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Sulheim E, WiderØe M, Bäck M, Nilsson KPR, Hammarström P, Nilsson LN, Davies CDL, Åslund AK. Contrast Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Amyloid-β Plaques in a Murine Alzheimer’s Disease Model. J Alzheimers Dis 2023; 93:411-419. [PMID: 37038807 DOI: 10.3233/jad-220198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/07/2023]
Abstract
Background: Early detection of amyloid-β (Aβ) aggregates is a critical step to improve the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) because neuronal damage by the Aβ aggregates occurs before clinical symptoms are apparent. We have previously shown that luminescent conjugated oligothiophenes (LCOs), which are highly specific towards protein aggregates of Aβ, can be used to fluorescently label amyloid plaque in living rodents. Objective: We hypothesize that the LCO can be used to target gadolinium to the amyloid plaque and hence make the plaque detectable by T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Methods: A novel LCO-gadolinium construct was synthesized to selectively bind to Aβ plaques and give contrast in conventional T1-weighted MR images after intravenous injection in Tg-APPSwe mice. Results: We found that mice with high plaque-burden could be identified using the LCO-Gd constructs by conventional MRI. Conclusion: Our study shows that MR imaging of amyloid plaques is challenging but feasible, and hence contrast-mediated MR imaging could be a valuable tool for early AD detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Einar Sulheim
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Marius WiderØe
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Marcus Bäck
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Division of Chemistry, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - K. Peter R. Nilsson
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Division of Chemistry, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Per Hammarström
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Division of Chemistry, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Lars N.G. Nilsson
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oslo and Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Andreas K.O. Åslund
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim, Norway
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2
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Snipstad S, Bremnes F, Dehli Haugum M, Sulheim E. Characterization of immune cell populations in syngeneic murine tumor models. Cancer Med 2023. [PMID: 36912188 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.5784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunocompetent murine models are important tools for preclinical evaluation of immunotherapies. Here, six different immunocompetent tumor models based on four different cell lines were characterized, including metastatic lung cancer (CMT 167), triple-negative breast cancer (4T1), pancreatic cancer (KPCY), and colon cancer (MC38). The tumors were implanted subcutaneously or orthotopically before the animals were treated with anti-PD1 checkpoint inhibitor. A range of innate and adaptive immune cells were then quantified by flow cytometry of single-cell suspensions from the tumors. Furthermore, confocal laser scanning microscopy was used to quantify the density and distribution of T-cells in frozen sections. A model-dependent cellular immune landscape was observed, with variable responsiveness toward anti-PD1, ranging from the most responsive MC38 colon cancer model to the least responsive 4T1 breast cancer model. The study provides an overview of the immune landscape of these tumor models, and a foundation for further elucidation of pro-tumor and anti-tumor mechanisms behind heterogeneous responses towards immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway.,Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.,Cancer Clinic, St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Frida Bremnes
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Mats Dehli Haugum
- Department of Pathology, St. Olav's University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
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3
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Anthiya S, Öztürk SC, Yanik H, Tavukcuoglu E, Sahin A, Datta D, Charisse K, Álvarez DM, Loza M, Calvo A, Sulheim E, Loevenich S, Klinkenberg G, Schmid R, Manoharan M, Esendağlı G, Alonso MJ. Targeted siRNA lipid nanoparticles for the treatment of KRAS-mutant tumors. J Control Release 2023; 357:67-83. [PMID: 36921725 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2023.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 02/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
K-RAS is a highly relevant oncogene that is mutated in approximately 90% of pancreatic cancers and 20-25% of lung adenocarcinomas. The aim of this work was to develop a new anti-KRAS siRNA therapeutic strategy through the engineering of functionalized lipid nanoparticles (LNPs). To do this, first, a potent pan anti-KRAS siRNA sequence was chosen from the literature and different chemical modifications of siRNA were tested for their transfection efficacy (KRAS knockdown) and anti-proliferative effects on various cancer cell lines. Second, a selected siRNA candidate was loaded into tLyp-1 targeted and non-targeted lipid nanoparticles (LNPs). The biodistribution and antitumoral efficacy of selected siRNA-loaded LNP-prototypes were evaluated in vivo using a pancreatic cancer murine model (subcutaneous xenograft CFPAC-1 tumors). Our results show that tLyp-1-tagged targeted LNPs have an enhanced accumulation in the tumor compared to non-targeted LNPs. Moreover, a significant reduction in the pancreatic tumor growth was observed when the anti-KRAS siRNA treatment was combined with a classical chemotherapeutic agent, gemcitabine. In conclusion, our work demonstrates the benefits of using a targeting approach to improve tumor accumulation of siRNA-LNPs and its positive impact on tumor reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shubaash Anthiya
- Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases (CIMUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - Süleyman Can Öztürk
- Research and Application Center for Animal Experiments, Hacettepe University Cancer Institute, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Hamdullah Yanik
- Department of Basic Oncology, Hacettepe University Cancer Institute, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ece Tavukcuoglu
- Department of Basic Oncology, Hacettepe University Cancer Institute, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Adem Sahin
- R&D Department of ILKO Pharmaceuticals, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Dhrubajyoti Datta
- Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, 675 West Kendall, Cambridge, MA 02142, United States
| | - Klaus Charisse
- Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, 675 West Kendall, Cambridge, MA 02142, United States
| | - David Moreira Álvarez
- BioFarma Research Group, CIMUS, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Mabel Loza
- BioFarma Research Group, CIMUS, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Alfonso Calvo
- Health Research Institute of Navarra (IDISNA), Pamplona, Spain; Department of Histology and Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Simon Loevenich
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Geir Klinkenberg
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ruth Schmid
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Muthiah Manoharan
- Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, 675 West Kendall, Cambridge, MA 02142, United States
| | - Güneş Esendağlı
- Department of Basic Oncology, Hacettepe University Cancer Institute, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Maria Jose Alonso
- Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases (CIMUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; Department of Pharmacology Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmacy, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain.
