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Varela DC, Sarmiento Monroy JC, Mantilla Ribero MJ, Villota C, Rodriguez-Jimenez M, Mantilla Hernández RD. AB0314 MULTIMORBIDITY BURDEN IN RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS. Ann Rheum Dis 2022. [DOI: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2022-eular.4180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
BackgroundMultimorbidity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) has been described as the coexistence of two or more chronic diseases and is the most common cause of death in this population.ObjectivesTo describe the prevalence of multimorbidity and mortality trends in a well-characterized cohort of patients with RA.MethodsA retrospective cohort study of patients with RA (1987 ACR criteria) was conducted. Each patient was evaluated and followed by a rheumatologist in a single outpatient private center in Bogotá, Colombia, from 2014 to 2021. Categorical variables were expressed in frequency and percentage and quantitative variables in mean and standard deviation or median with interquartile range, depending on the distribution of the data. Statistical package: SPSS 25.ResultsA total of 783 patients were included. 11% of patients with RA present multimorbidity. Baseline characteristics were as follows: female gender 81.6%, mean age 51.8±11 years, mean disease duration 8 (IQR 3-15) years, RF positive 80.1%, ACPA positive 58.2%, and erosions 24.9%. Most patients have received glucocorticoids (89.8%), and conventional synthetic DMARDs (97.8%), being prednisone and methotrexate the most frequently prescribed. Hypertension was prevalent in 27.7%, osteoporosis 19.3%, malignancies in 5.5% and principal infection was urinary infection 14.3%. Polyautoimmunity was present in 5.7% most frequently Autoimmune thyroid diseases 10.6% and Sjögren syndrome 9%. After a median of 73 months of follow-up, the mortality rate was 1% of the entire cohort, being cardiovascular disease and COVID-19 infection the main causes.ConclusionPatients with RA have an important multimorbidity burden and this increased risk of adverse outcomes and mortality.References[1]Figus FA, Piga M, Azzolin I, McConnell R, Iagnocco A. Rheumatoid arthritis: Extra-articular manifestations and comorbidities. Autoimmun Rev. 2021 Apr;20(4):102776. doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2021.102776.[2]McQueenie R, Nicholl BI, Jani BD, Canning J, Macdonald S, McCowan C, Neary J, Browne S, Mair FS, Siebert S. Patterns of multimorbidity and their effects on adverse outcomes in rheumatoid arthritis: a study of 5658 UK Biobank participants. BMJ Open. 2020 Nov 23;10(11):e038829. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-038829Table 1.Prevalence of the diseases.DiseasePrevalenceChronic diseaseHypertension27.7%Dyslipidemia26.7%Osteoporosis19.3%Obesity7.7%Diabetes Mellitus7%Cardiovascular diseaseMyocardial infarction3.4%Cerebrovascular disease1.4%Thrombosis1.8%InfectionsUrinary infection14.3%Tuberculosis11.2%COVID-198.2%Autoimmune diseaseAutoimmune thyroid diseases10.6%Sjögren syndrome9%Systemic Lupus Erythematosus2%Disclosure of InterestsNone declared
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Borgna V, Lobos-González L, Guevara F, Landerer E, Bendek M, Ávila R, Silva V, Villota C, Araya M, Rivas A, López C, Socias T, Castillo J, Alarcón L, Burzio LO, Burzio VA, Villegas J. Targeting antisense mitochondrial noncoding RNAs induces bladder cancer cell death and inhibition of tumor growth through reduction of survival and invasion factors. J Cancer 2020; 11:1780-1791. [PMID: 32194789 PMCID: PMC7052861 DOI: 10.7150/jca.38880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Knockdown of the antisense noncoding mitochondrial RNAs (ASncmtRNAs) induces apoptotic death of several human tumor cell lines, but not normal cells, supporting a selective therapy against different types of cancer. In this work, we evaluated the effects of knockdown of ASncmtRNAs on bladder cancer (BCa). We transfected the BCa cell lines UMUC-3, RT4 and T24 with the specific antisense oligonucleotide Andes-1537S, targeted to the human ASncmtRNAs. Knockdown induced a strong inhibition of cell proliferation and increase in cell death in all three cell lines. As observed in UMUC-3 cells, the treatment triggered apoptosis, evidenced by loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and Annexin V staining, along with activation of procaspase-3 and downregulation of the anti-apoptotic factors survivin and Bcl-xL. Treatment also inhibited cell invasion and spheroid formation together with inhibition of N-cadherin and MMP 11. In vivo treatment of subcutaneous xenograft UMUC-3 tumors in NOD/SCID mice with Andes-1537S induced inhibition of tumor growth as compared to saline control. Similarly, treatment of a high-grade bladder cancer PDX with Andes-1537S resulted in a strong inhibition of tumor growth. Our results suggest that ASncmtRNAs could be potent targets for bladder cancer as adjuvant therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Borgna
