen environmental selection and stymie evolution (a phenomenon termed the Bogert effect). Here, we illustrate how some aspects of Janzen’s hypothesis and the Bogert effect can be connected to conceptually link climate, behavior, and rates of physiological evolution in a common framework. First, we demonstrate how thermal heterogeneity varies between nighttime and daytime environments across elevation in a tropical mountain. Using data from Hispaniolan Anolis lizards, we show how clinal variation in cold tolerance is consistent with thermally homogenous nighttime environments. Elevational patterns of heat tolerance and the preferred temperature, in contrast, are best explained by incorporating the buffering effects of thermoregulatory behavior in thermally heterogeneous daytime environments. In turn, climatic variation and behavior interact to determine rates of physiological evolution, with heat tolerance and the preferred temperature evolving much more slowly than cold tolerance. Conceptually bridging some aspects of Janzen’s hypothesis and the Bogert effect provides an integrative, cohesive framework illustrating how environment and behavior interact to shape patterns of physiological evolution.

The effect of hormone manipulations on sex ratios varies with environmental conditions in a turtle with temperature-dependent sex determination

Exogenous application of steroids and related substances to eggs affects offspring sex ratios in species with temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD). Laboratory studies demonstrate that this effect is most pronounced near the constant temperature that produces 1:1 sex ratios (i.e., pivotal temperature). However, the impact of such chemicals on sex determination under natural nest temperatures (which fluctuate daily) is unknown, but could provide insight into the relative contributions of these two factors under natural conditions. We applied estradiol (E2) and an aromatase inhibitor (fadrozole) to eggs of the painted turtle (Chrysemys picta), a species with TSD, and allowed eggs to incubate under natural conditions during two field seasons (in 2012 and 2013). Exogenous E2, fadrozole, and nest temperature contributed to variation in offspring sex ratio, but the relative contributions of these factors differed between years. In 2012, a much hotter than average season, sex ratios were heavily female biased regardless of nest temperature and chemical treatment. However, in 2013, a milder season, both nest temperature and chemical treatment were important. Moreover, a significant interaction between nest temperature and treatment demonstrated that exogenous estradiol induces female development regardless of nest temperature, but aromatase inhibition widens the range of temperatures that produces both sexes.

Effects of augmented corticosterone in painted turtle eggs on offspring development and behavior

Maternal stressors can play an integral role in offspring development and ultimate behaviors in many vertebrates. Increased circulating stress avoidance hormones can be reflected in elevated concentrations in ova, thus providing a potential mechanism for maternal stress to be transmitted to offspring even in taxa without parental care. In this study, we assessed the potential impacts of augmented stress avoidance hormones on offspring development and anti-predator behaviors in a freshwater turtle, Chrysemys picta. We exposed C. picta eggs to biologically relevant amounts of the stress avoidance hormone, corticosterone, as a proxy for maternal stressors. We allowed the eggs to incubate in the field, then measured offspring phenotypes, conducted performance trials, and simulated nest emergence in a field experiment. Exogenous corticosterone reduced survivorship to hatch, but did not affect incubation duration, offspring size, overwinter survival, or size after hibernation. In performance trials, this hormone treatment reduced the frequency of righting, yet enhanced the righting speed of neonates. Regardless, these performance differences did not detectably alter survivorship in the nest emergence experiment. These results lend insight into the potential effects of maternal stress levels on offspring phenotypes, as well as the robustness of offspring fitness to altered levels of maternal stress in freshwater turtles.