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4
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Fusser M, Øverbye A, Pandya AD, Mørch Ý, Borgos SE, Kildal W, Snipstad S, Sulheim E, Fleten KG, Askautrud HA, Engebraaten O, Flatmark K, Iversen TG, Sandvig K, Skotland T, Mælandsmo GM. Corrigendum to “Cabazitaxel-loaded Poly(2-ethylbutyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles improve treatment efficacy in a patient derived breast cancer xenograft”, [Journal of Control Release, 293 (2019) 183–192]. J Control Release 2022; 349:1. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.06.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Snipstad S, Vikedal K, Maardalen M, Kurbatskaya A, Sulheim E, Davies CDL. Ultrasound and microbubbles to beat barriers in tumors: Improving delivery of nanomedicine. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 177:113847. [PMID: 34182018 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.113847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Successful delivery of drugs and nanomedicine to tumors requires a functional vascular network, extravasation across the capillary wall, penetration through the extracellular matrix, and cellular uptake. Nanomedicine has many merits, but penetration deep into the tumor interstitium remains a challenge. Failure of cancer treatment can be caused by insufficient delivery of the therapeutic agents. After intravenous administration, nanomedicines are often found in off-target organs and the tumor extracellular matrix close to the capillary wall. With circulating microbubbles, ultrasound exposure focused toward the tumor shows great promise in improving the delivery of therapeutic agents. In this review, we address the impact of focused ultrasound and microbubbles to overcome barriers for drug delivery such as perfusion, extravasation, and transport through the extracellular matrix. Furthermore, we discuss the induction of an immune response with ultrasound and delivery of immunotherapeutics. The review discusses mainly preclinical results and ends with a summary of ongoing clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway; Cancer Clinic, St. Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Krister Vikedal
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Matilde Maardalen
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Anna Kurbatskaya
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
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Sulheim E, Hanson I, Snipstad S, Vikedal K, Mørch Y, Boucher Y, Davies CDL. Sonopermeation with Nanoparticle‐Stabilized Microbubbles Reduces Solid Stress and Improves Nanomedicine Delivery to Tumors. Adv Therap 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/adtp.202100147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Einar Sulheim
- Department of Physics Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) Trondheim NO‐7491 Norway
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine SINTEF AS Trondheim 7034 Norway
- Cancer Clinic St.Olavs Hospital Trondheim 7030 Norway
| | - Ingunn Hanson
- Department of Physics Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) Trondheim NO‐7491 Norway
| | - Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Physics Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) Trondheim NO‐7491 Norway
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine SINTEF AS Trondheim 7034 Norway
- Cancer Clinic St.Olavs Hospital Trondheim 7030 Norway
| | - Krister Vikedal
- Department of Physics Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) Trondheim NO‐7491 Norway
| | - Yrr Mørch
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine SINTEF AS Trondheim 7034 Norway
| | - Yves Boucher
- Edwin L. Steele Laboratory for Tumor Biology Massachusetts General Hospital Boston MA 02114 USA
| | - Catharina de Lange Davies
- Department of Physics Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) Trondheim NO‐7491 Norway
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7
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Snipstad S, Mørch Ý, Sulheim E, Åslund A, Pedersen A, Davies CDL, Hansen R, Berg S. Sonopermeation Enhances Uptake and Therapeutic Effect of Free and Encapsulated Cabazitaxel. Ultrasound Med Biol 2021; 47:1319-1333. [PMID: 33549379 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2020.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Delivery of drugs and nanomedicines to tumors is often heterogeneous and insufficient and, thus, of limited efficacy. Microbubbles in combination with ultrasound have been found to improve delivery to tumors, enhancing accumulation and penetration. We used a subcutaneous prostate cancer xenograft model in mice to investigate the effect of free and nanoparticle-encapsulated cabazitaxel in combination with ultrasound and microbubbles with a lipid shell or a shell of nanoparticles. Sonopermeation reduced tumor growth and prolonged survival (26%-100%), whether the free drug was co-injected with lipid-shelled microbubbles or the nanoformulation was co-injected with lipid-shelled or nanoparticle-shelled microbubbles. Coherently with the improved therapeutic response, we found enhanced uptake of nanoparticles directly after ultrasound treatment that lasted several weeks (2.3 × -15.8 × increase). Neither cavitation dose nor total accumulation of nanoparticles could explain the variation within treatment groups, emphasizing the need for a better understanding of the tumor biology and mechanisms involved in ultrasound-mediated treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; Cancer Clinic, St. Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Ýrr Mørch
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; Cancer Clinic, St. Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Andreas Åslund
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - André Pedersen
- Department of Health Research, SINTEF Digital, Trondheim, Norway
| | | | - Rune Hansen
- Department of Health Research, SINTEF Digital, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Circulation and Medical imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sigrid Berg
- Cancer Clinic, St. Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Health Research, SINTEF Digital, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Circulation and Medical imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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8