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida.,Facultad de Medicina, Universidad De Santiago.,Servicio de Urología, Hospital Barros Luco-Trudeau
| | - Lorena Lobos-González
- Centro de Medicina Regenerativa, Facultad de Medicina, Clínica Alemana, Universidad del Desarrollo
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Claudio Villota
- Escuela de Nutrición y Dietética, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins
| | - Mariela Araya
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida.,Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello
| | | | | | | | - Jorge Castillo
- Servicio de Anatomía Patológica, Hospital Barros Luco-Trudeau. Santiago, Chile
| | - Luis Alarcón
- Servicio de Urología, Hospital Barros Luco-Trudeau
| | - Luis O Burzio
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida.,Andes Biotechnologies SpA.,Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello
| | - Verónica A Burzio
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida.,Andes Biotechnologies SpA.,Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello
| | - Jaime Villegas
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida.,Andes Biotechnologies SpA.,Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello
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Villota C, Varas-Godoy M, Jeldes E, Campos A, Villegas J, Borgna V, Burzio LO, Burzio VA. HPV-18 E2 protein downregulates antisense noncoding mitochondrial RNA-2, delaying replicative senescence of human keratinocytes. Aging (Albany NY) 2019; 11:33-47. [PMID: 30595560 PMCID: PMC6339806 DOI: 10.18632/aging.101711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Human and mouse cells display a differential expression pattern of a family of mitochondrial noncoding RNAs (ncmtRNAs), according to proliferative status. Normal proliferating and cancer cells express a sense ncmtRNA (SncmtRNA), which seems to be required for cell proliferation, and two antisense transcripts referred to as ASncmtRNA-1 and -2. Remarkably however, the ASncmtRNAs are downregulated in human and mouse cancer cells, including HeLa and SiHa cells, transformed with HPV-18 and HPV-16, respectively. HPV E2 protein is considered a tumor suppressor in the context of high-risk HPV-induced transformation and therefore, to explore the mechanisms involved in the downregulation of ASncmtRNAs during tumorigenesis, we studied human foreskin keratinocytes (HFK) transduced with lentiviral-encoded HPV-18 E2. Transduced cells displayed a significantly extended replicative lifespan of up to 23 population doublings, compared to 8 in control cells, together with downregulation of the ASncmtRNAs. At 26 population doublings, cells transduced with E2 were arrested at G2/M, together with downregulation of E2 and SncmtRNA and upregulation of ASncmtRNA-2. Our results suggest a role for high-risk HPV E2 protein in cellular immortalization. Additionally, we propose a new cellular phenotype according to the expression of the SncmtRNA and the ASncmtRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Villota
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile.,Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Biológicas, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins, Santiago, Chile
| | - Manuel Varas-Godoy
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de los Andes, Santiago, Chile
| | - Emanuel Jeldes
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile.,Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - América Campos
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile.,Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Laboratorio de Comunicaciones Celulares (CEMC) Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Jaime Villegas
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile.,Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Vincenzo Borgna
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile.,Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Luis O Burzio
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile.,Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Verónica A Burzio
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile.,Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
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Fitzpatrick C, Bendek MF, Briones M, Farfán N, Silva VA, Nardocci G, Montecino M, Boland A, Deleuze JF, Villegas J, Villota C, Silva V, Lobos-Gonzalez L, Borgna V, Barrey E, Burzio LO, Burzio VA. Mitochondrial ncRNA targeting induces cell cycle arrest and tumor growth inhibition of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells through reduction of key cell cycle progression factors. Cell Death Dis 2019; 10:423. [PMID: 31142736 PMCID: PMC6541642 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-019-1649-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The family of long noncoding mitochondrial RNAs (ncmtRNAs), comprising sense (SncmtRNA), and antisense (ASncmtRNA-1 and ASncmtRNA-2) members, are differentially expressed according to cell proliferative status; SncmtRNA is expressed in all proliferating cells, while ASncmtRNAs are expressed in normal proliferating cells, but