Toxic Effects of Penetrating Cations

As mitochondria are negatively charged organelles, penetrating cations are used as parts of chimeric molecules to deliver specific compounds into mitochondria. In other words, they are used as electrophilic carriers for such chemical moieties as antioxidants, dyes, etc., to transfer them inside mitochondria. However, unmodified penetrating cations affect different aspects of cellular physiology as well. In this review, we have attempted to summarise the data about the side effects of commonly used natural (e.g., berberine) and artificial (e.g., tetraphenylphosphonium, rhodamine, methylene blue) penetrating cations on cellular physiology. For instance, it was shown that such types of molecules can (1) facilitate proton transport across membranes; (2) react with redox groups of the respiratory chain; (3) induce DNA damage; (4) interfere with pleiotropic drug resistance; (5) disturb membrane integrity; and (6) inhibit enzymes. Also, the products of the biodegradation of penetrating cations can be toxic. As penetrating cations accumulate in mitochondria, their toxicity is mostly due to mitochondrial damage. Mitochondria from certain types of cancer cells appear to be especially sensitive to penetrating cations. Here, we discuss the molecular mechanisms of the toxic effects and the anti-cancer activity of penetrating cations.

Locating an acoustic point source scattered by a skull phantom via time reversal matched filtering

This paper examines the utilization of the time reversal matched filtering method to resolve the location of an acoustic point source beneath a skull phantom (variable thickness layer), without the removal of this layer. This acoustical process is examined experimentally in a water tank immersion system containing an acoustic source, a custom-made skull phantom, and a receiving transducer in a pitch-catch arrangement. The phantom is designed to approximately model the acoustic properties of an average human skull bone (minus the diploe layer), while the variable thickness of the phantom introduces a variable time delay to the acoustic wave, relative to its entry point on the phantom. This variable delay is measured and corrected for, and a matched filtering time reversed process is used to determine the location of the point source. The results of the experiment are examined for various positions of the acoustic source behind the phantom and compared to the reference cases with no phantom present. The average distance between these two cases is found to be 4.36 mm, and within the expected deviation in results due to not accounting for the effects of refraction.

Protein aggregation and neurodegeneration: clues from a yeast model of Huntington's disease

A number of neurodegenerative diseases are accompanied by the appearance of intracellular protein aggregates. Huntington's disease (HD) is caused by a mutation in a gene encoding huntingtin. The mutation causes the expansion of the polyglutamine (polyQ) domain and consequently polyQ-containing aggregates accumulate and neurons in the striatum die. The role of the aggregates is still not clear: they may be the cause of cytotoxicity or a manifestation of the cellular attempt to remove the misfolded proteins. There is accumulating evidence that the main cause of HD is the interaction of the mutated huntingtin with other polyQ-containing proteins and molecular chaperones and most studies based on a yeast model of HD support this point of view. Data obtained using yeasts suggest pathological consequences of polyQ-proteasomal interaction: proteasomal overload by polyQs may interfere with functions of the cell cycle-regulating proteins.

Regulation of endosome dynamics by Rab5 and Huntingtin-HAP40 effector complex in physiological versus pathological conditions