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Fagerland SMT, Berg S, Hill DK, Snipstad S, Sulheim E, Hyldbakk A, Kim J, Davies CDL. Ultrasound-Mediated Delivery of Chemotherapy into the Transgenic Adenocarcinoma of the Mouse Prostate Model. Ultrasound Med Biol 2020; 46:3032-3045. [PMID: 32800470 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2020.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Ultrasound (US) in combination with microbubbles (MB) has had promising results in improving delivery of chemotherapeutic agents. However, most studies are done in immunodeficient mice with xenografted tumors. We used two phenotypes of the spontaneous transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) model to evaluate if US + MB could enhance the therapeutic efficacy of cabazitaxel (Cab). Cab was either injected intravenously as free drug or encapsulated into nanoparticles. In both cases, Cab transiently reduced tumor and prostate volume in the TRAMP model. No additional therapeutic efficacy was observed combining Cab with US + MB, except for one tumor. Additionally, histology grading and immunostaining of Ki67 did not reveal differences between treatment groups. Mass spectrometry revealed that nanoparticle encapsulation of Cab increased the circulation time and enhanced the accumulation in liver and spleen compared with free Cab. The therapeutic results in this spontaneous, clinically relevant tumor model differ from the improved therapeutic response observed in xenografts combining US + MB and chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stein-Martin T Fagerland
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sigrid Berg
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Health Research, SINTEF Digital, Trondheim, Norway; Cancer Clinic, St. Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Deborah K Hill
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; Cancer Clinic, St. Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; Cancer Clinic, St. Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Astrid Hyldbakk
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jana Kim
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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9
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Tunset ME, Haslene-Hox H, Van Den Bossche T, Vaaler AE, Sulheim E, Kondziella D. Extracellular vesicles in patients in the acute phase of psychosis and after clinical improvement: an explorative study. PeerJ 2020; 8:e9714. [PMID: 32995075 PMCID: PMC7501784 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.9714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived structures that transport proteins, lipids and nucleic acids between cells, thereby affecting the phenotype of the recipient cell. As the content of EVs reflects the status of the originating cell, EVs can have potential as biomarkers. Identifying EVs, including their cells of origin and their cargo, may provide insights in the pathophysiology of psychosis. Here, we present an in-depth analysis and proteomics of EVs from peripheral blood in patients (n = 25) during and after the acute phase of psychosis. Concentration and protein content of EVs in psychotic patients were twofold higher than in 25 age- and sex-matched healthy controls (p < 0.001 for both concentration and protein content), and the diameter of EVs was larger in patients (p = 0.02). Properties of EVs did not differ significantly in blood sampled during and after the acute psychotic episode. Proteomic analyses on isolated EVs from individual patients revealed 1,853 proteins, whereof 45 were brain-elevated proteins. Of these, five proteins involved in regulation of plasticity of glutamatergic synapses were significantly different in psychotic patients compared to controls; neurogranin (NRGN), neuron-specific calcium-binding protein hippocalcin (HPCA), kalirin (KALRN), beta-adducin (ADD2) and ankyrin-2 (ANK2). To summarize, our results show that peripheral EVs in psychotic patients are different from those in healthy controls and point at alterations on the glutamatergic system. We suggest that EVs allow investigation of blood-borne brain-originating biological material and that their role as biomarkers in patients with psychotic disorders is worthy of further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mette Elise Tunset
- Department of Østmarka- Division of Mental Healthcare, St. Olavs University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway.,Department of Mental Health- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Hanne Haslene-Hox
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Tim Van Den Bossche
- VIB - UGent Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Arne Einar Vaaler
- Department of Østmarka- Division of Mental Healthcare, St. Olavs University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway.,Department of Mental Health- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF, Trondheim, Norway.,Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Daniel Kondziella
- Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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van der Meel R, Sulheim E, Shi Y, Kiessling F, Mulder WJM, Lammers T. Smart cancer nanomedicine. Nat Nanotechnol 2019; 14:1007-1017. [PMID: 31695150 PMCID: PMC7227032 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-019-0567-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Nanomedicines are extensively employed in cancer therapy. We here propose four strategic directions to improve nanomedicine translation and exploitation. (1) Patient stratification has become common practice in oncology drug development. Accordingly, probes and protocols for patient stratification are urgently needed in cancer nanomedicine, to identify individuals suitable for inclusion in clinical trials. (2) Rational drug selection is crucial for clinical and commercial success. Opportunistic choices based on drug availability should be replaced by investments in modular (pro)drug and nanocarrier design. (3) Combination therapies are the mainstay of clinical cancer care. Nanomedicines synergize with pharmacological and physical co-treatments, and should be increasingly integrated in multimodal combination therapy regimens. (4) Immunotherapy is revolutionizing the treatment of cancer. Nanomedicines can modulate the behaviour of myeloid and lymphoid cells, thereby empowering anticancer immunity and immunotherapy efficacy. Alone and especially together, these four directions will fuel and foster the development of successful cancer nanomedicine therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy van der Meel
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Haematology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim, Norway
- Cancer Clinic, St. Olavs University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Yang Shi
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University Clinic, Aachen, Germany
| | - Fabian Kiessling
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University Clinic, Aachen, Germany
| | - Willem J M Mulder
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Twan Lammers
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University Clinic, Aachen, Germany.
- Department of Targeted Therapeutics, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands.