is downregulated in tumor cells. ASncmtRNA knockdown with an antisense oligonucleotide induces massive apoptosis in tumor cell lines, without affecting healthy cells. Apoptotic death is preceded by proliferation blockage, suggesting that these transcripts are involved in cell cycle regulation. Here, we show that ASncmtRNA knockdown induces cell death preceded by proliferative blockage in three different human breast cancer cell lines. This effect is mediated by downregulation of the key cell cycle progression factors cyclin B1, cyclin D1, CDK1, CDK4, and survivin, the latter also constituting an essential inhibitor of apoptosis, underlying additionally the onset of apoptosis. The treatment also induces an increase in the microRNA hsa-miR-4485-3p, whose sequence maps to ASncmtRNA-2 and transfection of MDA-MB-231 cells with a mimic of this miRNA induces cyclin B1 and D1 downregulation. Other miRNAs that are upregulated include nuclear-encoded hsa-miR-5096 and hsa-miR-3609, whose mimics downregulate CDK1. Our results suggest that ASncmtRNA targeting blocks tumor cell proliferation through reduction of essential cell cycle proteins, mediated by mitochondrial and nuclear miRNAs. This work adds to the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms behind cell cycle arrest preceding tumor cell apoptosis induced by ASncmtRNA knockdown. As proof-of-concept, we show that in vivo knockdown of ASncmtRNAs results in drastic inhibition of tumor growth in a xenograft model of MDA-MB-231 subcutaneous tumors, further supporting this approach for the development of new therapeutic strategies against breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Fitzpatrick
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida/Andes Biotechnologies SpA, 7780272, Santiago, Chile.,Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andrés Bello, 8370134, Santiago, Chile
| | - Maximiliano F Bendek
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida/Andes Biotechnologies SpA, 7780272, Santiago, Chile.,Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andrés Bello, 8370134, Santiago, Chile
| | - Macarena Briones
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida/Andes Biotechnologies SpA, 7780272, Santiago, Chile
| | - Nicole Farfán
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida/Andes Biotechnologies SpA, 7780272, Santiago, Chile.,Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andrés Bello, 8370134, Santiago, Chile
| | - Valeria A Silva
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida/Andes Biotechnologies SpA, 7780272, Santiago, Chile.,Valparaíso Interdisciplinary Neuroscience Center, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, 2360102, Chile
| | - Gino Nardocci
- Center for Biomedical Research and FONDAP Center for Genome Regulation, Faculty of Life Sciences and Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Andrés Bello, 8370134, Santiago, Chile
| | - Martín Montecino
- Center for Biomedical Research and FONDAP Center for Genome Regulation, Faculty of Life Sciences and Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Andrés Bello, 8370134, Santiago, Chile
| | - Anne Boland
- Centre National de Recherche en Génomique Humaine (CNRGH), Institut de Biologie François Jacob, CEA, Evry, France
| | - Jean-François Deleuze
- Centre National de Recherche en Génomique Humaine (CNRGH), Institut de Biologie François Jacob, CEA, Evry, France
| | - Jaime Villegas
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida/Andes Biotechnologies SpA, 7780272, Santiago, Chile.,Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andrés Bello, 8370134, Santiago, Chile.,Andes Biotechnologies Global Inc., Burlingame, CA, USA.,Center for Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Claudio Villota
- School of Nutrition and Diet, Faculty of Health, Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins, Santiago, Chile
| | - Verónica Silva
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida/Andes Biotechnologies SpA, 7780272, Santiago, Chile
| | - Lorena Lobos-Gonzalez
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida/Andes Biotechnologies SpA, 7780272, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Clínica Alemana & Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile
| | - Vincenzo Borgna
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida/Andes Biotechnologies SpA, 7780272, Santiago, Chile.,Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Eric Barrey
- INRA, Génétique Animale et Biologie Intégrative UMR1313, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Luis O Burzio
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida/Andes Biotechnologies SpA, 7780272, Santiago, Chile.,Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andrés Bello, 8370134, Santiago, Chile.,Andes Biotechnologies Global Inc., Burlingame, CA, USA
| | - Verónica A Burzio
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida/Andes Biotechnologies SpA, 7780272, Santiago, Chile. .,Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andrés Bello, 8370134, Santiago, Chile. .,Andes Biotechnologies Global Inc., Burlingame, CA, USA.
