Do ticks exhibit repeatable individual behaviors?

Diseases caused by ticks are often addressed as a traditional epidemiological mathematical puzzle, i.e., how many identical infected vectors, how many uniform potential hosts, and a dependable rate of transmission, etc. Although often useful at the population level, at the individual level disease transmission occurs when one tick bites one person. Just as we assign agency to people in their outdoor behavior and use of prophylactics against arthropods, perhaps we should also see ticks as individual actors? Are all ticks automatons that just quest and attach, or do they exhibit repeatable individual behaviors that affect transmission? We wanted to determine whether Dermacentor andersoni and D. variabilis adult ticks exhibited repeatable behaviors in four experiments. The experiments focused on left/right movement, attraction to CO2, photophilic tendencies, and avoidance of a repellant. We hypothesized that over two seasons we would find repeatable behavior patterns. In 2021, but not 2022, we found that within an experiment, individuals exhibited repeatable behaviors between trials and between experiments, i.e., if an animal showed repeatable 'adventurous' behavior in one experiment, this predicted adventurous behavior in a separate experiment. This strong evidence of predictable trait-like behavior was present in 2021 but was absent when we repeated the same experiments, with the same collection site, in 2022. This illustrates the importance of multiyear experimentation when testing for repeatable individual behaviors. Incidental to the study, we also observed that a major heat wave in 2021 altered the tick species composition (toward a more dry-adapted population) at our study site.

Behavioral characteristics and endosymbionts of two potential tularemia and Rocky Mountain spotted fever tick vectors

Due to climate change-induced alterations of temperature and humidity, the distribution of pathogen-carrying organisms such as ticks may shift. Tick survival is often limited by environmental factors such as dryness, but a predicted hotter and wetter world may allow the expansion of tick ranges. Dermacentor andersoni and D. variabilis ticks are morphologically similar, co-occur throughout the Inland Northwest of Washington State, U.S.A., and both can be injected with pathogenic Rickettsia and Francisella bacteria. Differences in behavior and the potential role of endosymbiotic Rickettsia and Francisella in these ticks are poorly studied. We wanted to measure behavioral and ecological differences between the two species and determine which, if any, Rickettsia and Francisella bacteria - pathogenic or endosymbiotic - they carried. Additionally, we wanted to determine if either tick species may be selected for if the climate in eastern Washington becomes wetter or dryer. We found that D. andersoni is more resistant to desiccation, but both species share similar questing behaviors such as climbing and attraction to bright light. Both also avoid the odor of eucalyptus and DEET but not permethrin. Although both tick species are capable of transmitting pathogenic species of Francisella and Rickettsia, which cause tularemia and Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, respectively, we found primarily non-pathogenic endosymbiotic strains of Francisella and Rickettsia, and only one tick infected with F. tularensis subspecies holarctica.

Life in a Near-Future Atmosphere: Carbon Dioxide Enrichment Increases Plant Growth and Alters the Behavior of a Terrestrial Snail but not a Terrestrial Beetle

Abstract In addition to effects on climate and water acidification, anthropogenic atmospheric releases of carbon dioxide may also directly impact terrestrial organisms that use CO2 as a chemical cue. We wondered how common organisms would respond to near-future levels of CO2 – levels that may occur by 2025. We chose two common but taxonomically and ecologically dissimilar organisms (Theba pisana helicid snails and Adesmia dilatata tenebrionid beetles) to examine the behavioral effects of a slight rise (~10 ppm) of CO2 on animal abundance and plant growth in the Negev Desert of Israel. We found that plots with supplementary CO2 exhibited greater plant growth than control plots over a 50-day experiment, but increased growth did not alter beetle or snail numbers.

In laboratory experiments with higher levels of augmented CO2 paired with food rewards, we found that snails did not change their climbing behavior when presented with CO2 alone, but they avoided food and climbed away when CO2 was paired with food. Beetles in the laboratory were attracted to food regardless of CO2 levels although high levels of CO2 (1200–1300 ppm) reduced movement.

The direct effects of near-future CO2 levels may augment plant growth but have only minor influence on terrestrial snails and beetles. However, the effects of CO2 on climate change in desert habitats like the Negev may be more severe due to a predicted rise in temperature and a decline in precipitation.