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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11
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Szwed M, Sønstevold T, Øverbye A, Engedal N, Grallert B, Mørch Ý, Sulheim E, Iversen TG, Skotland T, Sandvig K, Torgersen ML. Small variations in nanoparticle structure dictate differential cellular stress responses and mode of cell death. Nanotoxicology 2019; 13:761-782. [PMID: 30760074 DOI: 10.1080/17435390.2019.1576238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
For optimal exploitation of nanoparticles (NPs) in biomedicine, and to predict nanotoxicity, detailed knowledge of the cellular responses to cell-bound or internalized NPs is imperative. The final outcome of NP-cell interaction is dictated by the type and magnitude of the NP insult and the cellular response. Here, this has been systematically studied by using poly(alkylcyanoacrylate) (PACA) particles differing only in their alkyl side chains; butyl (PBCA), ethylbutyl (PEBCA), or octyl (POCA), respectively. Surprisingly, these highly similar NPs induced different stress responses and modes of cell death in human cell lines. The POCA particles generally induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis. In contrast, PBCA and PEBCA particles induced oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation depending on the level of the glutathione precursor cystine and transcription of the cystine transporter SLC7A11. The latter was induced as a protective response by the transcription factors ATF4 and Nrf2. PBCA particles strongly activated ATF4 downstream of the eIF2α kinase HRI, whereas PEBCA particles more potently induced Nrf2 antioxidant responses. Intriguingly, PBCA particles activated the cell death mechanism ferroptosis; a promising option for targeting multidrug-resistant cancers. Our findings highlight that even minor differences in NP composition can severely impact the cellular response to NPs. This may have important implications in therapeutic settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzena Szwed
- a Department of Molecular Cell Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway
| | - Tonje Sønstevold
- a Department of Molecular Cell Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway.,b Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Department of Biosciences , University of Oslo , Oslo , Norway
| | - Anders Øverbye
- a Department of Molecular Cell Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway
| | - Nikolai Engedal
- c Centre for Molecular Medicine Norway (NCMM), Nordic EMBL Partnership, University of Oslo , Oslo , Norway
| | - Beata Grallert
- d Department of Radiation Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway
| | - Ýrr Mørch
- e Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine , SINTEF AS , Trondheim , Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- e Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine , SINTEF AS , Trondheim , Norway.,f Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Physics , The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) , Trondheim , Norway
| | - Tore-Geir Iversen
- a Department of Molecular Cell Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway
| | - Tore Skotland
- a Department of Molecular Cell Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway
| | - Kirsten Sandvig
- a Department of Molecular Cell Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway.,b Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Department of Biosciences , University of Oslo , Oslo , Norway
| | - Maria L Torgersen
- a Department of Molecular Cell Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway
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Sulheim E, Mørch Y, Snipstad S, Borgos SE, Miletic H, Bjerkvig R, Davies CDL, Åslund AKO. Therapeutic Effect of Cabazitaxel and Blood-Brain Barrier opening in a Patient-Derived Glioblastoma Model. Nanotheranostics 2019; 3:103-112. [PMID: 30899638 PMCID: PMC6427936 DOI: 10.7150/ntno.31479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Treatment of glioblastoma and other diseases in the brain is especially challenging due to the blood-brain barrier, which effectively protects the brain parenchyma. In this study we show for the first time that cabazitaxel, a semi-synthetic derivative of docetaxel can cross the blood-brain barrier and give a significant therapeutic effect in a patient-derived orthotopic model of glioblastoma. We show that the drug crosses the blood-brain barrier more effectively in the tumor than in the healthy brain due to reduced expression of p-glycoprotein efflux pumps in the vasculature of the tumor. Surprisingly, neither ultrasound-mediated blood-brain barrier opening (sonopermeation) nor drug formulation in polymeric nanoparticles could increase either accumulation of the drug in the brain or therapeutic effect. This indicates that for hydrophobic drugs, sonopermeation of the blood brain barrier might not be sufficient to achieve improved drug delivery. Nonetheless, our study shows that cabazitaxel is a promising drug for the treatment of brain tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Einar Sulheim
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway.,Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim Norway.,Cancer Clinic, St.Olav's University Hospital, Trondheim Norway
| | - Yrr Mørch
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim Norway
| | - Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway.,Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim Norway.,Cancer Clinic, St.Olav's University Hospital, Trondheim Norway
| | - Sven Even Borgos
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim Norway
| | - Hrvoje Miletic
- Department of Pathology, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway.,Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Norway
| | - Rolf Bjerkvig
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Norway.,Department of Oncology, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Luxembourg
| | | | - Andreas K O Åslund
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway.,Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim Norway.,Stroke Unit, Department of internal medicine, St. Olav's University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
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13
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Fusser M, Øverbye A, Pandya AD, Mørch Ý, Borgos SE, Kildal W, Snipstad S, Sulheim E, Fleten KG, Askautrud HA, Engebraaten O, Flatmark K, Iversen TG, Sandvig K, Skotland T, Mælandsmo GM. Cabazitaxel-loaded Poly(2-ethylbutyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles improve treatment efficacy in a patient derived breast cancer xenograft. J Control Release 2018; 293:183-192. [PMID: 30529259 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2018] [Revised: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The effect of poly(2-ethyl-butyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles containing the cytotoxic drug cabazitaxel was studied in three breast cancer cell lines and one basal-like patient-derived xenograft model grown in the mammary fat pad of immunodeficient mice. Nanoparticle-encapsulated cabazitaxel had a much better efficacy than similar concentrations of free drug in the basal-like patient-derived xenograft and resulted in complete remission of 6 out of 8 tumors, whereas free drug gave complete remission only with 2 out of 9 tumors. To investigate the different efficacies obtained with nanoparticle-encapsulated versus free cabazitaxel, mass spectrometry quantification of cabazitaxel was performed in mice plasma and selected tissue samples. Nanoparticle-encapsulated drug had a longer circulation time in blood. There was approximately a three times higher drug concentration in tumor tissue 24 h after injection, and two times higher 96 h after injection of nanoparticles with drug compared to the free drug. The tissue biodistribution obtained after 24 h using mass spectrometry analyses correlates well with biodistribution data obtained using IVIS® Spectrum in vivo imaging of nanoparticles labeled with the fluorescent substance NR668, indicating that these data also are representative for the nanoparticle distribution. Furthermore, immunohistochemistry was used to estimate infiltration of macrophages into the tumor tissue following injection of nanoparticle-encapsulated and free cabazitaxel. The higher infiltration of anti-tumorigenic versus pro-tumorigenic macrophages in tumors treated with the nanoparticles might also contribute to the improved effect obtained with the nanoparticle-encapsulated drug. Tumor infiltration of pro-tumorigenic macrophages was four times lower when using nanoparticles containing cabazitaxel than when using particles without drug, and we speculate that the very good therapeutic efficacy obtained with our cabazitaxel-containing particles may be due to their ability to reduce the level of pro-tumorigenic macrophages in the tumor. In summary, encapsulation of cabazitaxel in poly(2-ethyl-butyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles seems promising for treatment of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Fusser