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Borgna V, Villegas J, Burzio VA, Belmar S, Araya M, Jeldes E, Lobos-González L, Silva V, Villota C, Oliveira-Cruz L, Lopez C, Socias T, Castillo O, Burzio LO. Mitochondrial ASncmtRNA-1 and ASncmtRNA-2 as potent targets to inhibit tumor growth and metastasis in the RenCa murine renal adenocarcinoma model. Oncotarget 2018; 8:43692-43708. [PMID: 28620146 PMCID: PMC5546434 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.18460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 05/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Knockdown of antisense noncoding mitochondrial RNAs (ASncmtRNAs) induces apoptosis in several human and mouse tumor cell lines, but not normal cells, suggesting this approach for a selective therapy against different types of cancer. Here we show that in vitro knockdown of murine ASncmtRNAs induces apoptotic death of mouse renal adenocarcinoma RenCa cells, but not normal murine kidney epithelial cells. In a syngeneic subcutaneous RenCa model, treatment delayed and even reversed tumor growth. Since the subcutaneous model does not reflect the natural microenviroment of renal cancer, we used an orthotopic model of RenCa cells inoculated under the renal capsule. These studies showed inhibition of tumor growth and metastasis. Direct metastasis assessment by tail vein injection of RenCa cells also showed a drastic reduction in lung metastatic nodules. In vivo treatment reduces survivin, N-cadherin and P-cadherin levels, providing a molecular basis for metastasis inhibition. In consequence, the treatment significantly enhanced mouse survival in these models. Our results suggest that the ASncmtRNAs could be potent and selective targets for therapy against human renal cell carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Borgna
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile.,Servicio de Urología, Hospital Barros Luco-Trudeau, Universidad de Santiago, Santiago, Chile
| | - Jaime Villegas
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Verónica A Burzio
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Mariela Araya
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile
| | - Emanuel Jeldes
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Lorena Lobos-González
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile
| | - Verónica Silva
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile
| | - Claudio Villota
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Salud, Universidad Bernardo O Higgins, Santiago, Chile
| | - Luciana Oliveira-Cruz
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile
| | - Constanza Lopez
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile
| | - Teresa Socias
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile
| | - Octavio Castillo
- Facultad de Salud, Universidad Bernardo O Higgins, Santiago, Chile.,Centro de Cirugía Robótica, Clínica Indisa, Santa María, Santiago, Chile
| | - Luis O Burzio
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
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Lobos-González L, Silva V, Araya M, Restovic F, Echenique J, Oliveira-Cruz L, Fitzpatrick C, Briones M, Villegas J, Villota C, Vidaurre S, Borgna V, Socias M, Valenzuela S, Lopez C, Socias T, Varas M, Díaz J, Burzio LO, Burzio VA. Targeting antisense mitochondrial ncRNAs inhibits murine melanoma tumor growth and metastasis through reduction in survival and invasion factors. Oncotarget 2018; 7:58331-58350. [PMID: 27507060 PMCID: PMC5295434 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.11110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
We reported that knockdown of the antisense noncoding mitochondrial RNAs (ASncmtRNAs) induces apoptotic death of several human tumor cell lines, but not normal cells, suggesting this approach for selective therapy against different types of cancer. In order to translate these results to a preclinical scenario, we characterized the murine noncoding mitochondrial RNAs (ncmtRNAs) and performed in vivo knockdown in syngeneic murine melanoma models. Mouse ncmtRNAs display structures similar to the human counterparts, including long double-stranded regions arising from the presence of inverted repeats. Knockdown of ASncmtRNAs with specific antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) reduces murine melanoma B16F10 cell proliferation and induces apoptosis in vitro through downregulation of pro-survival and metastasis markers, particularly survivin. For in vivo studies, subcutaneous B16F10 melanoma tumors in C57BL/6 mice were treated systemically with specific and control antisense oligonucleotides (ASO). For metastasis studies, tumors were resected, followed by systemic administration of ASOs and the presence of metastatic nodules in lungs and liver was assessed. Treatment with specific ASO inhibited tumor growth and metastasis after primary tumor resection. In a metastasis-only assay, mice inoculated intravenously with cells and treated with the same ASO displayed reduced number and size of melanoma nodules in the lungs, compared to controls. Our results suggest that ASncmtRNAs could be potent targets for melanoma therapy. To our knowledge, the ASncmtRNAs are the first potential non-nuclear targets for melanoma therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Lobos-González
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Independencia, Santiago, Chile
| | - Verónica Silva
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile
| | - Mariela Araya
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile
| | - Franko Restovic
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile.,Present address: Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Javiera Echenique
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile
| | - Luciana Oliveira-Cruz
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile
| | - Christopher Fitzpatrick
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Andrés Bello, República, Santiago, Chile
| | - Macarena Briones
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile
| | - Jaime Villegas
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Andrés Bello, República, Santiago, Chile
| | - Claudio Villota
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Andrés Bello, República, Santiago, Chile
| | - Soledad Vidaurre
