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Francisco AG, Reyes JCB, Tabios IKB, Cruz CJG, Ang MAC, Heralde FM, Lacuna ARG, de Paz-Silava SLM. Seroprevalence of human adenovirus type 5 neutralizing antibodies in the Philippines. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0293046. [PMID: 38039314 PMCID: PMC10691707 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0293046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Human adenovirus (HAdV), particularly the HAdV type 5 (HAdV-5), has been extensively utilized in the development of vector vaccines due to its high immunogenicity, good safety profile, and ease of propagation. However, one of the main challenges in its use is the presence of pre-existing immunity among vaccine recipients. Pre-existing neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) can prevent the uptake of HAdV-5 vectors and reduce vaccine efficacy. Hence, this study investigated the seroprevalence of NAbs against HAdV-5 in urban and rural regions of the Philippines. Luciferase-based neutralization assay was performed on 391 plasma/serum samples. Out of these samples, 346 or 88.5% were positive for HAdV-5 NAbs, and the majority of them (56.8%) had high titers against the virus. Among the regions included in this study, Bicol (Region V) had the highest seroprevalence rate (94.1%). Our findings show that a significant number of adults in the Philippines have pre-existing immunity against HAdV-5. This supports the recommendation that vaccination programs in the country should consider implementing vaccination techniques, such as a prime-boost regimen or addition of booster doses, to address the potential negative effects of pre-existing HAdV-5 immunity in the efficacy of adenoviral vector-based vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abialbon G. Francisco
- Department of Medical Microbiology, College of Public Health, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - John Carlo B. Reyes
- Department of Laboratories, Philippine General Hospital, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - Ian Kim B. Tabios
- Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - Criselda Jean G. Cruz
- Department of Dermatology, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- International Center for Wound Repair and Regeneration, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - Mark Angelo C. Ang
- Department of Laboratories, Philippine General Hospital, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - Francisco M. Heralde
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - Azita Racquel G. Lacuna
- Department of Medical Microbiology, College of Public Health, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
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Cando LFT, Perias GAS, Tantengco OAG, Dispo MD, Ceriales JA, Girasol MJG, Leonardo LR, Tabios IKB. The Global Prevalence of Schistosoma mansoni, S. japonicum, and S. haematobium in Pregnant Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Trop Med Infect Dis 2022; 7:354. [PMID: 36355896 PMCID: PMC9693339 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed7110354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease affecting 40 million women of childbearing age worldwide. Its global disease prevalence among pregnant women is still unknown. This meta-analysis determined the pooled prevalence of schistosomiasis among pregnant women globally. Additionally, this study also determined the pooled prevalence based on infection intensity based on eggs per gram. Observational studies on the prevalence of schistosomiasis among pregnant patients were obtained from Medline, Scopus, and CINAHL from January 2001 until August 2020. A review of titles and abstracts was done independently by six reviewers. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale for case-control, cohort, and cross-sectional studies. A total of 27 studies were included in the meta-analysis and meta-regression. The pooled prevalence of S. haematobium was 13.44 (CI: 8.90-19.80) per 100 observations, while the pooled prevalence of S. mansoni was 12.18 (CI: 4.47-29.12) per 100 observations. The prevalence of S. japonicum infection in one study was 53.54 (CI: 43.23-63.62) per 100 observations. Our results showed a prevailing health problem of schistosomiasis during pregnancy in various countries worldwide. This strengthens the need to conduct more schistosomiasis research, prevention, and control programs in pregnant women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie Faye T. Cando
- College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila 1000, Philippines
| | | | | | - Micah D. Dispo
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila 1000, Philippines
| | - Jeremy A. Ceriales
- College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila 1000, Philippines
| | - Mark John G. Girasol
- College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila 1000, Philippines
| | - Lydia R. Leonardo
- Office of Research Coordination, University of the East, Manila 1008, Philippines
- Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Manila 1101, Philippines
| | - Ian Kim B. Tabios
- Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Manila 1101, Philippines
- Institute of Human Genetics, National Institutes of Health, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila 1000, Philippines
