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Pennacchio FA, Poli A, Pramotton FM, Lavore S, Rancati I, Cinquanta M, Vorselen D, Prina E, Romano OM, Ferrari A, Piel M, Cosentino Lagomarsino M, Maiuri P. N2FXm, a method for joint nuclear and cytoplasmic volume measurements, unravels the osmo-mechanical regulation of nuclear volume in mammalian cells. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1070. [PMID: 38326317 PMCID: PMC10850064 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45168-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024] Open
Abstract
In eukaryotes, cytoplasmic and nuclear volumes are tightly regulated to ensure proper cell homeostasis. However, current methods to measure cytoplasmic and nuclear volumes, including confocal 3D reconstruction, have limitations, such as relying on two-dimensional projections or poor vertical resolution. Here, to overcome these limitations, we describe a method, N2FXm, to jointly measure cytoplasmic and nuclear volumes in single cultured adhering human cells, in real time, and across cell cycles. We find that this method accurately provides joint size over dynamic measurements and at different time resolutions. Moreover, by combining several experimental perturbations and analyzing a mathematical model including osmotic effects and tension, we show that N2FXm can give relevant insights on how mechanical forces exerted by the cytoskeleton on the nuclear envelope can affect the growth of nucleus volume by biasing nuclear import. Our method, by allowing for accurate joint nuclear and cytoplasmic volume dynamic measurements at different time resolutions, highlights the non-constancy of the nucleus/cytoplasm ratio along the cell cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio A Pennacchio
- IFOM ETS-The AIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139, Milan, Italy
- Laboratory of Applied Mechanobiology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 4, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alessandro Poli
- IFOM ETS-The AIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Michela Pramotton
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Sonneggstrasse 3, Zurich, CH-8092, Switzerland
| | - Stefania Lavore
- IFOM ETS-The AIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139, Milan, Italy
| | - Ilaria Rancati
- IFOM ETS-The AIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139, Milan, Italy
| | - Mario Cinquanta
- IFOM ETS-The AIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139, Milan, Italy
| | - Daan Vorselen
- Department of Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98105, USA
| | - Elisabetta Prina
- IFOM ETS-The AIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139, Milan, Italy
| | - Orso Maria Romano
- IFOM ETS-The AIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139, Milan, Italy
| | - Aldo Ferrari
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Sonneggstrasse 3, Zurich, CH-8092, Switzerland
| | - Matthieu Piel
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS, UMR 144, F-75005, Paris, France
- Institut Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, PSL Research University, F-75005, Paris, France
| | - Marco Cosentino Lagomarsino
- IFOM ETS-The AIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139, Milan, Italy
- Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Milano, and I.N.F.N., Via Celoria 16, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Maiuri
- IFOM ETS-The AIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139, Milan, Italy.
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Biotecnologie Mediche, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via S. Pansini 5, 80131, Naples, Italy.
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Ko EC, Spitz S, Pramotton FM, Barr OM, Xu C, Pavlou G, Zhang S, Tsai A, Maaser-Hecker A, Jorfi M, Choi SH, Tanzi RE, Kamm RD. Accelerating the in vitro emulation of Alzheimer's disease-associated phenotypes using a novel 3D blood-brain barrier neurosphere co-culture model. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1251195. [PMID: 37901842 PMCID: PMC10600382 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1251195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/31/2023] Open
Abstract
High failure rates in clinical trials for neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease have been linked to an insufficient predictive validity of current animal-based disease models. This has created an increasing demand for alternative, human-based models capable of emulating key pathological phenotypes in vitro. Here, a three-dimensional Alzheimer's disease model was developed using a compartmentalized microfluidic device that combines a self-assembled microvascular network of the human blood-brain barrier with neurospheres derived from Alzheimer's disease-specific neural progenitor cells. To shorten microfluidic co-culture times, neurospheres were pre-differentiated for 21 days to express Alzheimer's disease-specific pathological phenotypes prior to the introduction into the microfluidic device. In agreement with post-mortem studies and Alzheimer's disease in vivo models, after 7 days of co-culture with pre-differentiated Alzheimer's disease-specific neurospheres, the three-dimensional blood-brain barrier network exhibited significant changes in barrier permeability and morphology. Furthermore, vascular networks in co-culture with Alzheimer's disease-specific microtissues displayed localized β-amyloid deposition. Thus, by interconnecting a microvascular network of the blood-brain barrier with pre-differentiated neurospheres the presented model holds immense potential for replicating key neurovascular phenotypes of neurodegenerative disorders in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunkyung Clare Ko
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Sarah Spitz
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Francesca Michela Pramotton
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Olivia M. Barr
- Genetics and Aging Research Unit, McCance Center for Brain Health, Mass General Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Ciana Xu
- Genetics and Aging Research Unit, McCance Center for Brain Health, Mass General Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Georgios Pavlou
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Shun Zhang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Alice Tsai
- Genetics and Aging Research Unit, McCance Center for Brain Health, Mass General Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Anna Maaser-Hecker
- Genetics and Aging Research Unit, McCance Center for Brain Health, Mass General Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Mehdi Jorfi