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Salud, Deporte y Recreación, Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins, Santiago, Chile
| | - Vincenzo Borgna
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile.,Servicio de Urología, Hospital Barros-Lucco-Trudeau, Santiago, Chile
| | | | | | - Constanza Lopez
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile
| | - Teresa Socias
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Jorge Díaz
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Independencia, Santiago, Chile
| | - Luis O Burzio
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Andrés Bello, República, Santiago, Chile
| | - Verónica A Burzio
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA, Santiago, Chile.,Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Andrés Bello, República, Santiago, Chile
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Varas-Godoy M, Lladser A, Farfan N, Villota C, Villegas J, Tapia JC, Burzio LO, Burzio VA, Valenzuela PDT. In vivo knockdown of antisense non-coding mitochondrial RNAs by a lentiviral-encoded shRNA inhibits melanoma tumor growth and lung colonization. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2017; 31:64-72. [DOI: 10.1111/pcmr.12615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 07/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Varas-Godoy
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida; Santiago Chile
- Center for Biomedical Research; Faculty of Medicine; Universidad de los Andes; Santiago Chile
| | | | - Nicole Farfan
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida; Santiago Chile
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA; Santiago Chile
- Department of Biological Sciences; Universidad Andrés Bello; Santiago Chile
| | - Claudio Villota
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida; Santiago Chile
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA; Santiago Chile
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences; Faculty of Health; Universidad Bernardo O Higgins; Santiago Chile
| | - Jaime Villegas
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida; Santiago Chile
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA; Santiago Chile
- Department of Biological Sciences; Universidad Andrés Bello; Santiago Chile
| | - Julio C. Tapia
- Cell Transformation Laboratory; Department of Basic and Clinical Oncology; Faculty of Medicine; Universidad de Chile; Santiago Chile
| | - Luis O. Burzio
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida; Santiago Chile
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA; Santiago Chile
- Department of Biological Sciences; Universidad Andrés Bello; Santiago Chile
| | - Veronica A. Burzio
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida; Santiago Chile
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA; Santiago Chile
- Department of Biological Sciences; Universidad Andrés Bello; Santiago Chile
| | - Pablo D. T. Valenzuela
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida; Santiago Chile
- Andes Biotechnologies SpA; Santiago Chile
- Department of Biological Sciences; Universidad Andrés Bello; Santiago Chile
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Villota C, Roa O, Díaz M, Gutiérrez J, Fernández-Avila D. AB1114 Prevalence of HLA-B27 in a Cohort of Transplant of a University Hospital in Colombia:. Ann Rheum Dis 2015. [DOI: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2015-eular.6173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Vidaurre S, Fitzpatrick C, Burzio VA, Briones M, Villota C, Villegas J, Echenique J, Oliveira-Cruz L, Araya M, Borgna V, Socías T, Lopez C, Avila R, Burzio LO. Down-regulation of the antisense mitochondrial non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) is a unique vulnerability of cancer cells and a potential target for cancer therapy. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:27182-27198. [PMID: 25100722 PMCID: PMC4175353 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.558841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Hallmarks of cancer are fundamental principles involved in cancer progression. We propose an additional generalized hallmark of malignant transformation corresponding to the differential expression of a family of mitochondrial ncRNAs (ncmtRNAs) that comprises sense and antisense members, all of which contain stem-loop structures. Normal proliferating cells express sense (SncmtRNA) and antisense (ASncmtRNA) transcripts. In contrast, the ASncmtRNAs are down-regulated in tumor cells regardless of tissue of origin. Here we show that knockdown of the low copy number of the ASncmtRNAs in several tumor cell lines induces cell death by apoptosis without affecting the viability of normal cells. In addition, knockdown of ASncmtRNAs potentiates apoptotic cell death by inhibiting survivin expression, a member of the inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) family. Down-regulation of survivin is at the translational level and is probably mediated by microRNAs generated by dicing of the double-stranded stem of the ASncmtRNAs, as suggested by evidence presented here, in which the ASncmtRNAs are bound to Dicer and knockdown of the ASncmtRNAs reduces reporter luciferase activity in a vector carrying the 3′-UTR of survivin mRNA. Taken together, down-regulation of the ASncmtRNAs constitutes a vulnerability or Achilles' heel of cancer cells, suggesting that the ASncmtRNAs are promising targets for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soledad Vidaurre
- Andes Biotechnologies SA and Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile; Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Biológicas, Universidad Bernardo ÓHiggins, General Gana 1702, Santiago, Chile
| | - Christopher Fitzpatrick
- Andes Biotechnologies SA and Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile; Fundación Ciencia para la Vida, Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile,; Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas and Universidad Andrés Bello, República 252, Santiago 8370134, Chile
| | - Verónica A Burzio
- Andes Biotechnologies SA and Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile; Fundación Ciencia para la Vida, Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile,; Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas and Universidad Andrés Bello, República 252, Santiago 8370134, Chile.