Vesicular transport of signaling molecules, specifically neurotrophins, in neurons is essential for their differentiation, survival, and plasticity. Neurotrophins such as neuron growth factor (NGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are internalized by receptor-mediated endocytosis at synaptic terminals and loaded into endosomes for microtubule-based transport along axons to the cell body where they exert their signaling function in the nucleus. The molecular mechanisms underlying this intracellular transport are not only relevant from a basic knowledge viewpoint, but have also important implications for neurodegenerative diseases. Defects in trafficking are increasingly implicated in the pathology of Huntington's disease (HD) and other neurodegenerative disorders. The small GTPases Rab5 and Rab7 play important roles in the endocytic trafficking of neurotrophins. We have recently identified Huntingtin (Htt) and Huntingtin associated protein of 40 kDa (HAP40) as a novel Rab5 effector complex that regulates endosome motility. In HD, we detected higher HAP40 protein levels compared with normal cells. Such increase causes an augmented recruitment of Htt onto Rab5-positive early endosomes that drastically reduces their motility by "switching" these organelles from microtubules to F-actin. These findings suggest a mechanism by which impaired Rab5-mediated trafficking of neurotrophic factors may be a key event of the pathogenetic process leading to neurodegeneration in HD. To dissect the mechanisms by which Htt, HAP40, and Rab5 function in early endosome interactions with the cytoskeleton, we developed assays to investigate endosome-cytoskeleton interactions that can be applied to normal and pathological conditions. We provide here detailed protocols for, first, an assay that measures binding of early endosomes to microtubules and F-actin. Second, we describe an improved protocol for a cell-free assay that recapitulates the motility of early endosomes along microtubules in vitro. These assays provide mechanistic insights into the dysfunction of endosome motility occurring in HD as well as other neurodegenerative disorders.

Straight GDP-tubulin protofilaments form in the presence of taxol

Microtubules exist in dynamic equilibrium, growing and shrinking by the addition or loss of tubulin dimers from the ends of protofilaments. The hydrolysis of GTP in beta-tubulin destabilizes the microtubule lattice by increasing the curvature of protofilaments in the microtubule and putting strain on the lattice. The observation that protofilament curvature depends on GTP hydrolysis suggests that microtubule destabilizers and stabilizers work by modulating the curvature of the microtubule lattice itself. Indeed, the microtubule destabilizer MCAK has been shown to increase the curvature of protofilaments during depolymerization. Here, we show that the atomic force microscopy (AFM) of individual tubulin protofilaments provides sufficient resolution to allow the imaging of single protofilaments in their native environment. By using this assay, we confirm previous results for the effects of GTP hydrolysis and MCAK on the conformation of protofilaments. We go on to show that taxol stabilizes microtubules by straightening the GDP protofilament and slowing down the transition of protofilaments from straight to a curved configuration.

A Bir1-Sli15 complex connects centromeres to microtubules and is required to sense kinetochore tension

Proper connections between centromeres and spindle microtubules are of critical importance in ensuring accurate segregation of the genome during cell division. Using an in vitro approach based on the sequence-specific budding yeast centromere, we identified a complex of the chromosomal passenger proteins Bir1 and Sli15 (Survivin and INCENP) that links centromeres to microtubules. This linkage does not require Ipl1/Aurora B kinase, whose targeting and activation are controlled by Bir1 and Sli15. Ipl1 is the tension-dependent regulator of centromere-microtubule interactions that ensures chromosome biorientation on the spindle. Elimination of the linkage between centromeres and microtubules mediated by Bir1-Sli15 phenocopies mutations that selectively cripple Ipl1 kinase activation. These findings lead us to propose that the Bir1-Sli15-mediated linkage, which bridges centromeres and microtubules and includes the Aurora kinase-activating domain of INCENP family proteins, is the tension sensor that relays the mechanical state of centromere-microtubule attachments into local control of Ipl1 kinase activity.

Ysp2 mediates death of yeast induced by amiodarone or intracellular acidification

Recently we have found that the drug amiodarone induces apoptosis in yeast, which is mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Here we have used this finding as a tool to screen for genes involved in the death program. We have described a novel mitochondrial protein, Ysp2, acting in the amiodarone-induced death cascade. After amiodarone addition both the control and amiodarone-resistant ysp2-deleted cells formed ROS, but the mutant (unlike the control) did not undergo the mitochondrial thread-to-grain transition. To test whether the action of Ysp2 is amiodarone-specific we tried to induce PCD by other agents. We have found that acetic acid-induced PCD also depends on Ysp2. We also demonstrate that, like acetic acid, propionic acid or nigericin triggered intracellular acidification causing ROS-dependent death. We suggest that intracellular acidification results in the protonation of superoxide anion (O2-*) to form HO2, one of the most aggressive ROS, which in turn induces Ysp2-mediated PCD.

