Quantifying and monitoring functional photosystem II and the stoichiometry of the two photosystems in leaf segments: approaches and approximations

Given its unique function in light-induced water oxidation and its susceptibility to photoinactivation during photosynthesis, photosystem II (PS II) is often the focus of studies of photosynthetic structure and function, particularly in environmental stress conditions. Here we review four approaches for quantifying or monitoring PS II functionality or the stoichiometry of the two photosystems in leaf segments, scrutinizing the approximations in each approach. (1) Chlorophyll fluorescence parameters are convenient to derive, but the information-rich signal suffers from the localized nature of its detection in leaf tissue. (2) The gross O(2) yield per single-turnover flash in CO(2)-enriched air is a more direct measurement of the functional content, assuming that each functional PS II evolves one O(2) molecule after four flashes. However, the gross O(2) yield per single-turnover flash (multiplied by four) could over-estimate the content of functional PS II if mitochondrial respiration is lower in flash illumination than in darkness. (3) The cumulative delivery of electrons from PS II to P700(+) (oxidized primary donor in PS I) after a flash is added to steady background far-red light is a whole-tissue measurement, such that a single linear correlation with functional PS II applies to leaves of all plant species investigated so far. However, the magnitude obtained in a simple analysis (with the signal normalized to the maximum photo-oxidizable P700 signal), which should equal the ratio of PS II to PS I centers, was too small to match the independently-obtained photosystem stoichiometry. Further, an under-estimation of functional PS II content could occur if some electrons were intercepted before reaching PS I. (4) The electrochromic signal from leaf segments appears to reliably quantify the photosystem stoichiometry, either by progressively photoinactivating PS II or suppressing PS I via photo-oxidation of a known fraction of the P700 with steady far-red light. Together, these approaches have the potential for quantitatively probing PS II in vivo in leaf segments, with prospects for application of the latter two approaches in the field.

Implications of alternative electron sinks in increased resistance of PSII and PSI photochemistry to high light stress in cold-acclimated Arabidopsis thaliana

Exposure of control (non-hardened) Arabidopsis leaves to high light stress at 5 °C resulted in a decrease of both photosystem II (PSII) (45 %) and Photosystem I (PSI) (35 %) photochemical efficiencies compared to non-treated plants. In contrast, cold-acclimated (CA) leaves exhibited only 35 and 22 % decrease of PSII and PSI photochemistry, respectively, under the same conditions. This was accompanied by an accelerated rate of P700(+) re-reduction, indicating an up-regulation of PSI-dependent cyclic electron transport (CET). Interestingly, the expression of the NDH-H gene and the relative abundance of the Ndh-H polypeptide, representing the NDH-complex, decreased as a result of exposure to low temperatures. This indicates that the NDH-dependent CET pathway cannot be involved and the overall stimulation of CET in CA plants is due to up-regulation of the ferredoxin-plastoquinone reductase, antimycin A-sensitive CET pathway. The lower abundance of NDH complex also implies lower activity of the chlororespiratory pathway in CA plants, although the expression level and overall abundance of the other well-characterized component involved in chlororespiration, the plastid terminal oxidase (PTOX), was up-regulated at low temperatures. This suggests increased PTOX-mediated alternative electron flow to oxygen in plants exposed to low temperatures. Indeed, the estimated proportion of O(2)-dependent linear electron transport not utilized in carbon assimilation and not directed to photorespiration was twofold higher in CA Arabidopsis. The possible involvement of alternative electron transport pathways in inducing greater resistance of both PSII and PSI to high light stress in CA plants is discussed.

Restricted capacity for PSI-dependent cyclic electron flow in ΔpetE mutant compromises the ability for acclimation to iron stress in Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 cells

Exposure of wild type (WT) and plastocyanin coding petE gene deficient mutant (ΔpetE) of Synechococcus cells to low iron growth conditions was accompanied by similar iron-stress induced blue-shift of the main red Chl a absorption peak and a gradual decrease of the Phc/Chl ratio, although ΔpetE mutant was more sensitive when exposed to iron deficient conditions. Despite comparable iron stress induced phenotypic changes, the inactivation of petE gene expression was accompanied with a significant reduction of the growth rates compared to WT cells. To examine the photosynthetic electron fluxes in vivo, far-red light induced P700 redox state transients at 820nm of WT and ΔpetE mutant cells grown under iron sufficient and iron deficient conditions were compared. The extent of the absorbance change (ΔA(820)/A(820)) used for quantitative estimation of photooxidizable P700(+) indicated a 2-fold lower level of P700(+) in ΔpetE compared to WT cells under control conditions. This was accompanied by a 2-fold slower re-reduction rate of P700(+) in the ΔpetE indicating a lower capacity for cyclic electron flow around PSI in the cells lacking plastocyanin. Thermoluminescence (TL) measurements did not reveal significant differences in PSII photochemistry between control WT and ΔpetE cells. However, exposure to iron stress induced a 4.5 times lower level of P700(+), 2-fold faster re-reduction rate of P700(+) and a temperature shift of the TL peak corresponding to S(2)/S(3)Q(B)(-) charge recombination in WT cells. In contrast, the iron-stressed ΔpetE mutant exhibited only a 40% decrease of P700(+) and no significant temperature shift in S(2)/S(3)Q(B)(-) charge recombination. The role of mobile electron carriers in modulating the photosynthetic electron fluxes and physiological acclimation of cyanobacteria to low iron conditions is discussed. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Photosynthesis Research for Sustainability: from Natural to Artificial.

Regulation of energy partitioning and alternative electron transport pathways during cold acclimation of lodgepole pine is oxygen dependent

Second year needles of Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta L.) were exposed for 6 weeks to either simulated control summer ['summer'; 25 °C/250 photon flux denisty (PFD)], autumn ('autumn'; 15°C/250 PFD) or winter conditions ('winter'; 5 °C/250 PFD). We report that the proportion of linear electron transport utilized in carbon assimilation (ETR(CO2)) was 40% lower in both 'autumn' and 'winter' pine when compared with the 'summer' pine. In contrast, the proportion of excess photosynthetic linear electron transport (ETR(excess)) not used for carbon assimilation within the total ETR(Jf) increased by 30% in both 'autumn' and 'winter' pine. In 'autumn' pine acclimated to 15°C, the increased amounts of 'excess' electrons were directed equally to 21  kPa O2-dependent and 2  kPa O2-dependent alternative electron transport pathways and the fractions of excitation light energy utilized by PSII photochemistry (Φ(PSII)), thermally dissipated through Φ(NPQ) and dissipated by additional quenching mechanism(s) (Φ(f,D)) were similar to those in 'summer' pine. In contrast, in 'winter' needles acclimated to 5 °C, 60% of photosynthetically generated 'excess' electrons were utilized through the 2  kPa O2-dependent electron sink and only 15% by the photorespiratory (21  kPa O2) electron pathway. Needles exposed to 'winter' conditions led to a 3-fold lower Φ(PSII), only a marginal increase in Φ(NPQ) and a 2-fold higher Φ(f,D), which was O2 dependent compared with the 'summer' and 'autumn' pine. Our results demonstrate that the employment of a variety of alternative pathways for utilization of photosynthetically generated electrons by Lodgepole pine depends on the acclimation temperature. Furthermore, dissipation of excess light energy through constitutive non-photochemical quenching mechanisms is O2 dependent.

Photosystem II reaction centre quenching: mechanisms and physiological role

Dissipation of excess absorbed light energy in eukaryotic photoautotrophs through zeaxanthin- and DeltapH-dependent photosystem II antenna quenching is considered the major mechanism for non-photochemical quenching and photoprotection. However, there is mounting evidence of a zeaxanthin-independent pathway for dissipation of excess light energy based within the PSII reaction centre that may also play a significant role in photoprotection. We summarize recent reports which indicate that this enigma can be explained, in part, by the fact that PSII reaction centres can be reversibly interconverted from photochemical energy transducers that convert light into ATP and NADPH to efficient, non-photochemical energy quenchers that protect the photosynthetic apparatus from photodamage. In our opinion, reaction centre quenching complements photoprotection through antenna quenching, and dynamic regulation of photosystem II reaction centre represents a general response to any environmental condition that predisposes the accumulation of reduced Q(A) in the photosystem II reaction centres of prokaryotic and eukaryotic photoautotrophs. Since the evolution of reaction centres preceded the evolution of light harvesting systems, reaction centre quenching may represent the oldest photoprotective mechanism.

