Evaluating human T cell receptor gene expression by PCR

This unit describes the use of PCR to characterize and quantify rearranged transcripts from specific T cell receptor variable gene families in human tissue and peripheral blood lymphocytes. The strategy outlined in this unit has been extensively used on different sources of human tissue including brain, spinal cord, and skeletal muscle. A protocol is provided to clone and sequence PCR-amplified cDNA transcripts to study the junctional diversity of the expressed genes. A support protocol describes a method for reverse transcribing total RNA to make the cDNA required by the other protocols.

T cell receptor BV gene rearrangements in the spinal cords and cerebrospinal fluid of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal disorder whose etiology and pathogenesis remain unknown. Recent studies, however, have demonstrated the presence of inflammatory infiltrates within ALS spinal cord and suggested the possibility of an immune-mediated process in motor neuron degeneration. We have analyzed the diversity of T-cells in the spinal cord in ALS. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) with variable (V) region sequence specific oligonucleotide primers was used to amplify T-cell receptor (TCR)BV transcripts from spinal cords obtained at autopsy from patients with ALS, patients who died without inflammatory disease of the central nervous system, brains from patients with ALS, and brains from patients who died with inflammatory CNS disease. Sequencing was then performed on the amplified transcripts. An overall increase in the level of TCRBV 2 transcripts was detected in ALS specimens when compared to controls. This result was independent of the HLA genotype of the individual. Furthermore, enrichment of TCRBV2-positive T cells could be demonstrated in cerebrospinal fluid derived from patients with ALS, using PCR analysis and a T cell stimulation assay with toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (TSST-1), a Vbeta2-specific superantigen. Our results suggest that an immunological process involving the specific expansion of Vbeta2 TCR-positive T-cells may be important in the pathogenesis of ALS.

Dystrophin expression in the mdx mouse restored by stem cell transplantation

The development of cell or gene therapies for diseases involving cells that are widely distributed throughout the body has been severely hampered by the inability to achieve the disseminated delivery of cells or genes to the affected tissues or organ. Here we report the results of bone marrow transplantation studies in the mdx mouse, an animal model of Duchenne's muscular dystrophy, which indicate that the intravenous injection of either normal haematopoietic stem cells or a novel population of muscle-derived stem cells into irradiated animals results in the reconstitution of the haematopoietic compartment of the transplanted recipients, the incorporation of donor-derived nuclei into muscle, and the partial restoration of dystrophin expression in the affected muscle. These results suggest that the transplantation of different stem cell populations, using the procedures of bone marrow transplantation, might provide an unanticipated avenue for treating muscular dystrophy as well as other diseases where the systemic delivery of therapeutic cells to sites throughout the body is critical. Our studies also suggest that the inherent developmental potential of stem cells isolated from diverse tissues or organs may be more similar than previously anticipated.

The fate of individual myoblasts after transplantation into muscles of DMD patients

Muscle biopsies from six patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) participating in a myoblast transplantation clinical trial were reexamined using a fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH)-based method. Donor nuclei were detected in all biopsies analyzed, including nine where no donor myoblasts were previously thought to be present. In three patients, more than 10% of the original number of donor cells were calculated as present 6 months after implantation. Half of the detected donor nuclei were fused into host myofibers, and of these, nearly 50% produced dystrophin. These findings demonstrate that although donor myoblasts have persisted after injection, their microenvironment influences whether they fuse and express dystrophin. Our methodology could be used for developing new approaches to improve myoblast transfer efficacy and for the analysis of future gene- and/or cell-based therapies of numerous genetic disorders.

Myoblast implantation in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: the San Francisco study

We evaluated myoblast implantation in 10 boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and absent dystrophin (age 5-10 years) who were implanted with 100 million myoblasts in the anterior tibial muscle of one leg and placebo in the other. Cyclosporine (5 mg/kg/day) was administered for 7 months. Pre- and postimplantation (after 1 and 6 months) muscle biopsies were analyzed. Force generation (tetanic tension and maximum voluntary contraction) was measured monthly in a double-blind design. There was increased force generation in both legs of all boys, probably due to cyclosporine. Using the polymerase chain reaction, evidence of myoblast survival and dystrophin mRNA expression was obtained in 3 patients after 1 month and in 1 patient after 6 months. These studies suggest a salutary effect of cyclosporine upon muscular force generation in Duchenne muscular dystrophy; however, myoblast implantation was not effective in replacing clinically significant amounts of dystrophin in DMD muscle.