Expression of an expanded polyglutamine domain in yeast causes death with apoptotic markers

Huntington's disease is caused by specific mutations in huntingtin protein. Expansion of a polyglutamine (polyQ) repeat of huntingtin leads to protein aggregation in neurons followed by cell death with apoptotic markers. The connection between the aggregation and the degeneration of neurons is poorly understood. Here, we show that the physiological consequences of expanded polyQ domain expression in yeast are similar to those in neurons. In particular, expression of expanded polyQ in yeast causes apoptotic changes in mitochondria, caspase activation, nuclear DNA fragmentation and death. Similar to neurons, at the late stages of expression the expanded polyQ accumulates in the nuclei and seems to affect the cell cycle of yeast. Interestingly, nuclear localization of the aggregates is dependent on functional caspase Yca1. We speculate that the aggregates in the nuclei disturb the cell cycle and thus contribute to the development of the cell death process in both systems. Our data show that expression of the polyQ construct in yeast can be used to model patho-physiological effects of polyQ expansion in neurons.

Huntingtin-HAP40 complex is a novel Rab5 effector that regulates early endosome motility and is up-regulated in Huntington's disease

The molecular mechanisms underlying the targeting of Huntingtin (Htt) to endosomes and its multifaceted role in endocytosis are poorly understood. In this study, we have identified Htt-associated protein 40 (HAP40) as a novel effector of the small guanosine triphosphatase Rab5, a key regulator of endocytosis. HAP40 mediates the recruitment of Htt by Rab5 onto early endosomes. HAP40 overexpression caused a drastic reduction of early endosomal motility through their displacement from microtubules and preferential association with actin filaments. Remarkably, endogenous HAP40 was up-regulated in fibroblasts and brain tissue from human patients affected by Huntington's disease (HD) as well as in STHdhQ¹¹¹ striatal cells established from a HD mouse model. These cells consistently displayed altered endosome motility and endocytic activity, which was restored by the ablation of HAP40. In revealing an unexpected link between Rab5, HAP40, and Htt, we uncovered a new mechanism regulating cytoskeleton-dependent endosome dynamics and its dysfunction under pathological conditions.

Modulation of Receptor Recycling and Degradation by the Endosomal Kinesin KIF16B

Different classes of endosomes exhibit a characteristic intracellular steady-state distribution governed by interactions with the cytoskeleton. We found a kinesin-3, KIF16B, that transports early endosomes to the plus end of microtubules in a process regulated by the small GTPase Rab5 and its effector, the phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase hVPS34. In vivo, KIF16B overexpression relocated early endosomes to the cell periphery and inhibited transport to the degradative pathway. Conversely, expression of dominant-negative mutants or ablation of KIF16B by RNAi caused the clustering of early endosomes to the perinuclear region, delayed receptor recycling to the plasma membrane, and accelerated degradation. These results suggest that KIF16B, by regulating the plus end motility of early endosomes, modulates the intracellular localization of early endosomes and the balance between receptor recycling and degradation. We propose that this mechanism could have important implications for signaling.

CLASP1 and CLASP2 bind to EB1 and regulate microtubule plus-end dynamics at the cell cortex

CLIP-associating protein (CLASP) 1 and CLASP2 are mammalian microtubule (MT) plus-end binding proteins, which associate with CLIP-170 and CLIP-115. Using RNA interference in HeLa cells, we show that the two CLASPs play redundant roles in regulating the density, length distribution and stability of interphase MTs. In HeLa cells, both CLASPs concentrate on the distal MT ends in a narrow region at the cell margin. CLASPs stabilize MTs by promoting pauses and restricting MT growth and shortening episodes to this peripheral cell region. We demonstrate that the middle part of CLASPs binds directly to EB1 and to MTs. Furthermore, we show that the association of CLASP2 with the cell cortex is MT independent and relies on its COOH-terminal domain. Both EB1- and cortex-binding domains of CLASP are required to promote MT stability. We propose that CLASPs can mediate interactions between MT plus ends and the cell cortex and act as local rescue factors, possibly through forming a complex with EB1 at MT tips.