The induction of CP43′ by iron-stress in Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 is associated with carotenoid accumulation and enhanced fatty acid unsaturation

Comparative lipid analysis demonstrated reduced amount of PG (50%) and lower ratio of MGDG/DGDG in iron-stressed Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 cells compared to cells grown under iron sufficient conditions. In parallel, the monoenoic (C:1) fatty acids in MGDG, DGDG and PG increased from 46.8%, 43.7% and 45.6%, respectively in control cells to 51.6%, 48.8% and 48.7%, respectively in iron-stressed cells. This suggests increased membrane dynamics, which may facilitate the diffusion of PQ and keep the PQ pool in relatively more oxidized state in iron-stressed compared to control cells. This was confirmed by chlorophyll fluorescence and thermoluminescence measurements. Analysis of carotenoid composition demonstrated that the induction of isiA (CP43') protein in response to iron stress is accompanied by significant increase of the relative abundance of all carotenoids. The quantity of carotenoids calculated on a Chl basis increased differentially with nostoxanthin, cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin and beta-carotene showing 2.6-, 3.1-, 1.9- and 1.9-fold increases, respectively, while the relative amount of caloxanthin was increased only by 30%. HPLC analyses of the pigment composition of Chl-protein complexes separated by non-denaturating SDS-PAGE demonstrated even higher relative carotenoids content, especially of cryptoxanthin, in trimer and monomer PSI Chl-protein complexes co-migrating with CP43' from iron-stressed cells than in PSI complexes from control cells where CP43' is not present. This implies a carotenoid-binding role for the CP43' protein which supports our previous suggestion for effective energy quenching and photoprotective role of CP43' protein in cyanobacteria under iron stress.

A tribute to Per Halldal (1922-1986), a Norwegian photobiologist in Sweden

We present here a tribute to Per Halldal (February 2, 1922-March 26, 1986), a leader, an instrumentalist, an expert on phototaxis in algae, and one whom we remember, even after 20 years of his death, as a person who spread joy, enthusiasm and knowledge wherever he went.

Cold acclimation of the Arabidopsisdgd1mutant results in recovery from photosystem I-limited photosynthesis

We compared the thylakoid membrane composition and photosynthetic properties of non- and cold-acclimated leaves from the dgd1 mutant (lacking >90% of digalactosyl-diacylglycerol; DGDG) and wild type (WT) Arabidopsis thaliana. In contrast to warm grown plants, cold-acclimated dgd1 leaves recovered pigment-protein pools and photosynthetic function equivalent to WT. Surprisingly, this recovery was not correlated with an increase in DGDG. When returned to warm temperatures the severe dgd1 mutant phenotype reappeared. We conclude that the relative recovery of photosynthetic activity at 5 degrees C resulted from a temperature/lipid interaction enabling the stable assembly of PSI complexes in the thylakoid.

Digalactosyl-diacylglycerol deficiency impairs the capacity for photosynthetic intersystem electron transport and state transitions in Arabidopsis thaliana due to photosystem I acceptor-side limitations

Compared with wild type, the dgd1 mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana exhibited a lower amount of PSI-related Chl-protein complexes and lower abundance of the PSI-associated polypeptides, PsaA, PsaB, PsaC, PsaL and PsaH, with no changes in the levels of Lhca1-4. Functionally, the dgd1 mutant exhibited a significantly lower light-dependent, steady-state oxidation level of P700 (P700(+)) in vivo, a higher intersystem electron pool size, restricted linear electron transport and a higher rate of reduction of P700(+) in the dark, indicating an increased capacity for PSI cyclic electron transfer compared with the wild type. Concomitantly, the dgd1 mutant exhibited a higher sensitivity to and incomplete recovery of photoinhibition of PSI. Furthermore, dgd1 exhibited a lower capacity to undergo state transitions compared with the wild type, which was associated with a higher reduction state of the plastoquinone (PQ) pool. We conclude that digalactosyl-diacylglycerol (DGDG) deficiency results in PSI acceptor-side limitations that alter the flux of electrons through the photosynthetic electron chain and impair the regulation of distribution of excitation energy between the photosystems. These results are discussed in terms of thylakoid membrane domain reorganization in response to DGDG deficiency in A. thaliana.

Iron deficiency in cyanobacteria causes monomerization of photosystem I trimers and reduces the capacity for state transitions and the effective absorption cross section of photosystem I in vivo

The induction of the isiA (CP43') protein in iron-stressed cyanobacteria is accompanied by the formation of a ring of 18 CP43' proteins around the photosystem I (PSI) trimer and is thought to increase the absorption cross section of PSI within the CP43'-PSI supercomplex. In contrast to these in vitro studies, our in vivo measurements failed to demonstrate any increase of the PSI absorption cross section in two strains (Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 and Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803) of iron-stressed cells. We report that iron-stressed cells exhibited a reduced capacity for state transitions and limited dark reduction of the plastoquinone pool, which accounts for the increase in PSII-related 685 nm chlorophyll fluorescence under iron deficiency. This was accompanied by lower abundance of the NADP-dehydrogenase complex and the PSI-associated subunit PsaL, as well as a reduced amount of phosphatidylglycerol. Nondenaturating polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis separation of the chlorophyll-protein complexes indicated that the monomeric form of PSI is favored over the trimeric form of PSI under iron stress. Thus, we demonstrate that the induction of CP43' does not increase the PSI functional absorption cross section of whole cells in vivo, but rather, induces monomerization of PSI trimers and reduces the capacity for state transitions. We discuss the role of CP43' as an effective energy quencher to photoprotect PSII and PSI under unfavorable environmental conditions in cyanobacteria in vivo.

Characterization of the photosynthetic apparatus in cortical bark chlorenchyma of Scots pine

Winter-induced inhibition of photosynthesis in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) needles is accompanied by a 65% reduction of the maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (PSII), measured as Fv/Fm, but relatively stable photosystem I (PSI) activity. In contrast, the photochemical efficiency of PSII in bark chlorenchyma of Scots pine twigs was shown to be well preserved, while PSI capacity was severely decreased. Low-temperature (77 K) chlorophyll fluorescence measurements also revealed lower relative fluorescence intensity emitted from PSI in bark chlorenchyma compared to needles regardless of the growing season. Nondenaturating SDS-PAGE analysis of the chlorophyll-protein complexes also revealed much lower abundance of LHCI and the CPI band related to light harvesting and the core complex of PSI, respectively, in bark chlorenchyma. These changes were associated with a 38% reduction in the total amount of chlorophyll in the bark chlorenchyma relative to winter needles, but the Chl a/b ratio and carotenoid composition were similar in the two tissues. As distinct from winter pine needles exhibiting ATP/ADP ratio of 11.3, the total adenylate content in winter bark chlorenchyma was 2.5-fold higher and the estimated ATP/ADP ratio was 20.7. The photochemical efficiency of PSII in needles attached to the twig recovered significantly faster (28-30 h) then in detached needles. Fluorescence quenching analysis revealed a high reduction state of Q(A) and the PQ-pool in the green bark tissue. The role of bark chlorenchyma and its photochemical performance during the recovery of photosynthesis from winter stress in Scots pine is discussed.

Acclimation to temperature and irradiance modulates PSII charge recombination

Acclimation of wild type and the chlorina F2 mutant of barley to either high light or low temperature results in a 2- to 3-fold increase in non-photochemical quenching which occurred independently of either energy-dependent quenching (qE), xanthophyll cycle-mediated antenna quenching or state transitions. Results of in vivo thermoluminescence measurements used to address this conundrum indicated that excitation pressure regulates the temperature gap for S(2)Q(B)(-) and S(2)Q(A)(-) charge recombinations within photosystem II reaction centers. This is discussed in terms of photoprotection through non-radiative charge recombination.