| | - Macarena Briones
- Andes Biotechnologies SA and Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile; Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas and Universidad Andrés Bello, República 252, Santiago 8370134, Chile
| | - Claudio Villota
- Andes Biotechnologies SA and Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile; Fundación Ciencia para la Vida, Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile,; Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas and Universidad Andrés Bello, República 252, Santiago 8370134, Chile
| | - Jaime Villegas
- Andes Biotechnologies SA and Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile; Fundación Ciencia para la Vida, Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile,; Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas and Universidad Andrés Bello, República 252, Santiago 8370134, Chile
| | - Javiera Echenique
- Andes Biotechnologies SA and Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile
| | - Luciana Oliveira-Cruz
- Andes Biotechnologies SA and Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile; Fundación Ciencia para la Vida, Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile
| | - Mariela Araya
- Andes Biotechnologies SA and Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile
| | - Vincenzo Borgna
- Andes Biotechnologies SA and Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile; Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Andrés Bello, República 252, Santiago 8370134, Chile, and
| | - Teresa Socías
- Andes Biotechnologies SA and Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile
| | - Constanza Lopez
- Andes Biotechnologies SA and Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile
| | - Rodolfo Avila
- Andes Biotechnologies SA and Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile
| | - Luis O Burzio
- Andes Biotechnologies SA and Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile; Fundación Ciencia para la Vida, Zañartu 1482, Ñuñoa, Santiago 7780272, Chile,; Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas and Universidad Andrés Bello, República 252, Santiago 8370134, Chile.
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Rivas A, Burzio V, Landerer E, Borgna V, Gatica S, Ávila R, López C, Villota C, de la Fuente R, Echenique J, Burzio LO, Villegas J. Determination of the differential expression of mitochondrial long non-coding RNAs as a noninvasive diagnosis of bladder cancer. BMC Urol 2012; 12:37. [PMID: 23249382 PMCID: PMC3541257 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2490-12-37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2012] [Accepted: 12/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Bladder cancer is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality with a high recurrence rate. Early detection of bladder cancer is essential in order to remove the tumor, to preserve the organ and to avoid metastasis. The aim of this study was to analyze the differential expression of mitochondrial non-coding RNAs (sense and antisense) in cells isolated from voided urine of patients with bladder cancer as a noninvasive diagnostic assay. Methods The differential expression of the sense (SncmtRNA) and the antisense (ASncmtRNAs) transcripts in cells isolated from voided urine was determined by fluorescent in situ hybridization. The test uses a multiprobe mixture labeled with different fluorophores and takes about 1 hour to complete. We examined the expression of these transcripts in cells isolated from urine of 24 patients with bladder cancer and from 15 healthy donors. Results This study indicates that the SncmtRNA and the ASncmtRNAs are stable in cells present in urine. The test reveals that the expression pattern of the mitochondrial transcripts can discriminate between normal and tumor cells. The analysis of 24 urine samples from patients with bladder cancer revealed expression of the SncmtRNA and down-regulation of the ASncmtRNAs. Exfoliated cells recovered from the urine of healthy donors do not express these mitochondrial transcripts. This is the first report showing that the differential expression of these mitochondrial transcripts can detect tumor cells in the urine of patients with low and high grade bladder cancer. Conclusion This pilot study indicates that fluorescent in situ hybridization of cells from urine of patients with different grades of bladder cancer confirmed the tumor origin of these cells. Samples from the 24 patients with bladder cancer contain cells that express the SncmtRNA and down-regulate the ASncmtRNAs. In contrast, the hybridization of the few exfoliated cells recovered from healthy donors revealed no expression of these mitochondrial transcripts. This assay can be explored as a non-invasive diagnostic tool for bladder cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis Rivas