Thirteen is the lucky number for doublecortin

Doublecortin is a microtubule-associated protein that is essential for normal brain development. A recent report published in Molecular Cell shows that doublecortin associates preferentially with microtubules made of 13 protofilaments, by recognizing a novel site between the protofilaments. These findings explain how doublecortin stabilizes microtubules and provide clues about its function during neuronal migration.

Urine mutagenicity and lymphocyte DNA damage in fruit growers occupationally exposed to the fungicide captan

AIMS

To determine haematological parameters, urine mutagenicity (on three Salmonella typhimurium strains), and DNA damage (using the comet assay) in mononuclear leucocytes of farmers before and after a one-day spraying period of pear and apple trees with the fungicide captan in usual conditions.

METHODS

Fruit growers were exposed to captan during the 1998 (n = 12) and/or the 2000 spraying seasons (n = 17). Biological samples were collected on the morning of the day of spraying (S1), the evening after spraying (S2), and the morning of the day after (S3). The UK Predictive Operator Exposure Model (UK-POEM) was used to quantify pesticide exposure intensity.

RESULTS

No effect was observed on haematological parameters for these two spraying seasons. Proportions of mutagenic urine samples did not significantly differ between S1 and S2/S3 sampling points. In contrast with strains TA97a and YG1041 mainly sensitive to frameshift mutations, a positive trend was observed between the difference (S3-S1) of mutagenic power on strain TA102 detecting base-pair mutations and the exposure predicted value given by UK-POEM, mainly due to parameters related to protective clothing. No significant variations in DNA damage levels were observed between S1 and S3, nor were correlations observed with parameters of pesticide exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

A one-day spraying period with captan and other pesticides does not significantly induce DNA damages in mononuclear leucocytes. In contrast, an inefficient protective clothing could correlate with an increase in urine mutagenicity as assessed by the TA102 tester strain.

Observing the growth of individual actin filaments in cell extracts by time-lapse atomic force microscopy

High-resolution atomic force microscopy (AFM) was applied to directly observe the dynamic assembly of single actin filaments in HeLa cell extracts in vitro. The F-actin filaments established a dynamic network and formed different types of junctions and branches. The connections of this network were X-, Y- or T-shaped. It was found that the actin filaments were densely covered by endosomes and vesicles from the cell extract, which are thought to stabilize their structures. Using time-lapse AFM, the growth, shrinkage, branching and the interaction of actin filaments with endosomes could be characterized. Our results indicate that the majority of F-actin filaments are static in HeLa extract and that only a minor fraction of filaments undergo dynamic changes. Furthermore, the AFM imaging approach not only provides unique insights into the assembly and dynamics of actin networks; it also builds an avenue to study in vitro assays of complex biological systems.

XMAP215 is required for the microtubule-nucleating activity of centrosomes

Microtubules are essential structures that organize the cytoplasm and form the mitotic spindle. Their number and orientation depend on the rate of nucleation events and their dynamics. Microtubules are often, but not always, nucleated off a single cytoplasmic element, the centrosome. One microtubule-associated protein, XMAP215, is also a resident centrosomal protein. In this study, we have found that XMAP215 is a key component for the microtubule-nucleating activity of centrosomes. We show that depletion of XMAP215 from Xenopus egg extracts impairs their ability to reconstitute the microtubule nucleation potential of salt-stripped centrosomes. We also show that XMAP215 immobilized on polymer beads induces the formation of microtubule asters in egg extracts as well as in solutions of pure tubulin. Formation of asters by XMAP215 beads indicates that this protein is able to anchor nascent microtubules via their minus ends. The aster-forming activity of XMAP215 does not require gamma-tubulin in pure tubulin solutions, but it is gamma-tubulin-dependent in egg extracts. Our results indicate that XMAP215, a resident centrosomal protein, contributes to the microtubule-nucleating activity of centrosomes, suggesting that, in vivo, the formation of asters by centrosomes requires factors additional to gamma-tubulin.