Excitation energy partitioning and quenching during cold acclimation in Scots pine

We studied the influence of two irradiances on cold acclimation and recovery of photosynthesis in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings to assess mechanisms for quenching the excess energy captured by the photosynthetic apparatus. A shift in temperature from 20 to 5 degrees C caused a greater decrease in photosynthetic activity, measured by chlorophyll fluorescence and oxygen evolution, in plants exposed to moderate light (350 micromol m(-2) s(-1)) than in shaded plants (50 micromol m(-2) s(-1)). In response to the temperature shift, maximal photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (PSII), measured as the ratio of variable to maximal chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) of dark-adapted samples, decreased to 70% in exposed seedlings, whereas shaded seedlings maintained Fv/Fm close to initial values. After a further temperature decrease to -5 degrees C, only 8% of initial Fv/Fm remained in exposed plants, whereas shaded plants retained 40% of initial Fv/Fm. Seven days after transfer from -5 to 20 degrees C, recovery of photochemical efficiency was more complete in the shaded plants than in the exposed plants (87 and 65% of the initial Fv/Fm value, respectively). In response to cold stress, the estimated functional absorption cross section per remaining PSII reaction center increased at both irradiances, but the increase was more pronounced in exposed seedlings. Estimates of energy partitioning in the needles showed a much higher dissipative component in the exposed seedlings at low temperatures, pointing to stronger development of non-photochemical quenching at moderate irradiances. The de-epoxidation state of the xanthophyll cycle pigments increased in exposed seedlings at 5 degrees C, contributing to the quenching capacity, whereas significant de-epoxidation in the shaded plants was observed only when temperatures decreased to -5 degrees C. Thermoluminescence (TL) measurements of PSII revealed that charge recombinations between the second oxidation state of Mn-cluster S2 and the semireduced secondary electron acceptor quinone Q(B)- (S2Q(B)-) were shifted to lower temperatures in cold-acclimated seedlings compared with control seedlings and this effect depended on irradiance. Concomitant with this, cold-acclimated seedlings demonstrated a significant shift in the S2 recombination with primary acceptor Q(A)- (S2Q(A)-) characteristic TL emission peak to higher temperatures, thus narrowing the redox potential gap between S2Q(B)- and S2Q(A)-, which might result in increased probability for non-radiative radical pair recombination between the PSII reaction center chlorophyll a (P680+) and Q(A)- (P680+)Q(A)-) (reaction center quenching) in cold-acclimated seedlings. In Scots pine seedlings, mechanisms of quenching excess light energy in winter therefore involve light-dependent regulation of reaction center content and both reaction center-based and antenna-based quenching of excess light energy, enabling them to withstand high excitation pressure under northern winter conditions.

Segregation of the photosystems in higher plant thylakoids and short- and long-term regulation by a mesoscopic approach

In this paper we consider the relationship between the lateral segregation of photosystems I and II in the grana and characteristics of the short- and long-term regulation in thylakoids following the mesoscopic approach. Our study is thermodynamic; it is based on the Flory-Huggins theory for binary mixtures and the McMillan-Mayer theory of heterogeneous solutions. We demonstrate that state transitions promote rearrangement of photosystems by either favoring their mixing after LHCII phosphorylation or enhancing their segregation after LHCII dephosphorylation. This regulation influences the entire system properties locally. We also demonstrate that the variations of the photosystem ratio promote rearrangement of the photosystems preserving their segregation. This regulation influences the entire system properties globally. The studies presented are another indication of the importance of the segregation of the photosystems in the grana thylakoids of higher plants. Segregation of PSIs and PSIIs is a signature of the spinodal decomposition, which is a fine regulatory mechanism, related to both the short- and long-term adaptations of the photosynthetic apparatus in higher plant thylakoids.

Segregation of the photosystems in thylakoids depends on their size

Lateral segregation of two types of photosystems in thylakoid membranes of green plants is one of the key factors that provide the stability and fine-tuning of the light quanta supply by pigment proteins and non-cyclic electron transport. Due to this specific feature of the membrane structural organization, the photosynthetic units function in the green plants with optimal performance. In this report a mesoscopic theory is outlined to address the physical aspects of segregation phenomenon. Results of theoretical studies and computer simulations suggest that charge mismatch and the size difference between two photosystems in grana are most responsible for their lateral segregation, which is driven by the screened electrostatic and lipid-induced interactions. Comparative simulations of photosystems of different sizes show the crucial dependence of their ordering on a geometrical parameter. It seems that the size effect alone may prevent photosystems from segregated arrangement in cyanobacterial thylakoids.

Changes in the redox potential of primary and secondary electron-accepting quinones in photosystem II confer increased resistance to photoinhibition in low-temperature-acclimated Arabidopsis

Exposure of control (non-hardened) Arabidopsis leaves for 2 h at high irradiance at 5 degrees C resulted in a 55% decrease in photosystem II (PSII) photochemical efficiency as indicated by F(v)/F(m). In contrast, cold-acclimated leaves exposed to the same conditions showed only a 22% decrease in F(v)/F(m). Thermoluminescence was used to assess the possible role(s) of PSII recombination events in this differential resistance to photoinhibition. Thermoluminescence measurements of PSII revealed that S(2)Q(A)(-) recombination was shifted to higher temperatures, whereas the characteristic temperature of the S(2)Q(B)(-) recombination was shifted to lower temperatures in cold-acclimated plants. These shifts in recombination temperatures indicate higher activation energy for the S(2)Q(A)(-) redox pair and lower activation energy for the S(2)Q(B)(-) redox pair. This results in an increase in the free-energy gap between P680(+)Q(A)(-) and P680(+)Pheo(-) and a narrowing of the free energy gap between primary and secondary electron-accepting quinones in PSII electron acceptors. We propose that these effects result in an increased population of reduced primary electron-accepting quinone in PSII, facilitating non-radiative P680(+)Q(A)(-) radical pair recombination. Enhanced reaction center quenching was confirmed using in vivo chlorophyll fluorescence-quenching analysis. The enhanced dissipation of excess light energy within the reaction center of PSII, in part, accounts for the observed increase in resistance to high-light stress in cold-acclimated Arabidopsis plants.

Daily photosynthetic and C-export patterns in winter wheat leaves during cold stress and acclimation

Diurnal patterns of whole-plant and leaf gas exchange and 14C-export of winter wheat acclimated at 20 and 5 degrees C were determined. The 5 degrees C-acclimated plants had lower relative growth rates, smaller biomass and leaf area, but larger specific leaf weight than 20 degrees C plants. Photosynthetic rates in 20 degrees C and 5 degrees C-acclimated leaves were similar; however, daytime export from 5 degrees C-acclimated leaves was 45% lower. Photosynthesis and export remained steady in 20 degrees C and 5 degrees C-acclimated leaves during the daytime. By comparison, photosynthesis in 5 degrees C-stressed leaves (20 degrees C-acclimated plants exposed to 5 degrees C 12 h before and during measurements) declined from 70 to 50% of the 20 degrees C-acclimated leaves during the daytime, while export remained constant at 35% of the 20 degrees C-acclimated and 60% of the 5 degrees C-acclimated leaves. At high light and CO2, photosynthesis and export increased in both 20 degrees C and 5 degrees C-acclimated leaves, but rates in 5 degrees C-stressed leaves remained unchanged. At all conditions daytime export was greater than nighttime export. Taken together, during cold acclimation photosynthesis was upregulated, whereas export was only partially increased. We suggest that this reflects a requirement of cold-acclimated plants to both sustain an increased leaf metabolic demand while concomitantly supporting translocation of photoassimilates to overwintering sinks.

Photosynthesis of overwintering evergreen plants

In this review we focus on photosynthetic behavior of overwintering evergreens with an emphasis on both the acclimative responses of photosynthesis to cold and the winter behavior of photosynthesis in conifers. Photosynthetic acclimation is discussed in terms of the requirement for a balance between the energy absorbed through largely temperature-insensitive photochemical processes and the energy used for temperature-sensitive biochemical processes and growth. Cold acclimation transforms the xanthophyll-mediated nonphotochemical antenna quenching of absorbed light from a short-term dynamic response to a long-term sustained quenching for the whole winter period. This acclimative response helps protect the evergreen foliage from photooxidative damage during the winter when photosynthesis is restricted or prevented by low temperatures. Although the molecular mechanisms behind the sustained winter excitation quenching are largely unknown, it does involve major alterations in the organization and composition of the photosystem II antenna. In addition, photosystem I may play an important role in overwintering evergreens not only by quenching absorbed light photochemically via its support of cyclic electron transport at low temperatures, but also by nonphotochemical quenching of absorbed light irrespective of temperature. The possible role of photosystem II reaction centers in nonphotochemical quenching of absorbed energy in overwintering evergreens is also discussed. Processes like chlororespiration and cyclic electron transport may also be important for maintaining the functional integrity of the photosynthetic apparatus of overwintering evergreens both during periods of thawing in winter and during recovery from winter stress in spring. We suggest that the photosynthetic acclimation responses of overwintering evergreens represent specific evolutionary adaptations for plant species that invest in the long-term maintenance of leaf structure in cold climatic zones as exemplified by the boreal forests of the Northern Hemisphere.