- Genetics and Aging Research Unit, McCance Center for Brain Health, Mass General Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Se Hoon Choi
- Genetics and Aging Research Unit, McCance Center for Brain Health, Mass General Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Rudolph E. Tanzi
- Genetics and Aging Research Unit, McCance Center for Brain Health, Mass General Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Roger D. Kamm
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
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Pramotton FM, Cousin L, Roy T, Giampietro C, Cecchini M, Masciullo C, Ferrari A, Poulikakos D. Accelerated epithelial layer healing induced by tactile anisotropy in surface topography. Sci Adv 2023; 9:eadd1581. [PMID: 37027475 PMCID: PMC10081848 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.add1581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Mammalian cells respond to tactile cues from topographic elements presented by the substrate. Among these, anisotropic features distributed in an ordered manner give directionality. In the extracellular matrix, this ordering is embedded in a noisy environment altering the contact guidance effect. To date, it is unclear how cells respond to topographical signals in a noisy environment. Here, using rationally designed substrates, we report morphotaxis, a guidance mechanism enabling fibroblasts and epithelial cells to move along gradients of topographic order distortion. Isolated cells and cell ensembles perform morphotaxis in response to gradients of different strength and directionality, with mature epithelia integrating variations of topographic order over hundreds of micrometers. The level of topographic order controls cell cycle progression, locally delaying or promoting cell proliferation. In mature epithelia, the combination of morphotaxis and noise-dependent distributed proliferation provides a strategy to enhance wound healing as confirmed by a mathematical model capturing key elements of the process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Michela Pramotton
- Experimental Continuum Mechanics Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Science and Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland
| | - Lucien Cousin
- Macromolecular Engineering Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tamal Roy
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Sonneggstrasse 3, Zurich CH-8092, Switzerland
| | - Costanza Giampietro
- Experimental Continuum Mechanics Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Science and Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland
| | - Marco Cecchini
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa 56127, Italy
| | - Cecilia Masciullo
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa 56127, Italy
| | - Aldo Ferrari
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Science and Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Sonneggstrasse 3, Zurich CH-8092, Switzerland
| | - Dimos Poulikakos
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Sonneggstrasse 3, Zurich CH-8092, Switzerland
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Choi Y, Morlino G, Toboso-Navasa A, Hopf R, Pramotton FM, Bigot A, Taddei A, Cesarovic N, Falk V, Mazza E, Giampietro C. A novel bistable device to study mechanosensitive cell responses to instantaneous stretch. Biomater Adv 2022; 141:213134. [PMID: 36191540 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioadv.2022.213134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The behavior of cells and tissues in vivo is determined by the integration of multiple biochemical and mechanical signals. Of the mechanical signals, stretch has been studied for decades and shown to contribute to pathophysiological processes. Several different stretch devices have been developed for in vitro investigations of cell stretch. In this work, we describe a new 3D-printed uniaxial stretching device for studying cell response to rapid deformation. The device is a bistable compliant mechanism holding two equilibrium states-an unstretched and stretched configuration-without the need of an external actuator. Furthermore, it allows multiple simultaneous measurements of different levels of stretch on a single substrate and is compatible with standard immunofluorescence imaging of fixed cells as well as live-cell imaging. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the device to stretch cells, a test case using aligned myotubes is presented. Leveraging material area changes associated with deformation of the substrate, changes in nuclei density provided evidence of affine deformation between cells and substrate. Furthermore, intranuclear deformations were also assessed and shown to deform non-affinely. As a proof-of-principle of the use of the device for mechanobiological studies, we uniaxially stretched aligned healthy and dystrophic myotubes that displayed different passive mechanical responses, consistent with previous literature in the field. We also identified a new feature in the mechanoresponse of dystrophic myotubes, which is of potential interest for identifying the diseased cells based on a quick mechanical readout. While some applications of the device for elucidating passive mechanical responses are demonstrated, the simplicity of the device allows it to be potentially used for other modes of deformation with little modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Choi
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Raoul Hopf
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland; Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology (EMPA), Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland; Senecell AG, Zurich 8057, Switzerland
| | - Francesca Michela Pramotton
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland; Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology (EMPA), Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland
| | - Anne Bigot
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, Institut de Myologie, Centre de Recherche en Myologie, F-75013 Paris, France
| | | | - Nikola Cesarovic
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland; Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin 10117, Germany
| | - Volkmar Falk
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland; Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin 10117, Germany
| | - Edoardo Mazza
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland; Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology (EMPA), Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland.
| | - Costanza Giampietro
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland; Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology (EMPA), Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland; Senecell AG, Zurich 8057, Switzerland.