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Anders Øverbye
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Abhilash D Pandya
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ýrr Mørch
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sven Even Borgos
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Wanja Kildal
- Institute for Cancer Genetics and Informatics, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Karianne Giller Fleten
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Hanne Arenberg Askautrud
- Institute for Cancer Genetics and Informatics, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Olav Engebraaten
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Institute for Clinical Medicine, The Medical Faculty, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kjersti Flatmark
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Institute for Clinical Medicine, The Medical Faculty, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tore Geir Iversen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kirsten Sandvig
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tore Skotland
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Gunhild M Mælandsmo
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Department of Pharmacy, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway
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14
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Snipstad S, Sulheim E, de Lange Davies C, Moonen C, Storm G, Kiessling F, Schmid R, Lammers T. Sonopermeation to improve drug delivery to tumors: from fundamental understanding to clinical translation. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2018; 15:1249-1261. [PMID: 30415585 DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2018.1547279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Ultrasound in combination with microbubbles can make cells and tissues more accessible for drugs, thereby achieving improved therapeutic outcomes. In this review, we introduce the term 'sonopermeation', covering mechanisms such as pore formation (traditional sonoporation), as well as the opening of intercellular junctions, stimulated endocytosis/transcytosis, improved blood vessel perfusion and changes in the (tumor) microenvironment. Sonopermeation has gained a lot of interest in recent years, especially for delivering drugs through the otherwise impermeable blood-brain barrier, but also to tumors. AREAS COVERED In this review, we summarize various in vitro assays and in vivo setups that have been employed to unravel the fundamental mechanisms involved in ultrasound-enhanced drug delivery, as well as clinical trials that are ongoing in patients with brain, pancreatic, liver and breast cancer. We summarize the basic principles of sonopermeation, describe recent findings obtained in (pre-) clinical trials, and discuss future directions. EXPERT OPINION We suggest that an improved mechanistic understanding, and microbubbles and ultrasound equipment specialized for drug delivery (and not for imaging) are key aspects to create more effective treatment regimens by sonopermeation. Real-time feedback and tools to predict therapeutic outcome and which tumors/patients will benefit from sonopermeation-based interventions will be important to promote clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Snipstad
- a Department of Physics , Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) , Trondheim , Norway.,b Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine , SINTEF AS , Trondheim , Norway.,c Cancer Clinic , St. Olavs Hospital , Trondheim , Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- a Department of Physics , Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) , Trondheim , Norway.,b Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine , SINTEF AS , Trondheim , Norway.,c Cancer Clinic , St. Olavs Hospital , Trondheim , Norway
| | - Catharina de Lange Davies
- a Department of Physics , Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) , Trondheim , Norway
| | - Chrit Moonen
- d Imaging Division , University Medical Center , Utrecht , The Netherlands
| | - Gert Storm
- e Department of Pharmaceutics , Utrecht University , Utrecht , The Netherlands.,f Department of Targeted Therapeutics , University of Twente , Enschede , The Netherlands
| | - Fabian Kiessling
- g Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging , RWTH Aachen University , Aachen , Germany
| | - Ruth Schmid
- b Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine , SINTEF AS , Trondheim , Norway
| | - Twan Lammers
- e Department of Pharmaceutics , Utrecht University , Utrecht , The Netherlands.,f Department of Targeted Therapeutics , University of Twente , Enschede , The Netherlands.,g Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging , RWTH Aachen University , Aachen , Germany
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15
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Sulheim E, Kim J, van Wamel A, Kim E, Snipstad S, Vidic I, Grimstad IH, Widerøe M, Torp SH, Lundgren S, Waxman DJ, de Lange Davies C. Multi-modal characterization of vasculature and nanoparticle accumulation in five tumor xenograft models. J Control Release 2018; 279:292-305. [PMID: 29684498 PMCID: PMC5972071 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2017] [Revised: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Preclinical research has demonstrated that nanoparticles and macromolecules can accumulate in solid tumors due to the enhanced permeability and retention effect. However, drug loaded nanoparticles often fail to show increased efficacy in clinical trials. A better understanding of how tumor heterogeneity affects nanoparticle accumulation could help elucidate this discrepancy and help in patient selection for nanomedicine therapy. Here we studied five human tumor models with varying morphology and evaluated the accumulation of 100 nm polystyrene nanoparticles. Each tumor model was characterized in vivo using micro-computed tomography, contrast-enhanced ultrasound and diffusion-weighted and dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Ex vivo, the tumors were sectioned for both fluorescence microscopy and histology. Nanoparticle uptake and distribution in the tumors were generally heterogeneous. Density of functional blood vessels measured by fluorescence microscopy correlated significantly (p = 0.0056) with nanoparticle accumulation and interestingly, inflow of microbubbles measured with ultrasound also showed a moderate but significant (p = 0.041) correlation with nanoparticle accumulation indicating that both amount of vessels and vessel morphology and perfusion predict nanoparticle accumulation. This indicates that blood vessel characterization using contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging or other methods could be valuable for patient stratification for treatment with nanomedicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Einar Sulheim
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway; Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Jana Kim
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, St. Olav's University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Annemieke van Wamel
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Eugene Kim
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Igor Vidic
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ingeborg Hovde Grimstad
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Marius Widerøe
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sverre H Torp
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Children's and Women's Health, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Pathology, St. Olav's University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Steinar Lundgren
- Department of Oncology, St. Olav's University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
| | - David J Waxman
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Catharina de Lange Davies
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
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16