Iron stress responses in the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC7942

In the present study, we describe the sequential events by which the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 adapts to iron deficiency. In doing so, we have tried to elucidate both short and long-term acclimation to low iron stress in order to understand how the photosynthetic apparatus adjusts to low iron conditions. Our results show that after an initial step, where CP43' is induced and where ferredoxin is partly replaced by flavodoxin, the photosynthetic unit starts to undergo major rearrangements. All measured components of Photosystem I (PSI), PSII and cytochrome (Cyt) f decrease relative to chlorophyll (Chl) a. The photochemical efficiencies of the two photosystems also decline during this phase of acclimation. The well-known drop in phycobilisome content measured as phycocyanin (PC)/Chl was not due to an increased degradation, but rather to a decreased rate of synthesis. The largest effects of iron deficiency were observed on PSI, the most iron-rich structure of the photosynthetic apparatus. In the light of the recent discovery of an iron deficiency induced CP43' ring around PSI a possible dual function of this protein as both an antenna and a quencher is discussed. We also describe the time course of a blue shift in the low temperature Chl emission peak around 715 nm, which originates in PSI. The shift might reflect the disassembly and/or degradation of PSI during iron deficiency and, as a consequence, PSI might under these conditions be found predominantly in a monomeric form. We suggest that the observed functional and compositional alterations represent cellular acclimation enabling growth and development under iron deficiency, and that growth ceases when the acclimation capacity is exhausted. However, the cells remain viable even after growth has ceased, since they resumed growth once iron was added back to the culture.

A transient exchange of the photosystem II reaction center protein D1:1 with D1:2 during low temperature stress of Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 in the light lowers the redox potential of QB

Upon exposure to low temperature under constant light conditions, the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 exchanges the photosystem II reaction center D1 protein form 1 (D1:1) with D1 protein form 2 (D1:2). This exchange is only transient, and after acclimation to low temperature the cells revert back to D1:1, which is the preferred form in acclimated cells (Campbell, D., Zhou, G., Gustafsson, P., Oquist, G., and Clarke, A. K. (1995) EMBO J. 14, 5457-5466). In the present work we use thermoluminescence to study charge recombination events between the acceptor and donor sides of photosystem II in relation to D1 replacement. The data indicate that in cold-stressed cells exhibiting D1:2, the redox potential of Q(B) becomes lower approaching that of Q(A). This was confirmed by examining the Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 inactivation mutants R2S2C3 and R2K1, which possess only D1:1 or D1:2, respectively. In contrast, the recombination of Q(A)(-) with the S(2) and S(3) states did not show any change in their redox characteristics upon the shift from D1:1 to D1:2. We suggest that the change in redox properties of Q(B) results in altered charge equilibrium in favor of Q(A). This would significantly increase the probability of Q(A)(-) and P680(+) recombination. The resulting non-radiative energy dissipation within the reaction center of PSII may serve as a highly effective protective mechanism against photodamage upon excessive excitation. The proposed reaction center quenching is an important protective mechanism because antenna and zeaxanthin cycle-dependent quenching are not present in cyanobacteria. We suggest that lowering the redox potential of Q(B) by exchanging D1:1 for D1:2 imparts the increased resistance to high excitation pressure induced by exposure to either low temperature or high light.

Seasonal responses of photosynthetic electron transport in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) studied by thermoluminescence

The potential of photosynthesis to recover from winter stress was studied by following the thermoluminescence (TL) and chlorophyll fluorescence changes of winter pine needles during the exposure to room temperature (20 degrees C) and an irradiance of 100 micromol m(-2) s(-1). TL measurements of photosystem II (PSII) revealed that the S(2)Q(B)(-) charge recombinations (the B-band) were shifted to lower temperatures in winter pine needles, while the S(2)Q(A)(-) recombinations (the Q-band) remained close to 0 degrees C. This was accompanied by a drastically reduced (65%) PSII photochemical efficiency measured as F(v)/ F(m,) and a 20-fold faster rate of the fluorescence transient from F(o) to F(m) as compared to summer pine. A strong positive correlation between the increase in the photochemical efficiency of PSII and the increase in the relative contribution of the B-band was found during the time course of the recovery process. The seasonal dynamics of TL in Scots pine needles studied under field conditions revealed that between November and April, the contribution of the Q- and B-bands to the overall TL emission was very low (less than 5%). During spring, the relative contribution of the Q- and B-bands, corresponding to charge recombination events between the acceptor and donor sides of PSII, rapidly increased, reaching maximal values in late July. A sharp decline of the B-band was observed in late summer, followed by a gradual decrease, reaching minimal values in November. Possible mechanisms of the seasonally induced changes in the redox properties of S(2)/S(3)Q(B)(-) recombinations are discussed. It is proposed that the lowered redox potential of Q(B) in winter needles increases the population of Q(A)(-), thus enhancing the probability for non-radiative P680(+)Q(A)(-) recombination. This is suggested to enhance the radiationless dissipation of excess light within the PSII reaction center during cold acclimation and during cold winter periods.

Segregation of photosystems in thylakoid membranes as a critical phenomenon

The distribution of the two photosystems, PSI and PSII, in grana and stroma lamellae of the chloroplast membranes is not uniform. PSII are mainly concentrated in grana and PSI in stroma thylakoids. The dynamics and factors controlling the spatial segregation of PSI and PSII are generally not well understood, and here we address the segregation of photosystems in thylakoid membranes by means of a molecular dynamics method. The lateral segregation of photosystems was studied assuming a model comprising a two-dimensional (in-plane), two-component, many-body system with periodic boundary conditions and competing interactions between the photosystems in the thylakoid membrane. PSI and PSII are represented by particles with different values of negative charge. The pair interactions between particles include a screened Coulomb repulsive part and an exponentially decaying attractive part. The modeling results suggest a complicated phase behavior of the system, including quasi-crystalline phase of randomly distributed complexes of PSII and PSI at low ionic screening, well defined clustered state of segregated complexes at high screening, and in addition, an intermediate agglomerate phase where the photosystems tend to aggregate together without segregation. The calculations demonstrated that the ordering of photosystems within the membrane was the result of interplay between electrostatic and lipid-mediated interactions. At some values of the model parameters the segregation can be represented visually as well as by analyzing the correlation functions of the configuration.

Cold acclimation of Arabidopsis thaliana results in incomplete recovery of photosynthetic capacity, associated with an increased reduction of the chloroplast stroma

The effects of short-term cold stress and long-term cold acclimation on the light reactions of photosynthesis were examined in vivo to assess their contributions to photosynthetic acclimation to low temperature in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh.. All photosynthetic measurements were made at the temperature of exposure: 23 degrees C for non-acclimated plants and 5 degrees C for cold-stressed and cold-acclimated plants. Three-day cold-stress treatments at 5 degrees C inhibited light-saturated rates of CO2 assimilation and O2 evolution by approximately 75%. The 3-day exposure to 5 degrees C also increased the proportion of reduced QA by 50%, decreased the yield of PSII electron transport by 65% and decreased PSI activity by 31%. In contrast, long-term cold acclimation resulted in a strong but incomplete recovery of light-saturated photosynthesis at 5 degrees C. The rates of light-saturated CO2 and O2 gas exchange and the in vivo yield of PSII activity under light-saturating conditions were only 35-40% lower, and the relative redox state of QA only 20% lower, at 5 degrees C after cold acclimation than in controls at 23 degrees C. PSI activity showed full recovery during long-term cold acclimation. Neither short-term cold stress nor long-term cold acclimation of Arabidopsis was associated with a limitation in ATP, and both treatments resulted in an increase in the ATP/NADPH ratio. This increase in ATP/NADPH was associated with an inhibition of PSI cyclic electron transport but there was no apparent change in the Mehler reaction activity in either cold-stressed or cold-acclimated leaves. Cold acclimation also resulted in an increase in the reduction state of the stroma, as indicated by an increased total activity and activation state of NADP-dependent malate dehydrogenase, and increased light-dependent activities of the major regulatory enzymes of the oxidative pentose-phosphate pathway. We suggest that the photosynthetic capacity during cold stress as well as cold acclimation is altered by limitations at the level of consumption of reducing power in carbon metabolism.

CP43', the isiA gene product, functions as an excitation energy dissipator in the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942

Under conditions of iron deficiency certain cyanobacteria induce a chlorophyll (Chl)-binding protein, CP43', which is encoded by the isiA gene. We have previously suggested that CP43' functions as a nonradiative dissipator of light energy. To further substantiate its functional role an isiA overexpression construct was introduced into the genome of a cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 (giving isiAoe cells). The presence of functional CP43' in isiAoe cells was confirmed by Western blot as well as by the presence of a characteristic blueshift of the red Chl a absorption peak and a notable increase in the 77 K fluorescence peak at 685 nm. Compared to wild-type cells isiAoe cells, with induced CP43', had both smaller functional antenna size and decreased yields of room temperature Chl fluorescence at various light irradiances. These observations strongly suggest that isiAoe cells, with induced CP43', have an increased capacity for dissipating light energy as heat. In agreement with this hypothesis isiAoe cells were also more resistant to photoinhibition of photosynthesis than wild-type cells. Based on these results we have further strengthened the hypothesis that CP43' functions as a nonradiative dissipator of light energy, thus protecting photosystem II from excessive excitation under iron-deficient conditions.