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Pramotton FM, Robotti F, Giampietro C, Lendenmann T, Poulikakos D, Ferrari A. Optimized Topological and Topographical Expansion of Epithelia. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2019; 5:3922-3934. [DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.8b01346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Michela Pramotton
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Sonneggstrasse 3, Zurich CH-8092, Switzerland
| | - Francesco Robotti
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Sonneggstrasse 3, Zurich CH-8092, Switzerland
| | - Costanza Giampietro
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Sonneggstrasse 3, Zurich CH-8092, Switzerland
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Science and Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland
| | - Tobias Lendenmann
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Sonneggstrasse 3, Zurich CH-8092, Switzerland
| | - Dimos Poulikakos
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Sonneggstrasse 3, Zurich CH-8092, Switzerland
| | - Aldo Ferrari
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Sonneggstrasse 3, Zurich CH-8092, Switzerland
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Science and Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland
- Institute for Mechanical Systems, ETH Zurich, Leonhardstrasse 21, Zurich CH-8092, Switzerland
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Panagiotakopoulou M, Lendenmann T, Pramotton FM, Giampietro C, Stefopoulos G, Poulikakos D, Ferrari A. Cell cycle-dependent force transmission in cancer cells. Mol Biol Cell 2018; 29:2528-2539. [PMID: 30113874 PMCID: PMC6254576 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e17-12-0726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The generation of traction forces and their transmission to the extracellular environment supports the disseminative migration of cells from a primary tumor. In cancer cells, the periodic variation of nuclear stiffness during the cell cycle provides a functional link between efficient translocation and proliferation. However, the mechanical framework completing this picture remains unexplored. Here, the Fucci2 reporter was expressed in various human epithelial cancer cells to resolve their cell cycle phase transition. The corresponding tractions were captured by a recently developed reference-free confocal traction-force microscopy platform. The combined approach was conducive to the analysis of phase-dependent force variation at the level of individual integrin contacts. Detected forces were invariably higher in the G1 and early S phases than in the ensuing late S/G2, and locally colocalized with high levels of paxillin phosphorylation. Perturbation of paxillin phosphorylation at focal adhesions, obtained through the biochemical inhibition of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) or the transfection of nonphosphorylatable or phosphomimetic paxillin mutants, significantly diminished the force transmitted to the substrate. These data demonstrate a reproducible modulation of force transmission during the cell cycle progression of cancer cells, instrumental to their invasion of dense environments. In addition, they delineate a model in which paxillin phosphorylation supports the mechanical maturation of adhesions relaying forces to the substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalini Panagiotakopoulou
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Tobias Lendenmann
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Francesca Michela Pramotton
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Costanza Giampietro
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Georgios Stefopoulos
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Dimos Poulikakos
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Aldo Ferrari
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
- Institute for Mechanical Systems, ETH Zurich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
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Green BJ, Panagiotakopoulou M, Pramotton FM, Stefopoulos G, Kelley SO, Poulikakos D, Ferrari A. Pore Shape Defines Paths of Metastatic Cell Migration. Nano Lett 2018; 18:2140-2147. [PMID: 29480726 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b00431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Invasion of dense tissues by cancer cells involves the interplay between the penetration resistance offered by interstitial pores and the deformability of cells. Metastatic cancer cells find optimal paths of minimal resistance through an adaptive path-finding process, which leads to successful dissemination. The physical limit of nuclear deformation is related to the minimal cross section of pores that can be successfully penetrated. However, this single biophysical parameter does not fully describe the architectural complexity of tissues featuring pores of variable area and shape. Here, employing laser nanolithography, we fabricate pore microenvironment models with well-controlled pore shapes, through which human breast cells (MCF10A) and their metastatic offspring (MCF10CA1a.cl1) could pervade. In these experimental settings, we demonstrate that the actual pore shape, and not only the cross section, is a major and independent determinant of cancer penetration efficiency. In complex architectures containing pores demanding large deformations from invading cells, tall and narrow rectangular openings facilitate cancer migration. In addition, we highlight the characteristic traits of the explorative behavior enabling metastatic cells to identify and select such pore shapes in a complex multishape pore environment, pinpointing paths of least resistance to invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda J Green
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering , ETH Zurich , Sonneggstrasse 3 , CH-8092 Zurich , Switzerland
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , University of Toronto , 144 College Street , Toronto M5S 3M2 , Canada
| | - Magdalini Panagiotakopoulou
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering , ETH Zurich , Sonneggstrasse 3 , CH-8092 Zurich , Switzerland
| | - Francesca Michela Pramotton
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering , ETH Zurich , Sonneggstrasse 3 , CH-8092 Zurich , Switzerland
| | - Georgios Stefopoulos
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering , ETH Zurich , Sonneggstrasse 3 , CH-8092 Zurich , Switzerland
| | - Shana O Kelley
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , University of Toronto , 144 College Street , Toronto M5S 3M2 , Canada
| | - Dimos Poulikakos
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering , ETH Zurich , Sonneggstrasse 3 , CH-8092 Zurich , Switzerland
| | - Aldo Ferrari
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering , ETH Zurich , Sonneggstrasse 3 , CH-8092 Zurich , Switzerland
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