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Baghirov H, Snipstad S, Sulheim E, Berg S, Hansen R, Thorsen F, Mørch Y, Davies CDL, Åslund AKO. Ultrasound-mediated delivery and distribution of polymeric nanoparticles in the normal brain parenchyma of a metastatic brain tumour model. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0191102. [PMID: 29338016 PMCID: PMC5770053 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 12/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The treatment of brain diseases is hindered by the blood-brain barrier (BBB) preventing most drugs from entering the brain. Focused ultrasound (FUS) with microbubbles can open the BBB safely and reversibly. Systemic drug injection might induce toxicity, but encapsulation into nanoparticles reduces accumulation in normal tissue. Here we used a novel platform based on poly(2-ethyl-butyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticle-stabilized microbubbles to permeabilize the BBB in a melanoma brain metastasis model. With a dual-frequency ultrasound transducer generating FUS at 1.1 MHz and 7.8 MHz, we opened the BBB using nanoparticle-microbubbles and low-frequency FUS, and applied high-frequency FUS to generate acoustic radiation force and push nanoparticles through the extracellular matrix. Using confocal microscopy and image analysis, we quantified nanoparticle extravasation and distribution in the brain parenchyma. We also evaluated haemorrhage, as well as the expression of P-glycoprotein, a key BBB component. FUS and microbubbles distributed nanoparticles in the brain parenchyma, and the distribution depended on the extent of BBB opening. The results from acoustic radiation force were not conclusive, but in a few animals some effect could be detected. P-glycoprotein was not significantly altered immediately after sonication. In summary, FUS with our nanoparticle-stabilized microbubbles can achieve accumulation and displacement of nanoparticles in the brain parenchyma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Habib Baghirov
- Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sigrid Berg
- SINTEF Medical Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Rune Hansen
- SINTEF Medical Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Frits Thorsen
- Molecular Imaging Center and Kristian Gerhard Jebsen Brain Tumour Research Centre, Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Yrr Mørch
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Catharina de Lange Davies
- Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
- * E-mail:
| | - Andreas K. O. Åslund
- Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
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17
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Sulheim E, Iversen TG, To Nakstad V, Klinkenberg G, Sletta H, Schmid R, Hatletveit AR, Wågbø AM, Sundan A, Skotland T, Sandvig K, Mørch Ý. Cytotoxicity of Poly(Alkyl Cyanoacrylate) Nanoparticles. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18112454. [PMID: 29156588 PMCID: PMC5713421 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18112454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Revised: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Although nanotoxicology has become a large research field, assessment of cytotoxicity is often reduced to analysis of one cell line only. Cytotoxicity of nanoparticles is complex and should, preferentially, be evaluated in several cell lines with different methods and on multiple nanoparticle batches. Here we report the toxicity of poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles in 12 different cell lines after synthesizing and analyzing 19 different nanoparticle batches and report that large variations were obtained when using different cell lines or various toxicity assays. Surprisingly, we found that nanoparticles with intermediate degradation rates were less toxic than particles that were degraded faster or more slowly in a cell-free system. The toxicity did not vary significantly with either the three different combinations of polyethylene glycol surfactants or with particle size (range 100–200 nm). No acute pro- or anti-inflammatory activity on cells in whole blood was observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Einar Sulheim
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Sem Sælands vei 2A, 7034 Trondheim, Norway.
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Høgskoleringen 5, 7491 Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Tore-Geir Iversen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital-The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway.
- Center for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, 0379 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Vu To Nakstad
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Sem Sælands vei 2A, 7034 Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Geir Klinkenberg
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Sem Sælands vei 2A, 7034 Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Håvard Sletta
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Sem Sælands vei 2A, 7034 Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Ruth Schmid
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Sem Sælands vei 2A, 7034 Trondheim, Norway.
| | | | - Ane Marit Wågbø
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Sem Sælands vei 2A, 7034 Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Anders Sundan
- Department of Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 8905 MH, 7491 Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Tore Skotland
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital-The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway.
- Center for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, 0379 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Kirsten Sandvig
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital-The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway.
- Center for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, 0379 Oslo, Norway.
- Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Ýrr Mørch
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Sem Sælands vei 2A, 7034 Trondheim, Norway.
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18
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Snipstad S, Berg S, Mørch Ý, Bjørkøy A, Sulheim E, Hansen R, Grimstad I, van Wamel A, Maaland AF, Torp SH, Davies CDL. Ultrasound Improves the Delivery and Therapeutic Effect of Nanoparticle-Stabilized Microbubbles in Breast Cancer Xenografts. Ultrasound Med Biol 2017; 43:2651-2669. [PMID: 28781149 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2017.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Revised: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Compared with conventional chemotherapy, encapsulation of drugs in nanoparticles can improve efficacy and reduce toxicity. However, delivery of nanoparticles is often insufficient and heterogeneous because of various biological barriers and uneven tumor perfusion. We investigated a unique multifunctional drug delivery system consisting of microbubbles stabilized by polymeric nanoparticles (NPMBs), enabling ultrasound-mediated drug delivery. The aim was to examine mechanisms of ultrasound-mediated delivery and to determine if increased tumor uptake had a therapeutic benefit. Cellular uptake and toxicity, circulation and biodistribution were characterized. After intravenous injection of NPMBs into mice, tumors were treated with ultrasound of various pressures and pulse lengths, and distribution of nanoparticles was imaged on tumor sections. No effects of low pressures were observed, whereas complete bubble destruction at higher pressures improved tumor uptake 2.3 times, without tissue damage. An enhanced therapeutic effect was illustrated in a promising proof-of-concept study, in which all tumors exhibited regression into complete remission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Sigrid Berg
- SINTEF Technology and Society, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ýrr Mørch
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Astrid Bjørkøy
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Rune Hansen
- SINTEF Technology and Society, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ingeborg Grimstad
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Annemieke van Wamel
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Astri F Maaland
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sverre H Torp
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Children's and Women's Health, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Pathology, St. Olav's University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
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19
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Baghirov H, Snipstad S, Sulheim E, Berg S, Hansen R, Thorsen F, Mørch Y, Davies CDL, Åslund A. Abstract 3109: Ultrasound-mediated delivery and distribution of polymeric nanoparticles in the normal brain parenchyma and melanoma metastases. Cancer Res 2017. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am2017-3109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) prevents the passage of nearly all drugs into the brain, hindering brain cancer treatment. Nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as promising drug delivery vehicles, due to incorporation of poorly soluble drugs, functionalization for controlled and sustained release and combination of drug delivery with imaging. Transport of NPs across the BBB, however, is equally complicated and can benefit from versatile BBB opening techniques. Focused ultrasound (FUS) in combination with microbubbles (MBs) ensures safe and reversible opening of the BBB. Here we used FUS with a novel platform based on MBs stabilized by poly(isohexyl cyanoacrylate) (PIHCA) NPs to permeabilize the BBB and transport NPs into the brain in a melanoma metastasis model.