Photosynthetic electron transport adjustments in overwintering Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)

As shown before [C. Ottander et al. (1995) Planta 197:176-183], there is a severe inhibition of the photosystem (PS) II photochemical efficiency of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) during the winter. In contrast, the in vivo PSI photochemistry is less inhibited during winter as shown by in vivo measurements of deltaA820/A820 (P700+). There was also an enhanced cyclic electron transfer around PSI in winter-stressed needles as indicated by 4-fold faster reduction kinetics of P700+. The differential functional stability of PSII and PSI was accompanied by a 3.7-fold higher intersystem electron pool size, and a 5-fold increase in the stromal electron pool available for P700+ reduction. There was also a strong reduction of the QB band in the thermoluminescence glow curve and markedly slower Q-A re-oxidation in needles of winter pine, indicating an inhibition of electron transfer between QA and QB. The data presented indicate that the plastoquinone pool is largely reduced in winter pine, and that this reduced state is likely to be of metabolic rather than photochemical origin. The retention of PSI photochemistry, and the suggested metabolic reduction of the plastoquinone pool in winter stressed needles of Scots pine are discussed in terms of the need for enhanced photoprotection of the needles during the winter and the role of metabolically supplied energy for the recovery of photosynthesis from winter stress in evergreens.

A two-dimensional many-body system with competing interactions as a model for segregation of photosystems in thylakoids of green plants

We address the segregation of photosystems I (PSI) and II (PSII) in thylakoid membranes by means of a molecular dynamics method. We assume a two-dimensional (in-plane) problem with PSI and PSII being represented by particles with different values of negative charge. The pair interactions between particles include a screened Coulomb repulsive part and am exponentially decaying attractive part. Our modeling results suggest that the system may have a complicated phase behavior, including a quasi-crystalline phase at low ionic screening, a disordered phase and, in addition, a possible "clotting" agglomerate phase at high screening where the photosystems tend to clot together. The relevance of the observed phenomena to the stacking of thylakoid membranes is discussed.

Iron stress restricts photosynthetic intersystem electron transport in Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942

Although exposure of Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 to iron stress induced the accumulation of the isiA gene product (CP43') compared with non-stressed controls, immunodetection of the N-terminus of cytochrome (Cyt) f indicated that iron stress not only reduced the content of the 40 kDa, heme-binding, Cyt f polypeptide by 32% but it also specifically induced the accumulation of a new, 23 kDa, non-heme-binding, putative Cyt f polypeptide. Concomitantly, iron stress restricted intersystem electron transport based on the in vivo reduction of P700(+), monitored as delta A(820)/A(820) in the presence and absence of electron transport inhibitors, as well as the inhibition of the Emerson enhancement effect on O(2) evolution. However, iron stress appeared to be associated with enhanced rates of PS I cyclic electron transport, low rates of PS I-driven photoreduction of NADP(+) but comparable rates for PS II+PS I photoreduction of NADP(+) relative to controls. We hypothesize that Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 exhibits a dynamic capacity to uncouple PS II and PS I electron transport, which may allow for the higher than expected growth rates observed during iron stress.

Expression of the isiA gene is essential for the survival of the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 by protecting photosystem II from excess light under iron limitation

Iron deficiency is known to suppress primary productivity in both marine and freshwater ecosystems. In response to iron deficiency, certain cyanobacteria induce a chlorophyll (Chl)-protein complex, CP43', which is encoded by the isiA gene. The deduced amino-acid sequence of CP43' predicts some structural similarity to the CP43 polypeptide of photosystem II, but the function of CP43' remains uncertain. In order to assess its physiological role, the isiA gene of a cyanobacterium, Synechococcus sp. PCC7942, was inactivated by insertion mutagenesis (giving isiA cells). Compared with isiA cells, under iron deprivation, wild-type cells showed both lower rates of photosystem II-mediated O2 evolution at limiting light irradiances and decreased yields of room temperature Chl fluorescence at various irradiances. These observations strongly suggest that the decreased photosystem II activity in wild-type cells with CP43' is attributable to increased non-radiative dissipation of light energy. In agreement with this hypothesis, isiA cells were more susceptible to photoinhibition of photosynthesis than wild-type cells, resulting in much slower growth rates under iron limitation. Based on these results, we suggest that CP43' functions as a non-radiative dissipator of light energy, thus protecting photosystem II from excessive excitation under iron-deficient conditions.

Robustness and time-scale hierarchy in biological systems

This study addresses the issue of robustness of biological systems with respect to microscopic parameters, especially the emergence of robustness as a consequence of time-scale hierarchy, applying naive thermodynamic and dynamic assumptions. Theoretical considerations of how the time-scale hierarchy can decouple physiological regulatory mechanisms are illustrated by two model systems involving the photosynthetic apparatus of green plants.

Role of a novel photosystem II-associated carbonic anhydrase in photosynthetic carbon assimilation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Intracellular carbonic anhydrases (CA) in aquatic photosynthetic organisms are involved in the CO2-concentrating mechanism (CCM), which helps to overcome CO2 limitation in the environment. In the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, this CCM is initiated and maintained by the pH gradient created across the chloroplast thylakoid membranes by photosystem (PS) II-mediated electron transport. We show here that photosynthesis is stimulated by a novel, intracellular alpha-CA bound to the chloroplast thylakoids. It is associated with PSII on the lumenal side of the thylakoid membranes. We demonstrate that PSII in association with this lumenal CA operates to provide an ample flux of CO2 for carboxylation.

Chlorophyll fluorescence analysis of cyanobacterial photosynthesis and acclimation

Cyanobacteria are ecologically important photosynthetic prokaryotes that also serve as popular model organisms for studies of photosynthesis and gene regulation. Both molecular and ecological studies of cyanobacteria benefit from real-time information on photosynthesis and acclimation. Monitoring in vivo chlorophyll fluorescence can provide noninvasive measures of photosynthetic physiology in a wide range of cyanobacteria and cyanolichens and requires only small samples. Cyanobacterial fluorescence patterns are distinct from those of plants, because of key structural and functional properties of cyanobacteria. These include significant fluorescence emission from the light-harvesting phycobiliproteins; large and rapid changes in fluorescence yield (state transitions) which depend on metabolic and environmental conditions; and flexible, overlapping respiratory and photosynthetic electron transport chains. The fluorescence parameters FV/FM, FV'/FM',qp,qN, NPQ, and phiPS II were originally developed to extract information from the fluorescence signals of higher plants. In this review, we consider how the special properties of cyanobacteria can be accommodated and used to extract biologically useful information from cyanobacterial in vivo chlorophyll fluorescence signals. We describe how the pattern of fluorescence yield versus light intensity can be used to predict the acclimated light level for a cyanobacterial population, giving information valuable for both laboratory and field studies of acclimation processes. The size of the change in fluorescence yield during dark-to-light transitions can provide information on respiration and the iron status of the cyanobacteria. Finally, fluorescence parameters can be used to estimate the electron transport rate at the acclimated growth light intensity.

Active oxygen scavengers during cold acclimation of Scots pine seedlings in relation to freezing tolerance

Freezing injury of plants may be caused by the deleterious reactions of active oxygen species, and free-radical scavenging systems may be important in the alleviation of freezing stress. To test the feasibility of this hypothesis, enzymes and metabolites that cooperatively scavenge O2 and H2O2 were analyzed in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings during a stepwise cold acclimation procedure. Elevated levels of enzymatic scavengers such as ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione reductase, monodehydroascorbate reductase, and dehydroascorbate reductase were found, along with increased freezing tolerance during cold acclimation, supporting the hypothesis. Induction of the scavenging systems during acclimation is discussed in relation to freezing tolerance.