Snails from heavy-metal polluted environments have reduced sensitivity to carbon dioxide-induced acidity

Anthropogenic atmospheric CO₂ reacts with water to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃) which increases water acidity. While marine acidification has received recent consideration, less attention has been paid to the effects of atmospheric carbon dioxide on freshwater systems—systems that often have low buffering potential. Since many aquatic systems are already impacted by pollutants such as heavy metals, we wondered about the added effect of rising atmospheric CO₂ on freshwater organisms. We studied aquatic pulmonate snails (Physella columbiana) from both a heavy-metal polluted watershed and snails from a reference watershed that has not experienced mining pollution. We used gaseous CO₂ to increase water acidity and we then measured changes in antipredatory behavior and also survival. We predicted a simple negative additive effect of low pH. We hypothesized that snails from metal-polluted environments would be physiologically stressed and impaired due to defense responses against heavy metals. Instead, snails from populations that acclimated or evolved in the presence of heavy metal mining pollution were more robust to acidic conditions than were snails from reference habitats. Snails from mining polluted sites seemed to be preadapted to a low pH environment. Their short-term survival in acidic conditions was better than snails from reference sites that lacked metal pollution. In fact, the 48 h survival of snails from polluted sites was so high that it did not significantly differ from the 24 h survival of snails from control sites. This suggests that the response of organisms to a world with rising anthropogenic carbon dioxide levels may be complex and difficult to predict. Snails had a weaker behavioral response to stressful stimuli if kept for 1 month at a pH that differed from their lake of origin. We found that snails raised at a pH of 5.5 had a weaker response (less of a decrease in activity) to concentrated heavy metals than did snails raised at their natal pH of 6.5. Furthermore, snails raised a pH of 5.5, 6.0, and 7.0 all had a weaker antipredatory response to an extract of crushed snail cells than did the pH 6.5 treatment snails.

Pre-exposure to heavy metal pollution and the odor of predation decrease the ability of snails to avoid stressors

Many organisms appear to exhibit adaptive cost-benefit behaviors that balance foraging, safety, and pollution avoidance. However, what if the cognitive facilities needed to make decisions are compromised by industrial pollutants? Are the resulting decisions altered? Similarly, does exposure to kairomones from predators alter an organism's ability to avoid toxicants? Furthermore, how long an exposure is necessary: A few minutes, hours, or even a lifetime? We wondered if there was an interaction between the ability to respond to a predatory event and the ability to avoid heavy metals.

75 years after mining ends stream insect diversity is still affected by heavy metals

A century of heavy metal mining in the western United States has left a legacy of abandoned mines. While large operations have left a visible reminder, smaller one and two-man operations have been overgrown and largely forgotten. We revisited an area of northern Idaho that has not had active mining since at least 1932 and probably since 1910. At three sites along each of 10 mountain streams we sampled larval stream insects and correlated their community diversity to stream levels of arsenic, cadmium, lead, zinc, pH, temperature, oxygen content, and conductivity. Although the streams appear pristine, multivariate statistics indicated that cadmium and zinc levels were significantly correlated with fewer animals, fewer families, a smaller percentage of plecopterans (stoneflies), and lower Shannon H diversity values. After at least 75 years, abandoned mines appear to be still influencing stream communities.

Hormetic effects of heavy metals in aquatic snails: is a little bit of pollution good?

Hormesis is the term to describe a stimulatory effects associated with a low dose of a potentially toxic substance or stress. We had anecdotal evidence of hormetic effects in some of our previous experiments concerning the influence of heavy metals on aquatic snail growth and recruitment. We therefore repeated a version of an earlier experiment but this time we expanded our low-dose treatments and increased our sample size. We also explored if metals had a hormetic effect on algae periphyton. We raised snails in outdoor mini-ecosystems containing lead, zinc, and cadmium-contaminated soil from an Environmental Protection Agency Superfund site in the Silver Valley of northern Idaho. The snails came from two sites. One population (Physella columbiana) has evolved for 120 years in the presence of heavy metals and one (Lymnaea palustris) has not. We found that P. columbiana exhibited hormesis with snails exposed to small amounts of metals exhibiting more reproduction and growth than snails not exposed to metals. Naturally occurring Oscillatoria algae also exhibited a hormetic effect of heavy metals but L. palustris did not display hormesis. Large doses negatively impacted all three species. Overall the levels of cadmium, lead, and zinc measured in the tissues of the snails were inversely correlated to the number of snails recruited into the tub populations. Only in comparisons of the lowest metal treatment to the control treatment is a positive effect detected. Indirect effects on competing species of snails, periphyton, and also fishermen, may be less favorable.