- Andes Biotechnologies S.A. and Fundación Ciencia para la Vida, 7780272 Santiago, Chile
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Villota C, Campos A, Vidaurre S, Oliveira-Cruz L, Boccardo E, Burzio VA, Varas M, Villegas J, Villa LL, Valenzuela PDT, Socías M, Roberts S, Burzio LO. Expression of mitochondrial non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) is modulated by high risk human papillomavirus (HPV) oncogenes. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:21303-15. [PMID: 22539350 PMCID: PMC3375551 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.326694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of RNA and DNA oncogenic viruses has proved invaluable in the discovery of key cellular pathways that are rendered dysfunctional during cancer progression. An example is high risk human papillomavirus (HPV), the etiological agent of cervical cancer. The role of HPV oncogenes in cellular immortalization and transformation has been extensively investigated. We reported the differential expression of a family of human mitochondrial non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) between normal and cancer cells. Normal cells express a sense mitochondrial ncRNA (SncmtRNA) that seems to be required for cell proliferation and two antisense transcripts (ASncmtRNAs). In contrast, the ASncmtRNAs are down-regulated in cancer cells. To shed some light on the mechanisms that trigger down-regulation of the ASncmtRNAs, we studied human keratinocytes (HFK) immortalized with HPV. Here we show that immortalization of HFK with HPV-16 or 18 causes down-regulation of the ASncmtRNAs and induces the expression of a new sense transcript named SncmtRNA-2. Transduction of HFK with both E6 and E7 is sufficient to induce expression of SncmtRNA-2. Moreover, E2 oncogene is involved in down-regulation of the ASncmtRNAs. Knockdown of E2 in immortalized cells reestablishes in a reversible manner the expression of the ASncmtRNAs, suggesting that endogenous cellular factors(s) could play functions analogous to E2 during non-HPV-induced oncogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Villota
- Andes Biotechnologies SA, Fundación Ciencia para la Vida, Zanartu 1482 7782272, Chile.
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Landerer E, Villegas J, Burzio VA, Oliveira L, Villota C, Lopez C, Restovic F, Martinez R, Castillo O, Burzio LO. Nuclear localization of the mitochondrial ncRNAs in normal and cancer cells. Cell Oncol (Dordr) 2011; 34:297-305. [PMID: 21347712 DOI: 10.1007/s13402-011-0018-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We have previously shown a differential expression of a family of mitochondrial ncRNAs in normal and cancer cells. Normal proliferating cells and cancer cells express the sense mitochondrial ncRNA (SncmtRNA). In addition, while normal proliferating cells express two antisense mitochondrial ncRNAs (ASncmtRNAs-1 and -2), these transcripts seem to be universally down-regulated in cancer cells. In situ hybridization (ISH) of some normal and cancer tissues reveals nuclear localization of these transcripts suggesting that they are exported from mitochondria. METHODS FISH and confocal microscopy, in situ digestion with RNase previous to ISH and electron microscopy ISH was employed to confirm the extra-mitochondrial localization of the SncmtRNA and the ASncmtRNAs in normal proliferating and cancer cells of human and mouse. RESULTS In normal human kidney and mouse testis the SncmtRNA and the ASncmtRNAs were found outside the organelle and especially localized in the nucleus associated to heterochromatin. In cancer cells, only the SncmtRNA was expressed and was found associated to heterochromatin and nucleoli. CONCLUSION The ubiquitous localization of these mitochondrial transcripts in the nucleus suggests that they are new players in the mitochondrial-nuclear communication pathway or retrograde signaling. Down regulation of the ASncmtRNAs seems to be an important step on neoplastic transformation and cancer progression.