The cyanobacterium Synechococcus resists UV-B by exchanging photosystem II reaction-center D1 proteins

Current ambient UV-B levels can significantly depress productivity in aquatic habitats, largely because UV-B inhibits several steps of photosynthesis, including the photooxidation of water catalyzed by photosystem II. We show that upon UV-B exposure the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 rapidly changes the expression of a family of three psbA genes encoding photosystem II D1 proteins. In wild-type cells the psbAI gene is expressed constitutively, but strong accumulations of psbAII and psbAIII transcripts are induced within 15 min of moderate UV-B exposure (0.4 W/m2). This transcriptional response causes an exchange of two distinct photosystem II D1 proteins. D1:1 is encoded by psbAI, but on UV-B exposure, it is largely replaced by the alternate D1:2 form, encoded by both psbAII and psbAIII. The total content of D1 and other photosystem II reaction center protein, D2, remained unchanged throughout the UV exposure, as did the content and composition of the phycobilisome. Wild-type cells suffered only slight transient inhibition of photosystem II function under UV-B exposure. In marked contrast, under the same UV-B treatment, a mutant strain expressing only psbAI suffered severe (40%) and sustained inhibition of photosystem II function. Another mutant strain with constitutive expression of psbAII and psbAIII was almost completely resistant to the UV-B treatment, showing no inhibition of photosystem II function and only a slight drop in electron transport. In Synechococcus the rapid exchange of alternate D1 forms, therefore, accounts for much of the cellular resistance to UV-B inhibition of photosystem II activity and photosynthetic electron transport. This molecular plasticity may be an important element in community-level responses to UV-B, where susceptibility to UV-B inhibition of photosynthesis changes diurnally.

Predicting Light Acclimation in Cyanobacteria from Nonphotochemical Quenching of Photosystem II Fluorescence, Which Reflects State Transitions in These Organisms

An important factor in photosynthetic ecophysiology is the light regime that a photobiont is acclimated to exploit. In a wide range of cyanobacteria and cyano-lichens, the easily measured fluorescence parameters, coefficient of nonphotochemical quenching of photosystem II variable fluorescence (qN) and nonphotochemical quenching, decline to a minimum near the acclimated growth light intensity. This characteristic pattern predicts the integrated light regime to which populations are acclimated, information that is particularly useful for cyanobacteria or cyano-lichens from habitats with highly variable light intensities. qN reflects processes that compete with photosystem II photochemistry for absorbed excitation energy. In cyanobacteria, we find no evidence for energy-dependent quenching mechanisms, which are the predominant components of qN in higher plants. Instead, in cyanobacteria, qN correlates closely with the excitation flow from the phycobilisome to photosystem I, indicating that qN reflects the state transition mechanism for equilibration of excitation from the phycobilisome to the two photosystems.

Effect of Cold Hardening on the Components of Respiratory Decarboxylation in the Light and in the Dark in Leaves of Winter Rye

In the dark, all decarboxylation reactions are associated with the oxidase reactions of mitochondrial electron transport. In the light, photorespiration is also active in photosynthetic cells. In winter rye (Secale cereale L.), cold hardening resulted in a 2-fold increase in the rate of dark respiratory CO2 release from leaves compared with nonhardened (NH) controls. However, in the light, NH and cold-hardened (CH) leaves had comparable rates of oxidase decarboxylation and total intracellular decarboxylation. Furthermore, whereas CH leaves showed similar rates of total oxidase decarboxylation in the dark and light, NH leaves showed a 2-fold increase in total oxidase activity in the light compared with the dark. Light suppressed oxidase decarboxylation of end products of photosynthesis 2-fold in NH leaves and 3-fold in CH leaves in air. However, in high-CO2, light did not suppress the oxidase decarboxylation of end products. Thus, the decrease in oxidase decarboxylation of end products observed in the light and in air reflected glycolate-cycle-related inhibition of tricarboxylic acid cycle activity. We also showed that the glycolate cycle was involved in the decarboxylation of the end products of photosynthesis in both NH and CH leaves, suggesting a flow of fixed carbon out of the starch pool in the light.

Two forms of the Photosystem II D1 protein alter energy dissipation and state transitions in the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942

Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 (Anacystis nidulans R2) contains two forms of the Photosystem II reaction centre protein D1, which differ in 25 of 360 amino acids. D1: 1 predominates under low light but is transiently replaced by D1:2 upon shifts to higher light. Mutant cells containing only D1:1 have lower photochemical energy capture efficiency and decreased resistance to photoinhibition, compared to cells containing D1:2. We show that when dark-adapted or under low to moderate light, cells with D1:1 have higher non-photochemical quenching of PS II fluorescence (higher qN) than do cells with D1:2. This is reflected in the 77 K chlorophyll emission spectra, with lower Photosystem II fluorescence at 697-698 nm in cells containing D1:1 than in cells with D1:2. This difference in quenching of Photosystem II fluorescence occurs upon excitation of both chlorophyll at 435 nm and phycobilisomes at 570 nm. Measurement of time-resolved room temperature fluorescence shows that Photosystem II fluorescence related to charge stabilization is quenched more rapidly in cells containing D1:1 than in those with D1:2. Cells containing D1:1 appear generally shifted towards State II, with PS II down-regulated, while cells with D1:2 tend towards State I. In these cyanobacteria electron transport away from PS II remains non-saturated even under photoinhibitory levels of light. Therefore, the higher activity of D1:2 Photosystem II centres may allow more rapid photochemical dissipation of excess energy into the electron transport chain. D1:1 confers capacity for extreme State II which may be of benefit under low and variable light.

Over-production of the D1:2 protein makes Synechococcus cells more tolerant to photoinhibition of photosystem II

Over-expression of the psbAIII gene encoding for the D1 protein (form II; D1:2) of the photosystem II reaction centre in the Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 was studied using a tac promoter and the lacIQ system. Over-expression was induced with 40 microgram/ml IPTG in the growth medium for either 6 or 12 h at growth irradiance (50 mumol photons m-2 s-1). This treatment doubled the amount of psbAII/III mRNA and the D1:2 protein in membranes but decreased the amount of psbAI messages and the D1:1 protein. The total amount of both heterodimeric reaction centre proteins, D1 and D2, remained constant under growth light conditions, indicating that the number of PSII centres in the membranes was not affected, only the form of the D1 protein was changed from D1:1 to D1:2 in most centres. When the cells were photoinhibited either at 500 or 1000 mumol photons m-2 s-1, in the presence or absence of the protein synthesis inhibitor lincomycin, the D1:2 protein remained at a higher level in cells in which over-expression had been induced by IPTG. These cells were also less prone to photoinhibition of PSII. It is suggested that the tolerance of cells to photoinhibition increases when most PSII reaction centres contain the D1:2 protein at the beginning of high irradiance. This tolerance is further strengthened by maintaining psbAIII gene over-expression during the photoinhibitory treatment.

Electron transport regulates exchange of two forms of photosystem II D1 protein in the cyanobacterium Synechococcus

Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 modulates photosynthetic function by transiently replacing the constitutive D1 photosystem II protein, D1:1, with an alternate form, D1:2, to help counteract photoinhibition under excess light. We show that a temperature drop from 37 to 25 degrees C also drives D1:1/D1:2 exchange under constant, moderate light. Chilling or light-induced D1 exchange results from rapid loss of psbAI message coding for D1:1 and accumulation of psbAII and psbAIII messages coding for D1:2. During chilling, a large pool of a novel form, D1:2*, transiently accumulates, distinguishable from normal D1 by an increase in apparent molecular mass. D1:2* is not phosphorylated and is probably a functionally inactive, incompletely processed precursor. After acclimation to 25 degrees C, D1:2* disappears and D1:1 again predominates, although substantial D1:2 remains. Partial inhibition of electron transport under constant, moderate light also triggers the D1 exchange process. These treatments all increase excitation pressure on photosystem II relative to electron transport. Therefore, information from photosynthetic electron transport regulates D1 exchange without any requirement for a change in light intensity or quality, possibly via a redox sensing mechanism proximal to photosystem II.

The cyanobacterium Synechococcus modulates Photosystem II function in response to excitation stress through D1 exchange

In this minireview we discuss effects of excitation stress on the molecular organization and function of PS II as induced by high light or low temperature in the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942. Synechococcus displays PS II plasticity by transiently replacing the constitutive D1 form (D1:1) with another form (D1:2) upon exposure to excitation stress. The cells thereby counteract photoinhibition by increasing D1 turn over and modulating PS II function. A comparison between the cyanobacterium Synechococcus and plants shows that in cyanobacteria, with their large phycobilisomes, resistance to photoinhibition is mainly through the dynamic properties (D1 turnover and quenching) of the reaction centre. In contrast, plants use antenna quenching in the light-harvesting complex as an important means to protect the reaction center from excessive excitation.