Aquatic snails from mining sites have evolved to detect and avoid heavy metals

Toxicants in polluted environments are often patchily distributed. Hence, rather than being passive absorbers of pollution, some organisms have evolved the ability to detect and avoid toxicants. We studied the avoidance behavior of Physella columbiana, an aquatic pulmonate snail, in a pond that has been polluted with heavy metals for more than 120 years. Populations of this snail are rare at reference sites and are only robust at heavy-metal-polluted sites. We hypothesized that the snails are able to persist because they have evolved the ability to minimize their exposure to metals by actively avoiding metals in their environment. Using a Y-maze flow tank, we tested the avoidance behavior of snails to heavy-metal-polluted sediments and single-metal solutions of cadmium, zinc, or lead. We also tested the avoidance behaviors of the snails' laboratory-reared offspring raised in nonpolluted conditions. In addition, we tested the avoidance behavior of a small population of snails from a reference pond. Although all the snails we tested were able to detect low concentrations of heavy metals, we found that snails from the polluted site were the most sensitive, that their offspring were somewhat less sensitive, and that snails from the reference site were the least sensitive. This suggests that the ability of polluted-site snails to avoid heavy metals is both genetic and environmental. The concentrations of metals avoided by the snails from the polluted site were below the levels found at hot spots within their natal pond. The snails may be able to persist at this site because they decrease their exposure by moving to less-polluted sections of the pond. One application of our findings is the use of aquatic snails and our Y-maze design as an inexpensive pollution detector. Environmental pollutants such as lead, zinc, and arsenic are a problem throughout the world. People in underdeveloped countries often lack sophisticated pollution detection devices. We have developed a behavioral assay of aquatic pollution that is easy to use, is extremely sensitive (detection below 10 ppb), and can be constructed for fewer than 100 US dollars. Pulmonate snails are widely distributed in tropical, subtropical, and temperate parts of the globe, and they are often common in polluted waters. For countries such as India and Bangladesh, which must test thousands of shallow wells for possible contamination with heavy metals, our assay would be a good initial test. Once snails detected metals, then those samples could be confirmed by spectrometers. We encourage scientists in underdeveloped nations to consider our assay as an option.

The influence of socio-economic factors on Helicobacter pylori infection rates of students in rural Zambia

OBJECTIVES

Although prevalence of disease in sub-Saharan Africa is often quite high and attracts much research, relatively little is known about less critical maladies. We examined Helicobacter pylori infected students in rural Zambia. We attempted to determine if any socio-economic or co-occurring diseases were correlated to H. pylori infection. Understanding the context in which H. pylori infections occur may increase our understanding of this organism.

DESIGN

We conducted a screening survey with diagnostic tests of primary and secondary school students to determine rates of H. pylori infection. We then correlated these rates to socio-economic factors such as income and tobacco use. We also explored the correlation of H. pylori to HIV and malaria.

SETTING

Zimba, Zambia.

SUBJECTS

Eighty seven primary and secondary school students.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Correlation of H. pylori to socio-economic factors.

RESULTS

H. pylori infection was common (60.9%) and was consistent with rates found in other African countries. We found no significant correlation between H. Pylori and disease and socio-economic variables.

CONCLUSION

In the studied population H. pylori infection does not appear to be correlated with the measured socio-economic or disease variables.

Indirect effects of heavy metals on parasites may cause shifts in snail species compositions

We studied the direct and indirect effects of pollution on the distributions and abundances of two closely related species of pulmonate freshwater snails. Physella columbiana is more numerous at heavy metal-polluted lakes, and Lymnaea palustris is more numerous at reference lakes. Both species are present at all sites, as are predatory bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus). The direct effects examined included the snails' growth and reproduction in both the presence and absence of heavy metals and their short-term survival when exposed to large concentrations of heavy metals. The indirect effects were the species' ability to elude capture by sunfish and the diversity and abundance of parasites within the snails. We found that heavy metals had little direct effect on growth and reproduction and that both species acquired similar levels of metals in their tissues. Interestingly, P. columbiana (the more abundant species in polluted lakes) actually exhibited higher recruitment in the absence of metals than did L. palustris (reference lakes). L. palustris has life history characteristics that favor increased growth and reduced reproduction. These characteristics resulted in decreased predation of adults by gape-limited predators and a greater ability to cope with heavy parasite burdens. P. columbiana exhibited slower growth, which resulted in increased predation although higher reproduction rates may compensate.The major effect of heavy metals on species distributions was indirect on the snails' parasites. Parasites appeared to be very susceptible to metals, and this resulted in lower parasite diversity and intensities at polluted sites for both species of snails. P. columbiana may only be able to outcompete L. palustris at polluted sites due to the indirect effects of heavy metals; the negative effect of heavy metals on parasites, and a proposed negative effect of metals on the foraging ability of sunfish that favors the faster-reproducing P. columbiana.