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Villegas J, Burzio V, Villota C, Landerer E, Martinez R, Santander M, Martinez R, Pinto R, Vera MI, Boccardo E, Villa LL, Burzio LO. Expression of a novel non-coding mitochondrial RNA in human proliferating cells. Nucleic Acids Res 2007; 35:7336-47. [PMID: 17962305 PMCID: PMC2175360 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkm863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Previously, we reported the presence in mouse cells of a mitochondrial RNA which contains an inverted repeat (IR) of 121 nucleotides (nt) covalently linked to the 5′ end of the mitochondrial 16S RNA (16S mtrRNA). Here, we report the structure of an equivalent transcript of 2374 nt which is over-expressed in human proliferating cells but not in resting cells. The transcript contains a hairpin structure comprising an IR of 815 nt linked to the 5′ end of the 16S mtrRNA and forming a long double-stranded structure or stem and a loop of 40 nt. The stem is resistant to RNase A and can be detected and isolated after digestion with the enzyme. This novel transcript is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) and several evidences suggest that the transcript is synthesized in mitochondria. The expression of this transcript can be induced in resting lymphocytes stimulated with phytohaemagglutinin (PHA). Moreover, aphidicolin treatment of DU145 cells reversibly blocks proliferation and expression of the transcript. If the drug is removed, the cells re-assume proliferation and over-express the ncmtRNA. These results suggest that the expression of the ncmtRNA correlates with the replicative state of the cell and it may play a role in cell proliferation.
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Ramirez E, Fernandez J, Cartier L, Villota C, Rios M. Defective human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I) provirus in seronegative tropical spastic paraparesis/HTLV-I-associated myelopathy (TSP/HAM) patients. Virus Res 2003; 91:231-9. [PMID: 12573502 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-1702(02)00276-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Infection with human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I) have been associated with the development of the tropical spastic paraparesis/HTLV-I-associated myelopathy (TSP/HAM). We studied the presence of HTLV-I provirus in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from 72 Chilean patients with progressive spastic paraparesis by polymerase chain reaction: 32 seropositive and 40 seronegative cases. We amplified different genomic regions of HTLV-I using primers of 5' ltr, tax, env/tax, pX, pol and env genes. These genes were detected from all seropositive patients. The seronegative patients were negative with 5' ltr, pol, env, and pX primers. However, amplified product of tax and env/tax genes was detected from 16 and four seronegative patients, respectively. Three of them were positive with both genetic regions. The results of this study show that the complete HTLV-I provirus is found in 100% of seropositive cases. In seronegative cases, clinically very similar of seropositive cases, was found only tax gene in 42.5% (17/40) of patients. These results suggest the presence of a defective HTLV-I provirus in some seronegative patients with progressive spastic paraparesis, and suggest a pathogenic role of this truncate provirus for a group of TSP/HAM.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Ramirez
- Section of Virology, Public Health Institute of Chile, Avenida Marathon 1000, Santiago, Chile.
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Abstract
Infection with Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus type I (HTLV-I) have been associated with the development of the HTLV-I associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). Phylogenetic analyses of HTLV-I isolates have revealed that HTLV-I can be classified into three major groups: the Cosmopolitan, Central African and Melanesian. In the present study, we analyzed the tax, 5' ltr, gag, pol, and env sequences of proviruses of PBMC from ten HAM/TSP patients to investigate the phylogenetic characterization of HTLV-I in Chilean patients. HTLV-I provirus in PBMC from ten Chilean patients with HAM/TSP were amplified by PCR using primers of tax, 5' ltr, gag, pol, and env genes. Amplified products of the five genes were purified and nucleotide sequence was determined by the dideoxy termination procedure. DNA sequences were aligned with the CLUSTAL W program. The results of this study showed that the tax, 5' ltr, gag, pol, and env gene of the Chilean HTLV-I strains had a nucleotide homology ranged from 98.1 to 100%, 95 to 97%, 98.9 to 100%, 94 to 98%, and 94.2 to 98.5% respect to ATK-1 clone, respectively. According to molecular phylogeny with 5' ltr gene, the Chilean HTLV-I strains were grouped with each other suggesting one cluster included in Transcontinental subgroup.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Aged
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Base Sequence
- Chile
- DNA, Viral
- Female
- Gene Products, tax/genetics
- Genes, env
- Genes, gag
- Genes, pol
- Human T-lymphotropic virus 1/classification
- Human T-lymphotropic virus 1/genetics
- Humans
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/virology
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Paraparesis, Tropical Spastic/blood
- Paraparesis, Tropical Spastic/virology
- Phylogeny
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Sequence Homology, Nucleic Acid
- Terminal Repeat Sequences
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Affiliation(s)
- E Ramirez
- Department of Virology, Public Health Institute of Chile, Av. Marathon 1000, Santiago, Chile.
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