A method to codetect introduced genes and their products in gene therapy protocols

To monitor the presence of introduced genes and the distribution of the encoded proteins in host tissues after gene transfer, we combined fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and immunohistochemistry in two separate gene therapy paradigms. In brain tissue sections from animals injected with pHSVlac vector, we localized nuclei containing vector DNA both in cells expressing and not expressing beta-galactosidase (beta-gal). This suggests that the efficiency of gene transfer is affected not only by gene delivery, but also by cellular controls on gene expression. In a second paradigm, following myoblast transplantation, we detected donor nuclei in the muscle of a patient with Duchenne's muscular dystrophy. The donor nuclei were either surrounded by host nuclei or apparently fused in the patient's muscle fiber producing dystrophin. The combined FISH and immunohistochemistry assay offers greater sensitivity and more information than currently used polymerase chain reaction and protein detection methods.

The three human syntrophin genes are expressed in diverse tissues, have distinct chromosomal locations, and each bind to dystrophin and its relatives

The syntrophins are a biochemically heterogeneous group of 58-kDa intracellular membrane-associated dystrophin-binding proteins. We have cloned and characterized human acidic (alpha 1-) syntrophin and a second isoform of human basic (beta 2-) syntrophin. Comparison of the deduced amino acid structure of the three human isoforms of syntrophin (together with the previously reported human beta 1-syntrophin) demonstrates their overall similarity. The deduced amino acid sequences of human alpha 1- and beta 2-syntrophin are nearly identical to their homologues in mouse, suggesting a strong functional conservation among the individual isoforms, Much like beta 1-syntrophin, human beta 2-syntrophin has multiple transcript classes and is expressed widely, although in a distinct pattern of relative abundance. In contrast, human alpha 1-syntrophin is most abundant in heart and skeletal muscle, and less so in other tissues. Somatic cell hybrids and fluorescent in situ hybridization were both used to determine their chromosomal locations: beta 2-syntrophin to chromosome 16q22-23 and alpha 1-syntrophin to chromosome 20q11.2. Finally, we used in vitro translated proteins in an immunoprecipitation assay to show that, like beta 1-syntrophin, both beta 2- and alpha 1-syntrophin interact with peptides encoding the syntrophin-binding region of dystrophin, utrophin/dystrophin related protein, and the Torpedo 87K protein.

Mutations in the dystrophin-associated protein gamma-sarcoglycan in chromosome 13 muscular dystrophy

Severe childhood autosomal recessive muscular dystrophy (SCARMD) is a progressive muscle-wasting disorder common in North Africa that segregates with microsatellite markers at chromosome 13q12. Here, it is shown that a mutation in the gene encoding the 35-kilodalton dystrophin-associated glycoprotein, gamma-sarcoglycan, is likely to be the primary genetic defect in this disorder. The human gamma-sarcoglycan gene was mapped to chromosome 13q12, and deletions that alter its reading frame were identified in three families and one of four sporadic cases of SCARMD. These mutations not only affect gamma-sarcoglycan but also disrupt the integrity of the entire sarcoglycan complex.

Beta-sarcoglycan (A3b) mutations cause autosomal recessive muscular dystrophy with loss of the sarcoglycan complex

The dystrophin associated proteins (DAPs) are good candidates for harboring primary mutations in the genetically heterogeneous autosomal recessive muscular dystrophies (ARMD). The transmembrane components of the DAPs can be separated into the dystroglycan and the sarcoglycan complexes. Here we report the isolation of cDNAs encoding the 43 kD sarcoglycan protein beta-sarcoglycan (A3b) and the localization of the human gene to chromosome 4q12. We describe a young girl with ARMD with truncating mutations on both alleles. Immunostaining of her muscle biopsy shows specific loss of the components of the sarcoglycan complex (beta-sarcoglycan, alpha-sarcoglycan (adhalin), and 35 kD sarcoglycan). Thus secondary destabilization of the sarcoglycan complex may be an important pathophysiological event in ARMD.

Specific T cell receptor gene rearrangements at the site of muscle degeneration in Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Mononuclear cells infiltrate degenerating muscles of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) patients. Using a quantitative PCR, we first characterized the T cells infiltrating muscle biopsies from six DMD patients. High levels of TCR V beta 2 transcripts were observed in DMD muscle tissue. TCR V beta 2 transcripts from seven DMD patients and five controls were sequenced, and the VDJ junctional region analyzed in 166 clones. One specific amino acid motif, RVSG, was found in the third complementary determining region (CDR3) of TCR V beta 2 chains in samples from five DMD patients, but not in controls. A specific immune reaction at the site of tissue degeneration may play an important role in the pathogenesis of DMD.