Correct spindle elongation at the metaphase/anaphase transition is an APC-dependent event in budding yeast

At the metaphase to anaphase transition, chromosome segregation is initiated by the splitting of sister chromatids. Subsequently, spindles elongate, separating the sister chromosomes into two sets. Here, we investigate the cell cycle requirements for spindle elongation in budding yeast using mutants affecting sister chromatid cohesion or DNA replication. We show that separation of sister chromatids is not sufficient for proper spindle integrity during elongation. Rather, successful spindle elongation and stability require both sister chromatid separation and anaphase-promoting complex activation. Spindle integrity during elongation is dependent on proteolysis of the securin Pds1 but not on the activity of the separase Esp1. Our data suggest that stabilization of the elongating spindle at the metaphase to anaphase transition involves Pds1-dependent targets other than Esp1.

Stu2 promotes mitotic spindle elongation in anaphase

During anaphase, mitotic spindles elongate up to five times their metaphase length. This process, known as anaphase B, is essential for correct segregation of chromosomes. Here, we examine the control of spindle length during anaphase in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We show that microtubule stabilization during anaphase requires the microtubule-associated protein Stu2. We further show that the activity of Stu2 is opposed by the activity of the kinesin-related protein Kip3. Reexamination of the kinesin homology tree suggests that KIP3 is the S. cerevisiae orthologue of the microtubule-destabilizing subfamily of kinesins (Kin I). We conclude that a balance of activity between evolutionally conserved microtubule-stabilizing and microtubule-destabilizing factors is essential for correct spindle elongation during anaphase B.

Tumor necrosis factor induces hyperphosphorylation of kinesin light chain and inhibits kinesin-mediated transport of mitochondria

The molecular motor kinesin is an ATPase that mediates plus end-directed transport of organelles along microtubules. Although the biochemical properties of kinesin are extensively studied, conclusive data on regulation of kinesin-mediated transport are largely lacking. Previously, we showed that the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor induces perinuclear clustering of mitochondria. Here, we show that tumor necrosis factor impairs kinesin motor activity and hyperphosphorylates kinesin light chain through activation of two putative kinesin light chain kinases. Inactivation of kinesin, hyperphosphorylation of kinesin light chain, and perinuclear clustering of mitochondria exhibit the same p38 mitogen-activated kinase dependence, indicating their functional relationship. These data provide evidence for direct regulation of kinesin-mediated organelle transport by extracellular stimuli via cytokine receptor signaling pathways.

Rab5 regulates motility of early endosomes on microtubules

The small GTPase Rab5 regulates membrane docking and fusion in the early endocytic pathway. Here we reveal a new role for Rab5 in the regulation of endosome interactions with the microtubule network. Using Rab5 fused to green fluorescent protein we show that Rab5-positive endosomes move on microtubules in vivo. In vitro, Rab5 stimulates both association of early endosomes with microtubules and early-endosome motility towards the minus ends of microtubules. Moreover, similarly to endosome membrane docking and fusion, Rab5-dependent endosome movement depends on the phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase hVPS34. Thus, Rab5 functionally links regulation of membrane transport, motility and intracellular distribution of early endosomes.

Structural changes at microtubule ends accompanying GTP hydrolysis: information from a slowly hydrolyzable analogue of GTP, guanylyl (alpha,beta)methylenediphosphonate

Microtubules are dynamic polymers that interconvert between periods of slow growth and fast shrinkage. The energy driving this nonequilibrium behavior comes from the hydrolysis of GTP, which is required to destabilize the microtubule lattice. To understand the mechanism of this destabilization, cryo-electron microscopy was used to compare the structure of the ends of shrinking microtubules assembled in the presence of either GTP or the slowly hydrolyzable analogue guanylyl (alpha,beta)methylenediphosphonate (GMPCPP). Depolymerization was induced by cold or addition of calcium. With either nucleotide, we have observed curled oligomers at the ends of shrinking microtubules. However, GDP oligomers were consistently more curved than GMPCPP oligomers. This difference in curvature between depolymerizing GDP and GMPCPP protofilaments suggests that GTP hydrolysis is accompanied by an increase in curvature of the protofilaments, thereby destabilizing the lateral interactions between tubulin subunits in the microtubule lattice.

