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Whitman JD, Hiatt J, Mowery CT, Shy BR, Yu R, Yamamoto TN, Rathore U, Goldgof GM, Whitty C, Woo JM, Gallman AE, Miller TE, Levine AG, Nguyen DN, Bapat SP, Balcerek J, Bylsma SA, Lyons AM, Li S, Wong AWY, Gillis-Buck EM, Steinhart ZB, Lee Y, Apathy R, Lipke MJ, Smith JA, Zheng T, Boothby IC, Isaza E, Chan J, Acenas DD, Lee J, Macrae TA, Kyaw TS, Wu D, Ng DL, Gu W, York VA, Eskandarian HA, Callaway PC, Warrier L, Moreno ME, Levan J, Torres L, Farrington LA, Loudermilk RP, Koshal K, Zorn KC, Garcia-Beltran WF, Yang D, Astudillo MG, Bernstein BE, Gelfand JA, Ryan ET, Charles RC, Iafrate AJ, Lennerz JK, Miller S, Chiu CY, Stramer SL, Wilson MR, Manglik A, Ye CJ, Krogan NJ, Anderson MS, Cyster JG, Ernst JD, Wu AHB, Lynch KL, Bern C, Hsu PD, Marson A. Evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 serology assays reveals a range of test performance. Nat Biotechnol 2020;38:1174-1183. [PMID: 32855547 PMCID: PMC7740072 DOI: 10.1038/s41587-020-0659-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]

Affiliation(s)

Jeffrey D Whitman Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Joseph Hiatt Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, USA Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Cody T Mowery Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Brian R Shy Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Ruby Yu Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Tori N Yamamoto Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Ujjwal Rathore J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, USA Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Gregory M Goldgof Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Caroline Whitty Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Jonathan M Woo Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Antonia E Gallman Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, USA
Tyler E Miller Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Andrew G Levine Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
David N Nguyen Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Sagar P Bapat Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Joanna Balcerek Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Sophia A Bylsma Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
Ana M Lyons Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
Stacy Li Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
Allison Wai-Yi Wong Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Eva Mae Gillis-Buck Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Zachary B Steinhart Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Youjin Lee Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Ryan Apathy Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Mitchell J Lipke Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Jennifer Anne Smith Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Tina Zheng Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Ian C Boothby Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Erin Isaza Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Program in Quantitative Biology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Jackie Chan Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Dante D Acenas Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Jinwoo Lee Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Trisha A Macrae Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Than S Kyaw Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
David Wu Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Dianna L Ng Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Wei Gu Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Vanessa A York Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Haig Alexander Eskandarian Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Perri C Callaway Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Infectious Diseases and Immunity Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
Lakshmi Warrier Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Mary E Moreno Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Justine Levan Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Leonel Torres Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Lila A Farrington Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Rita P Loudermilk Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Kanishka Koshal Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Kelsey C Zorn Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Wilfredo F Garcia-Beltran Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Diane Yang Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Michael G Astudillo Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Bradley E Bernstein Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Jeffrey A Gelfand Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Edward T Ryan Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Richelle C Charles Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
A John Iafrate Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Jochen K Lennerz Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Steve Miller Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Charles Y Chiu Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA UCSF-Abbott Viral Diagnostics and Discovery Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
Susan L Stramer Scientific Affairs, American Red Cross, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
Michael R Wilson Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Aashish Manglik Department of Anesthesia and Perioperative Care, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Chun Jimmie Ye Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, San Francisco, CA, USA Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Institute of Computational Health Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Nevan J Krogan J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, USA Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Quantitative Biosciences Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Mark S Anderson Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Jason G Cyster Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, USA
Joel D Ernst Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Alan H B Wu Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Kara L Lynch Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Caryn Bern Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
Patrick D Hsu Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA. Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA. Center for Computational Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
Alexander Marson J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, USA. Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA. Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, San Francisco, CA, USA. Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA. Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.

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Whitman JD, Hiatt J, Mowery CT, Shy BR, Yu R, Yamamoto TN, Rathore U, Goldgof GM, Whitty C, Woo JM, Gallman AE, Miller TE, Levine AG, Nguyen DN, Bapat SP, Balcerek J, Bylsma SA, Lyons AM, Li S, Wong AWY, Gillis-Buck EM, Steinhart ZB, Lee Y, Apathy R, Lipke MJ, Smith JA, Zheng T, Boothby IC, Isaza E, Chan J, Acenas DD, Lee J, Macrae TA, Kyaw TS, Wu D, Ng DL, Gu W, York VA, Eskandarian HA, Callaway PC, Warrier L, Moreno ME, Levan J, Torres L, Farrington LA, Loudermilk R, Koshal K, Zorn KC, Garcia-Beltran WF, Yang D, Astudillo MG, Bernstein BE, Gelfand JA, Ryan ET, Charles RC, Iafrate AJ, Lennerz JK, Miller S, Chiu CY, Stramer SL, Wilson MR, Manglik A, Ye CJ, Krogan NJ, Anderson MS, Cyster JG, Ernst JD, Wu AHB, Lynch KL, Bern C, Hsu PD, Marson A. Test performance evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 serological assays. medRxiv 2020. [PMID: 32511497 PMCID: PMC7273265 DOI: 10.1101/2020.04.25.20074856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]