Intracardiac injection of patient-derived human melanoma cells was performed in immunodeficient mice. Brain melanoma metastases developed four weeks post-injection. A novel ultrasound system able to generate 1.1 MHz and 7.8 MHz FUS during the same experiment was used for FUS treatments. Selection of the treatment area was guided by magnetic resonance imaging. BBB was disrupted by FUS at 1.1 MHz, while FUS at 7.8 MHz was used to enable acoustic radiation force and, hopefully, push NPs farther into the extracellular matrix away from blood vessels. Successful BBB opening was verified using a gadolinium-based contrast agent. After the FUS treatment, the brains were either frozen or fixed in formalin for histological examination. NP transport across the BBB and distribution in the brain parenchyma were assessed using confocal microscopy with advanced image analysis. Levels of P-glycoprotein (P-gp), an integral component of the BBB, were determined using immunohistochemistry.
FUS in combination with PIHCA NP-MBs successfully opened the BBB with an acoustic pressure of 0.38 MPa. NPs were transported across the BBB and distributed in the brain parenchyma in a manner dependent on the extent of BBB opening. NP were also delivered to melanoma metastases, although at this stage of tumor development their accumulation in metastases was limited compared to the surrounding tissue, possibly due to reduced vascularization of metastases. Little effect of 7.8 MHz FUS was observed, possibly because FUS at 1.1 MHz already increased NP distribution in the brain tissue. FUS exposure induced some extent of red blood cell extravasation. P-gp levels were not altered immediately after sonication. Overall, our results indicate that combining NPs and MBs in a single unit, such as the one used in our study, can be used to deliver NPs across the BBB in a substantial amount, showing its potential in NP-aided drug delivery to the brain.
Note: This abstract was not presented at the meeting.
Citation Format: Habib Baghirov, Sofie Snipstad, Einar Sulheim, Sigrid Berg, Rune Hansen, Frits Thorsen, Yrr Mørch, Catharina de Lange Davies, Andreas Åslund. Ultrasound-mediated delivery and distribution of polymeric nanoparticles in the normal brain parenchyma and melanoma metastases [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2017; 2017 Apr 1-5; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2017;77(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 3109. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2017-3109
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Affiliation(s)
- Habib Baghirov
- 1Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sofie Snipstad
- 1Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- 1Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sigrid Berg
- 2Norwegian University of Science and Technology; SINTEF Medical Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Rune Hansen
- 2Norwegian University of Science and Technology; SINTEF Medical Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Frits Thorsen
- 3Molecular Imaging Center and Kristian Gerhard Jebsen Brain Tumour Research Centre, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Yrr Mørch
- 4SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Trondheim, Norway
| | | | - Andreas Åslund
- 1Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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Åslund AKO, Sulheim E, Snipstad S, von Haartman E, Baghirov H, Starr N, Kvåle Løvmo M, Lelú S, Scurr D, Davies CDL, Schmid R, Mørch Ý. Quantification and Qualitative Effects of Different PEGylations on Poly(butyl cyanoacrylate) Nanoparticles. Mol Pharm 2017; 14:2560-2569. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.6b01085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas K. O. Åslund
- Department
of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department
of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sofie Snipstad
- Department
of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Eva von Haartman
- Pharmaceutical
Sciences Laboratory, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Habib Baghirov
- Department
of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Nichola Starr
- School
of Pharmacy, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Mia Kvåle Løvmo
- Department
of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sylvie Lelú
- Department
of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - David Scurr
- School
of Pharmacy, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | | | - Ruth Schmid
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ýrr Mørch
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Trondheim, Norway
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Baghirov H, Melikishvili S, Mørch Y, Sulheim E, Åslund AK, Hianik T, de Lange Davies C. The effect of poly(ethylene glycol) coating and monomer type on poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticle interactions with lipid monolayers and cells. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2017; 150:373-383. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2016.10.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Revised: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Snipstad S, Hak S, Baghirov H, Sulheim E, Mørch Ý, Lélu S, von Haartman E, Bäck M, Nilsson KPR, Klymchenko AS, de Lange Davies C, Åslund AKO. Labeling nanoparticles: Dye leakage and altered cellular uptake. Cytometry A 2016; 91:760-766. [DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.22853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Revised: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 03/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim Norway
| | - Sjoerd Hak
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim Norway
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim Norway
| | - Habib Baghirov
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim Norway
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry; Trondheim Norway
| | - Ýrr Mørch
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry; Trondheim Norway
| | - Sylvie Lélu
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim Norway
| | - Eva von Haartman
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Laboratory; Åbo Akademi University; Turku Finland
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry; Åbo Akademi University; Turku Finland
| | - Marcus Bäck
- Department of Physics; Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University; Linköping Sweden
| | - K. Peter R. Nilsson
- Department of Physics; Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University; Linköping Sweden
| | - Andrey S. Klymchenko