Detection of adeno-associated virus DNA in human genital tissue and in material from spontaneous abortion

The human helper virus-dependent parvovirus, adeno-associated virus (AAV) has never been associated with disease in humans [Berns et al. (1987): Advances in Virus Research 32:243-306; Siegl et al. (1985): Intervirology 23:61-73]. However, in pregnant mice, infection with AAV induces early abortion [Botquin et al. (1993): Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology 119:24]. We investigated whether this common human virus may be found in human genital tissue or in curettage material from spontaneous abortion. Using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) AAV type 2 DNA was amplified in histological sections of 19 of 30 biopsies of the uterine mucosa. In addition, AAV-2 DNA was detected in abortion material during the first trimester of pregnancy (12/30 cases were positive) but not in material of abortion from the second or third trimester (9 cases). Whereas in tissues from the uterus AAV DNA was found only by PCR, large amounts of viral DNA were detectable by Southern blot analysis in abortion material. In situ hybridization revealed DNA of AAV to be present in the villous moiety (trophoblast) of the placenta but not in the embryo or decidua. in the same cells, AAV proteins (including the replication-associated rep proteins) were detected by immunofluorescence analysis. These results suggest (1) that AAV infects the uterine mucosa (possibly persistently) and (2) that it can replicate in trophoblast cells. This might disturb placenta development and may play a role in early miscarriage.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Ludwig's angina and mediastinitis due to Streptococcus milleri: usefulness of computed tomography

Despite intensive use of antibiotics, Ludwig's angina remains a potentially lethal infection because of the risk of upper airway obstruction and spread into the mediastinum. We present two patients who survived mediastinitis complicating Ludwig's angina due to Streptococcus milleri. Computed tomography performed early in the course of the disease detected pus collections and directed appropriate drainage procedures.

Ludwig's angina and mediastinitis due to Streptococcus milleri: usefulness of computed tomography

Despite intensive use of antibiotics, Ludwig's angina remains a potentially lethal infection because of the risk of upper airway obstruction and spread into the mediastinum. We present two patients who survived mediastinitis complicating Ludwig's angina due to Streptococcus milleri. Computed tomography performed early in the course of the disease detected pus collections and directed appropriate drainage procedures.

Subjective sensitization to tonic heat as an indicator of thermal pain

In 144 healthy subjects tonic heat stimuli were applied with a contact thermode and systematically varied with respect to 3 parameters: temperature T, rate of temperature change RTC, and duration D. In addition, the stimulus temperature at which the first sensation of pain occurred was produced by some subjects. In both types of experiments, subjects compared heat intensity felt at the beginning and the end of the stimulus and then set stimulus temperature to correspond with their initial sensation. The direction of this temperature change (delta T) indicates whether the subject senses an augmentation or a diminution of heat intensity. There was a parallel occurrence of pain and sensitization to sustained heat. The average skin temperature of the point of transition from adaptation to sensitization was equal to the average pain threshold temperature. The temperature change response maintained individual differences of thermal and pain sensitivity and was highly consistent for each subject. Potential applications of the procedure in clinical and experimental pain research are discussed.

[Proof of TNS effect using experimental heat pain]

By means of experimentally induced heat pain, the effectiveness of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TNS) was studied in 51 healthy volunteers. TNS produces an elevation of the lower range of sensitiveness to pain ("elevated pain threshold") and hence pain relief. The findings are compared with neurophysiological results from leads of polymodal human C-fibres and spinothalamic tract (dorsal horn) neurons. Their importance for clinical pain syndromes is discussed.