Antipredatory behavior as an index of heavy-metal pollution? A test using snails and caddisflies

The loss of behaviors that organisms use to avoid predation may serve as a sensitive indicator of pollution. We tested the hypothesis that a correlation exists in the field between heavy metal levels and antipredator behaviors. We examined the antipredator behavior of aquatic caddisfly larvae and snails at sites in the Coeur d'Alene basin of Northern Idaho which varied in their levels of heavy metals. We tested the antipredator response of Physella columbiana snails at 10 polluted lakes downstream from the Bunker Hill Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Superfund cleanup site. We then compared their behavior to snails at 14 reference lakes. We placed the snails in a plastic testing apparatus, exposed them to an extract of crushed snail, and then monitored their movements to a normally preferred shaded area. We also tested the behavior of caddisfly larvae from 36 sites from a total of 6 streams/rivers adjacent to the Superfund site. Sites were located upstream and downstream of abandoned mines. We located active larvae of four genera, simulated predation by grasping the animals between thumb and forefinger (the larvae respond to being grasped by withdrawing into their case), lifted them from the water for 3 s, and then placed them in an adjacent, slower section of the stream. We then recorded how long it took each larvae to partially emerge from its case and attempt to move away. Unlike reference site snails, snails from heavy metal-polluted environments failed to exhibit antipredator behaviors in response to crushed conspecifics. These results are consistent with previous laboratory studies. We found no effect of heavy metals on the antipredatory behavior of caddisfly larvae.

Heavy metals alter the survival, growth, metamorphosis, and antipredatory behavior of Columbia spotted frog (Rana luteiventris) tadpoles

Amphibian populations appear to be declining around the world. Although there is no single cause, one factor may be pollution from heavy metals. As a result of mining in the Silver Valley of Idaho, heavy metals have been released into habitats containing many species of sensitive organisms, including spotted frogs (Rana luteiventris). While the gross extent of pollution has been well documented, the more subtle behavioral effects of heavy metals such as lead, zinc, and cadmium are less well studied. We tested the effects of heavy metals on the short-term survival (LC50) of spotted frog tadpoles. Compared to single metals, metals presented together were toxic at lower doses. We also raised the tadpoles in outdoor mini-ecosystems containing either a single heavy metal or soil from an EPA Superfund site in the Silver Valley known to be composed of numerous heavy metals. Exposure to Silver Valley soil resulted in delayed metamorphosis. We tested the ability of metal-exposed tadpoles to detect and respond to chemical cues emanating from predacious rainbow trout. We found that high levels of Silver Valley soil, medium levels of zinc, and medium and high levels of lead resulted in a decreased fright response. Low levels of cadmium, zinc, and lead did not cause a significant effect, but low levels of soil did result in a decreased fright response. Heavy metals may alter interactions between tadpoles and their predators.

The effects of used motor oil, silt, and the water mold Saprolegnia parasitica on the growth and survival of mole salamanders (genus Ambystoma)

Amphibians appear to be declining worldwide. One cause of their decline may be used crankcase oil which leaks from motor vehicles and washes into ponds. Once in ponds, the oil may either be directly toxic to amphibians, or may indirectly affect them by disrupting food chains. The effects of oil may also be compounded by naturally occurring materials in the water column such as silt. Silt may interfere with respiration across gill surfaces. This study examined the effects of oil and silt on the growth and metamorphosis of larval mole salamanders, Ambystoma opacum and A. tigrinum tigrinum. In Experiment One it examined ponds with and without silty water and oil pollution to determine their suitability as habitats for salamander larvae. In Experiment Two it studied the effects of low levels of oil combined with silt on animals raised in the laboratory and fed prey items not raised in oil. In Experiment Three, it explored the effects of oil at an ecosystem level by raising the salamanders in the field in plastic micromesocosms that mimicked small ponds. Finally, in Experiment Four, in the laboratory, it examined the short-term survival of salamanders in high concentrations of oil. This study found that ponds containing oil and silt produce salamanders of reduced size and weight. Furthermore, while salamanders are relatively robust to the short term effects of large concentrations of used motor oil, oil has deleterious effects on the community and therefore exerts an indirect negative effect on salamanders. In the mi- cro-mesocosms containing oil, salamanders were smaller and weighed less than animals not raised in oil. Furthermore, silt results in reduced growth, earlier metamorphosis, and increased susceptibility to the water mold Saprolegnia parasitica.