Abstract

Background:

Serological tests are crucial tools for assessments of SARS-CoV-2 exposure, infection and potential immunity. Their appropriate use and interpretation require accurate assay performance data.

Method:

We conducted an evaluation of 10 lateral flow assays (LFAs) and two ELISAs to detect anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. The specimen set comprised 128 plasma or serum samples from 79 symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR-positive individuals; 108 pre-COVID-19 negative controls; and 52 recent samples from individuals who underwent respiratory viral testing but were not diagnosed with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Samples were blinded and LFA results were interpreted by two independent readers, using a standardized intensity scoring system.

Results:

Among specimens from SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR-positive individuals, the percent seropositive increased with time interval, peaking at 81.8–100.0% in samples taken >20 days after symptom onset. Test specificity ranged from 84.3–100.0% in pre-COVID-19 specimens. Specificity was higher when weak LFA bands were considered negative, but this decreased sensitivity. IgM detection was more variable than IgG, and detection was highest when IgM and IgG results were combined. Agreement between ELISAs and LFAs ranged from 75.7–94.8%. No consistent cross-reactivity was observed.

Conclusion:

Our evaluation showed heterogeneous assay performance. Reader training is key to reliable LFA performance, and can be tailored for survey goals. Informed use of serology will require evaluations covering the full spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 infections, from asymptomatic and mild infection to severe disease, and later convalescence. Well-designed studies to elucidate the mechanisms and serological correlates of protective immunity will be crucial to guide rational clinical and public health policies.

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Affiliation(s)

Jeffrey D Whitman Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Joseph Hiatt Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.,Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Cody T Mowery Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.,Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Brian R Shy Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Ruby Yu Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Tori N Yamamoto Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.,Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Ujjwal Rathore J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.,Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Gregory M Goldgof Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Caroline Whitty Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Jonathan M Woo Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.,Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Antonia E Gallman Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco
Tyler E Miller Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Andrew G Levine Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
David N Nguyen Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.,Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Sagar P Bapat Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Joanna Balcerek Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Sophia A Bylsma Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley CA 94720 USA
Ana M Lyons Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley CA 94720 USA
Stacy Li Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley CA 94720 USA
Allison Wai-Yi Wong Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Eva Mae Gillis-Buck Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Zachary B Steinhart Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Youjin Lee Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Ryan Apathy Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.,Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Mitchell J Lipke Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Jennifer Anne Smith Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Tina Zheng Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.,Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
Ian C Boothby Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
Erin Isaza Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Program in Quantitative Biology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
Jackie Chan Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Dante D Acenas Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Jinwoo Lee Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
Trisha A Macrae Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
Than S Kyaw Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
David Wu Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Dianna L Ng Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.,Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
Wei Gu Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Vanessa A York Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco CA, USA
Haig Alexander Eskandarian Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco CA, USA
Perri C Callaway Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco CA, USA.,Infectious Diseases and Immunity Graduate Group, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
Lakshmi Warrier Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco CA, USA
Mary E Moreno Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco CA, USA
Justine Levan Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco CA, USA
Leonel Torres Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco CA, USA
Lila A Farrington Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco CA, USA
Rita Loudermilk Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
Kanishka Koshal Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
Kelsey C Zorn Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
Wilfredo F Garcia-Beltran Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Diane Yang Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Michael G Astudillo Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Bradley E Bernstein Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Jeffrey A Gelfand Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Edward T Ryan Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Richelle C Charles Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
A John Iafrate Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Jochen K Lennerz Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Steve Miller Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Charles Y Chiu Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,UCSF-Abbott Viral Diagnostics and Discovery Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
Susan L Stramer Scientific Affairs, American Red Cross, Gaithersburg, MD
Michael R Wilson Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
Aashish Manglik Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
Chun Jimmie Ye Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Institute of Computational Health Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Nevan J Krogan J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.,Quantitative Biosciences Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
Mark S Anderson Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Jason G Cyster Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco
Joel D Ernst Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco CA, USA
Alan H B Wu Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Kara L Lynch Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Caryn Bern Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Patrick D Hsu Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.,Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley CA 94720 USA
Alexander Marson J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.,Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.,Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA

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