Cold Hardening of Spring and Winter Wheat and Rape Results in Differential Effects on Growth, Carbon Metabolism, and Carbohydrate Content

The effect of long-term (months) exposure to low temperature (5[deg]C) on growth, photosynthesis, and carbon metabolism was studied in spring and winter cultivars of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and rape (Brassica napus). Cold-grown winter rape and winter wheat maintained higher net assimilation rates and higher in situ CO2 exchange rates than the respective cold-grown spring cultivars. In particular, the relative growth rate of spring rape declined over time at low temperature, and this was associated with a 92% loss in in situ CO2 exchange rates. Associated with the high photosynthetic rates of cold-grown winter cultivars was a 2-fold increase per unit of protein in both stromal and cytosolic fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase activity and a 1.5- to 2-fold increase in sucrose-phosphate synthase activity. Neither spring cultivar increased enzyme activity on a per unit of protein basis. We suggest that the recovery of photosynthetic capacity at low temperature and the regulation of enzymatic activity represent acclimation in winter cultivars. This allow these overwintering herbaceous annuals to maximize the production of sugars with possible cryoprotective function and to accumulate sufficient carbohydrate storage reserve to support basal metabolism and regrowth in the spring.

Chlorophyll a/b-binding proteins, pigment conversions, and early light-induced proteins in a chlorophyll b-less barley mutant

Monospecific polyclonal antibodies have been raised against synthetic peptides derived from the primary sequences from different plant light-harvesting Chl a/b-binding (LHC) proteins. Together with other monospecific antibodies, these were used to quantify the levels of the 10 different LHC proteins in wild-type and chlorina f2 barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), grown under normal and intermittent light (ImL). Chlorina f2, grown under normal light, lacked Lhcb1 (type I LHC II) and Lhcb6 (CP24) and had reduced amounts of Lhcb2, Lhcb3 (types II and III LHC II), and Lhcb4 (CP 29). Chlorina f2 grown under ImL lacked all LHC proteins, whereas wild-type ImL plants contained Lhcb5 (CP 26) and a small amount of Lhcb2. The chlorina f2 ImL thylakoids were organized in large parallel arrays, but wild-type ImL thylakoids had appressed regions, indicating a possible role for Lhcb5 in grana stacking. Chlorina f2 grown under ImL contained considerable amounts of violaxanthin (2-3/reaction center), representing a pool of phototransformable xanthophyll cycle pigments not associated with LHC proteins. Chlorina f2 and the plants grown under ImL also contained early light-induced proteins (ELIPs) as monitored by western blotting. The levels of both ELIPs and xanthophyll cycle pigments increased during a 1 h of high light treatment, without accumulation of LHC proteins. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that ELIPs are pigment-binding proteins, and we suggest that ELIPs bind photoconvertible xanthophylls and replace "normal" LHC proteins under conditions of light stress.

Effects of a Short-Term Shift to Low Temperature and of Long-Term Cold Hardening on Photosynthesis and Ribulose-1,5-Bisphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase and Sucrose Phosphate Synthase Activity in Leaves of Winter Rye (Secale cereale L.)

The effect of a short-term (hours) shift to low temperature (5[deg]C) and long-term (months) cold hardening on photosynthesis and carbon metabolism was studied in winter rye (Secale cereale L. cv Musketeer). Cold-hardened plants grown at 5[deg]C exhibited 25% higher in situ CO2 exchange rates than nonhardened plants grown at 24[deg]C. Cold-hardened plants maintained these high rates throughout the day, in contrast to nonhardened plants, which showed a gradual decline in photosynthesis after 3 h. Associated with the increase in photosynthetic capacity following cold hardening was an increase in ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase and sucrose phosphate synthase activity and 3- to 4-fold increases in the pools of associated metabolites. Leaves of nonhardened plants shifted overnight to 5[deg]C required 9 h in the light at 5[deg]C before maximum rates of photosynthesis were reached. The gradual increase in photosynthesis in leaves shifted to 5[deg]C was correlated with a sharp decline in the 3-phosphoglycerate/triose phosphate ratio and by an increase in the ribulose bisphosphate/3-phosphoglycerate ratio, indicating the gradual easing of aninorganic phosphate-mediated feedback inhibition on photo-synthesis. We suggest that the strong recovery of photosynthesis in winter rye following cold hardening indicates that the buildup of photosynthetic enzymes, as well as those involved in sucrose synthesis, is an adaptive response that enables these plants to maximize the production of sugars that have both cryoprotective and storage functions that are critical to the performance of these cultivars during over-wintering.

Over-production of the D1 protein of photosystem II reaction centre in the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942

The unicellular cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 has three psbA genes encoding two different forms of the photosystem II reaction centre protein D1 (D1:1 and D1:2). The level of expression of these psbA genes and the synthesis of D1:1 and D1:2 are strongly regulated under varying light conditions. In order to better understand the regulatory mechanisms underlying these processes, we have constructed a strain of Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 capable of over-producing psbA mRNA and D1 protein. In this study, we describe the over-expression of D1:1 using a tac-hybrid promoter in front of the psbAI gene in combination with lacIQ repressor system. Over-production of D1:1 was induced by growing cells for 12 h at 50 mumol photons m-2 s-1 in the presence of 40 or 80 micrograms/ml IPTG. The amount of psbAI mRNA and that of D1:1 protein in cells grown with IPTG was three times and two times higher, respectively. A higher concentration of IPTG (i.e., 150 micrograms/ml) did not further increase the production of the psbAI message or D1:1. The over-production of D1:1 caused a decrease in the level of D1:2 synthesised, resulting in most PSII reaction centres containing D1:1. However, the over-production of D1:1 had no effect on the pigment composition (chlorophyll a or phycocyanin/number of cells) or the light-saturated rate of photosynthesis. This and the fact that the total amounts of D1 and D2 proteins were not affected by IPTG suggest that the number of PSII centres within the membranes remained unchanged. From these results, we conclude that expression of psbAI can be regulated by using the tac promoter and lacIQ system. However, the accumulation of D1:1 protein into the membrane is regulated by the number of PSII centres.

Shoulder region of the rat: anatomy and fiber composition of some suprascapular nerve branches

BACKGROUND

The pathophysiology of chronic supraspinatus tendinitis is not fully understood. This may be due to the scarcity of experimental studies on this issue.

METHODS

In search for a system suitable for experimental analysis, the present study describes the relevant gross anatomy of the rat shoulder region (dissection), and examines the fiber composition of relevant supra-scapular nerve branches (electron microscopy, selective denervations).

RESULTS

The rat shoulder region is similar to the human shoulder in terms of gross anatomy. The average suprascapular nerve (SSC) is derived mainly from the spinal cord segment C5 and contains 3,435 axons, 74% of which are unmyelinated. The supraspinatus branch (SSP) contains 627 fibers. Of the SSP fibers, 52% are myelinated, including 32% motor and 20% sensory axons. Of the C-fibers in the SSP 16% are sympathetic efferents and 32% are sensory. Many of the latter disappear after neonatal capsaicin treatment. The SSC emits a subacromial articular branch (ART), with some 260 axons, about 90% of which are unmyelinated. The myelinated ART fibers are sensory, and of the unmyelinated ones about 24% are sympathetic efferents and 66% are afferents. The latter resist neonatal capsaicin treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

In view of the anatomy of the supraspinatus muscle, of the subacromial space, and of relevant nerves, the rat shoulder should be appropriate for experimental studies on inflammatory conditions in the subacromial space.

Two functionally distinct forms of the photosystem II reaction-center protein D1 in the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942

The cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 possesses a small psbA multigene family that codes for two distinct forms of the photosystem II reaction-center protein D1 (D1:1 and D1:2). We showed previously that the normally predominant D1 form (D1:1) was rapidly replaced with the alternative D1:2 when cells adapted to a photon irradiance of 50 mumol.m-2.s-1 are shifted to 500 mumol.m-2.s-1 and that this interchange was readily reversible once cells were allowed to recover under the original growth conditions. By using the psbA inactivation mutants R2S2C3 and R2K1 (which synthesize only D1:1 and D1:2, respectively), we showed that this interchange between D1 forms was essential for limiting the degree of photoinhibition as well as enabling a rapid recovery of photosynthesis. In this report, we have extended these findings by examining whether any intrinsic functional differences exist between the two D1 forms that may afford increased resistance to photoinhibition. Initial studies on the rate of D1 degradation at three photon irradiances (50, 200, and 500 mumol.m-2.s-1) showed that the rates of degradation for both D1 forms increase with increasing photon flux density but that there was no significant difference between D1:1 and D1:2. Analysis of light-response curves for oxygen evolution for the mutants R2S2C3 and R2K1 revealed that cells with photosystem II reaction centers containing D1:2 have a higher apparent quantum yield (approximately 25%) than cells possessing D1:1. Further studies using chlorophyll a fluorescence measurements confirmed that R2K1 has a higher photochemical yield than R2S2C3; that is, a more efficient conversion of excitation energy from photon absorption into photochemistry. We believe that the higher photochemical efficiency of reaction centers containing D1:2 is causally related to the preferential induction of D1:2 at high light and thus may be an integral component of the protection mechanism within Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 against photoinhibition.