- Laboratoire de Biophotonique et Pharmacologie, UMR CNRS 7213, Université de Strasbourg; Strasbourg France
| | | | - Andreas K. O. Åslund
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim Norway
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Sulheim E, Baghirov H, von Haartman E, Bøe A, Åslund AKO, Mørch Y, Davies CDL. Cellular uptake and intracellular degradation of poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles. J Nanobiotechnology 2016; 14:1. [PMID: 26743777 PMCID: PMC4705582 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-015-0156-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 12/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background
Poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) (PACA) nanoparticles have shown promise as drug carriers both to solid tumors and across the blood–brain barrier. Efficient drug delivery requires both high cellular uptake of the nanoparticles and release of the drug from the nanoparticles. Release of hydrophobic drugs from PACA nanoparticles is primarily governed by nanoparticle degradation, and this process has been poorly studied at the cellular level. Here we use the hydrophobic model drug Nile Red 668 (NR668) to investigate intracellular degradation of PACA nanoparticles by measuring changes in NR668 fluorescence emission and lifetime, as the spectral properties of NR668 depend on the hydrophobicity of the dye environment. We also assess the potential of poly(butyl cyanoacrylate) (PBCA) and poly(octyl cyanoacrylate) (POCA) nanoparticles for intracellular drug delivery in the prostate cancer cell line PC3 and rat brain endothelial cell line RBE4 and the role of endocytosis pathways in PACA nanoparticle uptake in those cell lines. Results Fluorescence lifetime imaging, emission spectra analysis and Förster resonance energy transfer indicated that the intracellular degradation was in line with the degradation found by direct methods such as gas chromatography and scanning electron microscopy, showing that PBCA has a faster degradation rate compared to POCA. The combined P(BCA/OCA) nanoparticles had an intermediate degradation rate. The uptake of POCA and PBCA nanoparticles was much higher in RBE4 than in PC3 cells. Endocytosis inhibition studies showed that both clathrin- and caveolin-mediated endocytosis were involved in PACA nanoparticle uptake, and that the former played a predominant role, particularly in PC3 cells. Conclusions In the present study, we used three different optical techniques to show that within a 24-hour period PBCA nanoparticles degraded significantly inside cells, releasing their payload into the cytosol, while POCA nanoparticles remained intact. This indicates that it is possible to tune the intracellular drug release rate by choosing appropriate monomers from the PACA family or by using hybrid PACA nanoparticles containing different monomers. In addition, we showed that the uptake of PACA nanoparticles depends not only on the monomer material, but also on the cell type, and that different cell lines can use different internalization pathways. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12951-015-0156-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Einar Sulheim
- Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Høgskoleringen 5, 7491, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Habib Baghirov
- Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Høgskoleringen 5, 7491, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Eva von Haartman
- Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Høgskoleringen 5, 7491, Trondheim, Norway. .,Pharmaceutical Sciences Laboratory, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Technology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland.
| | - Andreas Bøe
- Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Høgskoleringen 5, 7491, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Andreas K O Åslund
- Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Høgskoleringen 5, 7491, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Yrr Mørch
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Catharina de Lange Davies
- Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Høgskoleringen 5, 7491, Trondheim, Norway.
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Mørch Ý, Hansen R, Berg S, Åslund AKO, Glomm WR, Eggen S, Schmid R, Johnsen H, Kubowicz S, Snipstad S, Sulheim E, Hak S, Singh G, McDonagh BH, Blom H, de Lange Davies C, Stenstad PM. Nanoparticle-stabilized microbubbles for multimodal imaging and drug delivery. Contrast Media Mol Imaging 2015; 10:356-66. [DOI: 10.1002/cmmi.1639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Revised: 02/06/2015] [Accepted: 02/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ýrr Mørch
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry; P.O. Box 4760 Sluppen 7465 Trondheim Norway
| | - Rune Hansen
- SINTEF Technology and Society; P.O. Box 4760 Sluppen 7465 Trondheim Norway
| | - Sigrid Berg
- SINTEF Technology and Society; P.O. Box 4760 Sluppen 7465 Trondheim Norway
| | - Andreas K. O. Åslund
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; 7491 Trondheim Norway
| | - Wilhelm R. Glomm
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry; P.O. Box 4760 Sluppen 7465 Trondheim Norway
- Department of Chemical Engineering; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; 7491 Trondheim Norway
| | - Siv Eggen
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; 7491 Trondheim Norway
| | - Ruth Schmid
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry; P.O. Box 4760 Sluppen 7465 Trondheim Norway
| | - Heidi Johnsen
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry; P.O. Box 4760 Sluppen 7465 Trondheim Norway
| | - Stephan Kubowicz
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry; P.O. Box 4760 Sluppen 7465 Trondheim Norway
| | - Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; 7491 Trondheim Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; 7491 Trondheim Norway
| | - Sjoerd Hak
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; 7491 Trondheim Norway
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; 7030 Trondheim Norway
| | - Gurvinder Singh
- Department of Chemical Engineering; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; 7491 Trondheim Norway
| | - Birgitte H. McDonagh
- Department of Chemical Engineering; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; 7491 Trondheim Norway
| | - Hans Blom
- Science for Life Laboratory; Box 1031 17121 Solna Sweden
| | | | - Per M. Stenstad
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry; P.O. Box 4760 Sluppen 7465 Trondheim Norway
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