The effect of infection with Lyme disease spirochetes (Borrelia burgdorferi) on the phototaxis, activity, and questing height of the tick vector Ixodes scapularis

Little is known about the effects of infection with Borrelia burgdorferi, the bacterium that causes Lyme disease, on its tick vectors. The purpose of this study was to determine the behavioural and ecological effects of infection by the bacterium in nymphal and adult black-legged (Ixodes scapularis) ticks. We found that the effects of infection were more pronounced in adults than in nymphs. Compared to uninfected adults, infected adults were less able to overcome physical obstacles, avoided vertical surfaces, were less active and quested at lower heights. Infected nymphs showed increased phototaxis and attraction to vertical surfaces. Infected nymphs also showed trends toward increased questing height and a greater tendency to overcome physical obstacles although these trends were not statistically significant. These altered behaviours in an infected tick may affect survival or pathogen transmission and may reflect kin selection in the bacterial pathogen.

Antipredatory Behaviour of Feverish Tadpoles: Implications for Pathogen Transmission

Abstract

In this paper we propose the hypothesis that pathogen-induced host defense responses result in altered host behaviors and enhanced predation. In particular we examine the effects of the acute phase response (whose effects include fever, reduced activity and malaise) on antipredatory behavior in bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) tadpoles. This host response is associated with the preliminary stages of infection with many pathogens yet its behavioral effects have received little attention. Bullfrog tadpoles were injected with alcohol-killed bacteria to induce a response to infection and their ability to detect and avoid capture by predatory salamanders (Taricha granulosa) was explored. We predicted that acute phase responses increase tadpole vulnerability to predation by influencing thermoregulatory behavior and their ability to detect, and avoid capture by, salamanders. We found that the sterotypical effects of the acute phase response can lead to increased predation. Malaise affected the refuge seeking behavior of the tadpoles in the presence of salamanders. We suggest that for tadpoles provided with refuges, altered behaviors are a liability. This endogenous response may afford some parasites a potential pathway to their next host.

Thermal preferences of resistant and susceptible strains of Biomphalaria glabrata (Gastropoda) exposed to Schistosoma mansoni (Trematoda)

The thermal preferences of two strains of the snail Biomphalaria glabrata, one resistant to, and one susceptible to, the parasite Schistosoma mansoni were determined in an aquatic thermal gradient. Snails were tested without exposure to the parasite, and 2 h and 5 weeks after exposure to trematode miracidia. The mean temperature selected by susceptible strain snails 2 h post-exposure tended to be lower than that of unexposed controls, although this was not statistically significant. In this strain, at 5 weeks post-exposure, the preferred temperature dropped by 1.9 +/- 0.5 degree C. The resistant strain displayed a significant drop of 1.8 +/- 0.6 degree C 2 h post-exposure. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that a drop in mean temperatures selected by snails is due to altered levels of endogenous cytokines such as IL-1 or TNF in association with parasite activation of the snail internal defense system.

Distributions of diploid and pentaploid brine shrimp Artemia parthenogenetica in an illuminated thermal gradient

We explored the behavioral response to horizontal gradients of light and heat of sympatric diploid and pentaploid Artemia parthenogenetica. When exposed to a uniformly illuminated thermal gradient, pentaploids had a mean distribution that was oriented toward temperatures 2.9 °C higher than that of diploid animals. In a light gradient, diploids were distributed at higher light intensities than pentaploids. When the distributions in an evenly illuminated thermal gradient were compared with those occurring when thermal and light gradients ran in opposite directions, it was found that diploids tended to occur at lower temperatures, whereas pentaploid distributions were not significantly different for the two conditions. Our findings suggest that pentaploids are not as strongly attracted to light as diploids, in either the presence or the absence of a thermal gradient. We predict that in the field, warmer areas of a pond may be exploited by pentaploids during the day and by diploids during the night.