Specific T cell receptor gene rearrangements at the site of muscle degeneration in Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Mononuclear cells infiltrate degenerating muscles of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) patients. Using a quantitative PCR, we first characterized the T cells infiltrating muscle biopsies from six DMD patients. High levels of TCR V beta 2 transcripts were observed in DMD muscle tissue. TCR V beta 2 transcripts from seven DMD patients and five controls were sequenced, and the VDJ junctional region analyzed in 166 clones. One specific amino acid motif, RVSG, was found in the third complementary determining region (CDR3) of TCR V beta 2 chains in samples from five DMD patients, but not in controls. A specific immune reaction at the site of tissue degeneration may play an important role in the pathogenesis of DMD.

Dystrophin abnormalities in Duchenne and Becker dystrophy carriers: correlation with cytoskeletal proteins and myosins

Characterization with a panel of six antibodies revealed abnormal dystrophin expression in 6 of 20 Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) carriers examined, and in 5 of 12 Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) carriers examined. The immunocytochemistry of muscle fibres was normal with five of the antibodies in two BMD carriers, but some muscle fibres were negative to the antibody directed against a portion of the dystrophin rod domain. Mosaicism was detected with all six antibodies in the other three BMD (but in only a small number of fibres) and in all DMD carriers muscles. Spectrin, vinculin and talin were immunolocalized in the same muscle specimens in order to assess membrane cytoskeletal integrity and to correlate their expression with that of dystrophin. These proteins, including vinculin, which was previously reported to be reduced in DMD patient muscles, were normally present on the surface of all dystrophin-deficient fibres. Muscle fibre types were characterized using monoclonal antibodies against fetal myosin and adult fast and adult slow myosin heavy chains. In both the DMD and BMD carriers, a significant reduction in type 2B fibres, as well as an increase in type 2C and fetal myosin-containing fibres was found - as has also been reported in DMD patients. Altered dystrophin expression was observed more frequently in type 2 than type 1 fibres. Dystrophin deficiency was found in a high percentage of type 2C fibres as well as in all fibres expressing fetal myosin; this suggests that dystrophin-deficient fibres are more susceptible to degeneration, leading to regeneration.

Analysis of the T cell repertoire using the PCR and specific oligonucleotide primers

Applications of PCR have revolutionized the field of immunogenetics particularly in studies of human leukocyte antigen class II polymorphism and more recently in the analysis of T cell receptor usage. The diversity of the variable region of the T cell receptor, however, has made it difficult to amplify the complete repertoire of T cell receptor transcripts. We have chosen to address this problem through the design of oligonucleotide primers specific for each of the known V alpha- and V beta-region T cell receptor families in order to characterize the T cell receptor repertoire. Using nonradioactive probes labeled with horse radish peroxidase, the system presented here allows for the rapid elucidation of the T cell receptor repertoire expressed in cells or tissue samples, such as those derived from autoimmune lesions. The identification of the T cell receptor repertoire involved in a pathogenic process can have therapeutic implications given the success of reversing experimental autoimmune disorders by directing specific forms of immunotherapy against V region gene products.

Normal dystrophin transcripts detected in Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients after myoblast transplantation

Gene delivery by transplantation of normal myoblasts has been proposed as a treatment of the primary defect, lack of the muscle protein dystrophin, that causes Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), a lethal human muscle degenerative disorder. To test this possibility, we transplanted normal myoblasts from a father or an unaffected sibling into the muscle of eight boys with DMD, and assessed their production of dystrophin. Three patients with deletions in the dystrophin gene expressed normal dystrophin transcripts in muscle biopsy specimens taken from the transplant site one month after myoblast injection. Using the polymerase chain reaction we established that the dystrophin in these biopsies derived from donor myoblast DNA. These results show that transplanted myoblasts persist and produce dystrophin in muscle fibres of DMD patients.

Dystrophin analysis in Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy carriers: correlation with intracellular calcium and albumin

Immunocytochemical localization and immunoblot analysis of dystrophin in muscle fibers of 11 obligate and probable, and 7 possible carriers of Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy revealed an abnormal expression of the protein in 3 of them. Localization of calcium and albumin, as endogenous markers of extracellular fluid penetration, showed the presence of both molecules inside some fibers lacking dystrophin. Our morphological studies show that the initial stages leading to fiber necrosis in Duchenne muscular dystrophy are present in carriers with mosaicism. Comparison of dystrophin studies with restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis and creatine kinase levels showed that neither immunocytochemical nor immunoblot techniques for dystrophin are sensitive enough to provide a basis for genetic counseling.