Rapid interchange between two distinct forms of cyanobacterial photosystem II reaction-center protein D1 in response to photoinhibition

We have studied photoinhibition of photosynthesis in the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942, which possesses two distinct forms of the photosystem II reaction-center protein D1 (D1:1 and D1:2). We report here that when cells adapted to a growth irradiance of 50 mumol.m-2.s-1 are exposed to an irradiance of 500 mumol.m-2.s-1, the normally predominant D1 form (D1:1) is rapidly replaced with the alternative D1:2. This interchange is not only complete within the first hour of photoinhibition but is also fully reversible once cells are returned to 50 mumol.m-2 x s-1. By using a mutant that synthesizes only D1:1, we show that the failure to replace D1:1 with D1:2 during photoinhibition results in severe loss of photosynthetic activity as well as a diminished capacity to recover after the stress period. We believe that this interchange between D1 forms may constitute an active component in a protection mechanism unique among photosynthetic organisms that enables cyanobacteria to effectively cope with and recover from photoinhibition.

Photosynthesis, photoinhibition and low temperature acclimation in cold tolerant plants

Cold acclimation requires adjustment to a combination of light and low temperature, conditions which are potentially photoinhibitory. The photosynthetic response of plants to low temperature is dependent upon time of exposure and the developmental history of the leaves. Exposure of fully expanded leaves of winter cereals to short-term, low temperature shiftsinhibits whereas low temperature growthstimulates electron transport capacity and carbon assimilation. However, the photosynthetic response to low temperature is clearly species and cultivar dependent. Winter annuals and algae which actively grow and develop at low temperature and moderate irradiance acquire a resistance to irradiance 5- to 6-fold higher than their growth irradiance. Resistance to short-term photoinhibition (hours) in winter cereals is a reflection of the increased capacity to keep QA oxidized under high light conditions and low temperature. This is due to an increased capacity for photosynthesis. These characteristics reflect photosynthetic acclimation to low growth temperature and can be used to predict the freezing tolerance of cereals. It is proposed that the enhanced photosynthetic capacity reflects an increased flux of fixed carbon through to sucrose in source tissue as a consequence of the combined effects of increased storage of carbohydrate as fructans in the vacuole of leaf mesophyll cells and an enhanced export to the crown due to its increased sink activity. Long-term exposure (months) of cereals to low temperature photoinhibition indicates that this reduction of photochemical efficiency of PS II represents a stable, long-term down regulation of PS II to match the energy requirements for CO2 fixation. Thus, photoinhibition in vivo should be viewed as the capacity of plants to adjust photosynthetically to the prevailing environmental conditions rather than a process which necessarily results in damage or injury to plants. Not all cold tolerant, herbaceous annuals use the same mechanism to acquire resistance to photoinhibition. In contrast to annuals and algae, overwintering evergreens become dormant during the cold hardening period and generally remain susceptible to photoinhibition. It is concluded that the photosynthetic response to low temperatures and susceptibility to photoinhibition are consequences of the overwintering strategy of the plant species.

Photosystem II reaction centres stay intact during low temperature photoinhibition

Photoinhibition of photosynthesis was studied in intact barley leaves at 5 and 20°C, to reveal if Photosystem II becomes predisposed to photoinhibition at low temperature by 1) creation of excessive excitation of Photosystem II or, 2) inhibition of the repair process of Photosystem II. The light and temperature dependence of the reduction state of QA was measured by modulated fluorescence. Photon flux densities giving 60% of QA in a reduced state at steady-state photosynthesis (300 μmol m(-2)s(-1) at 5°C and 1200 μmol m(-2)s(-1) at 20°C) resulted in a depression of the photochemical efficiency of Photosystem II (Fv/Fm) at both 5 and 20°C. Inhibition of Fv/Fm occurred with initially similar kinetics at the two temperatures. After 6h, Fv/Fm was inhibited by 30% and had reached steady-state at 20°C. However, at 5°C, Fv/Fm continued to decrease and after 10h, Fv/Fm was depressed to 55% of control. The light response of the reduction state of QA did not change during photoinhibition at 20°C, whereas after photoinhibition at 5°C, the proportion of closed reaction centres at a given photon flux density was 10-20% lower than before photoinhibition.Changes in the D1-content were measured by immunoblotting and by the atrazine binding capacity during photoinhibition at high and low temperatures, with and without the addition of chloramphenicol to block chloroplast encoded protein synthesis. At 20°C, there was a close correlation between the amount of D1-protein and the photochemical efficiency of photosystem II, both in the presence or in the absence of an active repair cycle. At 5°C, an accumulation of inactive reaction centres occurred, since the photochemical efficiency of Photosystem II was much more depressed than the loss of D1-protein. Furthermore, at 5°C the repair cycle was largely inhibited as concluded from the finding that blockage of chloroplast encoded protein synthesis did not enhance the susceptibility to photoinhibition at 5°C.It is concluded that, the kinetics of the initial decrease of Fv/Fm was determined by the reduction state of the primary electron acceptor QA, at both temperatures. However, the further suppression of Fv/Fm at 5°C after several hours of photoinhibition implies that the inhibited repair cycle started to have an effect in determining the photochemical efficiency of Photosystem II.

Low-Temperature Effects on Photosynthesis and Correlation with Freezing Tolerance in Spring and Winter Cultivars of Wheat and Rye

Winter cultivars of rye (Secale cereale L., cv Musketeer) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cvs Kharkov and Monopol), but not a spring cultivar of wheat (Glenlea), grown at cold-hardening temperatures showed, at high irradiances, a higher proportion of oxidized to reduced primary, stable quinone receptor (QA) than did the same cultivars grown under nonhardening conditions. In addition, there was a positive correlation between the effects of low-growth temperature on this increased proportion of oxidized QA, and a concomitant increase in the capacity for photosynthesis, and LT50, the temperature at which 50% of the seedlings are killed, in cultivars showing different freezing tolerances. This suggests that low-temperature modulation of the photosynthetic apparatus may be an important factor during the induction of freezing resistance in cereals. Finally, the control of photosystem II photochemistry by nonphotochemical quenching of excitation energy was identical for nonhardened and cold-hardened winter rye. However, examination of measuring temperature effects per se revealed that, irrespective of growth temperature, nonphotochemical quenching exerted a stronger control on photosystem II photochemistry at 10[deg] C rather than at 20[deg] C.

Effect of long-term photoinhibition on growth and photosynthesis of cold-hardened spring and winter wheat

The effect of repeated exposure to high light (1200 μmol · m(-2) · s(-1) photosynthetic photon flux density, PPFD) at 5° C was examined in attached leaves of cold-grown spring (cv. Katepwa) and winter (cv. Kharkov) wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) over an eight-week period. Under these conditions, Kharkov winter wheat exhibited a daily reduction of 24% in FV/FM (the ratio of variable to maximal fluorescence in the dark-adapted state), in contrast to 41% for cold-grown Katepwa spring wheat. Both cultivars were able to recover from this daily suppression of FV/FM such that the leaves exhibited an average morning FV/FM of 0.651 ± 0.004. Fluorescence measurements made under steady-state conditions as a function of irradiance from 60 to 2000 μmol · m(-2) · s(-1) indicated that the yield of photosystem II (PSII) electron transport under light-saturating conditions was the same for photoinhibited and control cold-grown plants, regardless of cultivar. Repeated daily exposure to high light at low temperature did not increase resistance to short-term photoinhibition, although zeaxanthin levels increased by three- to fourfold. In addition, both cultivars increased the rate of dry-matter accumulation, relative to control plants maintained at 5° C and 250 μmol · m(-2) · s(-1) PPFD (10% and 28% for Katepwa and Kharkov, respectively), despite exhibiting suppressed fv/fm and reduced photon yields for O2 evolution following daily high-light treatments. Thus, although photosynthetic efficiency is suppressed by a longterm, photoinhibitory treatment, light-saturated rates of photosynthesis are sufficiently high during the high-light treatment to offset any reduction in photochemical efficiency of PSII. We suggest that in these cold-tolerant plants, photoinhibition of PSII may represent a longterm, stable, down-regulation of photochemistry to match the overall photosynthetic demand for ATP and reducing equivalents.