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Apostol-Nicodemus L, Tabios IKB, Limpoco AGO, Domingo GDP, Tantengco OAG. Psychosocial Distress among Family Members of COVID-19 Patients Admitted to Hospital and Isolation Facilities in the Philippines: A Prospective Cohort Study. J Clin Med 2022; 11:jcm11175236. [PMID: 36079167 PMCID: PMC9457412 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11175236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study determined the psychosocial impact of COVID-19 on families of adult COVID-19 patients in isolation facilities in Metro Manila, Philippines. This prospective cohort study was conducted in COVID-19 healthcare facilities. Data collection was undertaken 2 weeks and 8 weeks after discharge. Logistic regression was performed to determine the socioeconomic and clinical factors influencing anxiety, depression, and family function. Based on HADS-P, 43.2% of the participants had anxiety symptoms, and 16.2% had depression symptoms 2 weeks after the discharge of their relative with COVID-19 infection. The prevalence of anxiety and depression significantly decreased to 24.3% and 5.4%, respectively, 8 weeks after discharge. The percentage of participants with a perceived moderate family dysfunction was 9.5% in the 2nd week and 6.8% in the 8th week post discharge. Participants with perceived severe family dysfunction increased from none to 4.1%. The most inadequate family resources for the participants were economic, medical, and educational resources. Patient anxiety (p = 0.010) and perceived inadequate family resources (p = 0.032) were associated with anxiety symptoms among family members. Patient anxiety (p = 0.013) and low educational attainment (p = 0.002) were associated with anxiety symptoms among family members 8 weeks after discharge. On the other hand, patient depression (p = 0.013) was a factor related to depressive symptoms among family members 2 weeks after discharge. This study provided an in-depth understanding of the mental health status of family members caring for relatives with COVID-19 infection. This can be used to guide healthcare professionals caring for COVID-19 patients and their family members.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leilanie Apostol-Nicodemus
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of the Philippines—Philippine General Hospital, Taft Avenue, Manila 1000, Philippines
- Correspondence: (L.A.-N.); (I.K.B.T.)
| | - Ian Kim B. Tabios
- Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines
- College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila 1000, Philippines
- Correspondence: (L.A.-N.); (I.K.B.T.)
| | - Anna Guia O. Limpoco
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of the Philippines—Philippine General Hospital, Taft Avenue, Manila 1000, Philippines
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Lintao RCV, Cando LFT, Perias GAS, Tantengco OAG, Tabios IKB, Velayo CL, de Paz-Silava SLM. Current Status of Human Papillomavirus Infection and Cervical Cancer in the Philippines. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:929062. [PMID: 35795639 PMCID: PMC9251542 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.929062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cervical cancer is estimated to cause 341,831 deaths each year, with 9 of 10 deaths occurring in developing countries. Over the past decade, there has been a significant increase in cervical cancer incidence among women in the Philippines. Persistent infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) is the well-established necessary cause of cervical cancer. Based on limited studies conducted in the Philippines, the prevalence of infection with any HPV genotype was 93.8% for cervical squamous cell carcinoma and 90.9% for cervical adenocarcinomas. HPV types 16 and 18 were the most common HPV genotypes among Filipino patients with cervical cancer. On the other hand, the incidence of HPV infection among Filipino women with normal cervices was 9.2%. The World Health Organization has launched a global agenda of eliminating HPV infection by 2030. One of its key milestones is to vaccinate 90% of girls with the HPV vaccine by 15 years. However, the HPV vaccination rate among Filipino women remains to be unsatisfactory. HPV vaccination has only been included in the Philippine Department of Health's community-based National Immunization Program in 2015. Despite these efforts, the Philippines currently ranks last on HPV program coverage among low-middle income countries, with coverage of only 23% of the target female population for the first dose and 5% for the final dose. The principal reason for the non-acceptance of HPV vaccines was the perceived high cost of vaccination. The low utilization of available cervical cancer screening tests such as Pap smear and visual inspection with acetic acid hampered the Philippines' control and prevention of HPV infection and cervical cancer. Among those diagnosed with cervical cancer in the Philippines, only an estimated 50% to 60% receive some form of treatment. To this end, we summarize the burden of HPV infection and cervical cancer on Filipinos and the risk factors associated with the disease. We present the current screening, diagnostics, treatment, and prevention of HPV-related diseases in the Philippines. Lastly, we also propose solutions on how each building block in health systems can be improved to eliminate HPV infection and reduce the burden of cervical cancer in the Philippines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan C. V. Lintao
- Multi-Omics Research Program for Health, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - Leslie Faye T. Cando
- Multi-Omics Research Program for Health, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - Glenmarie Angelica S. Perias
- Multi-Omics Research Program for Health, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - Ourlad Alzeus G. Tantengco
- Multi-Omics Research Program for Health, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - Ian Kim B. Tabios
- Multi-Omics Research Program for Health, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
- Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
- Institute of Human Genetics, National Institutes of Health, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - Clarissa L. Velayo
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
- Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, College of Medicine and Philippine General Hospital, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - Sheriah Laine M. de Paz-Silava
- Multi-Omics Research Program for Health, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
- Department of Medical Microbiology, College of Public Health, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
- *Correspondence: Sheriah Laine M. de Paz-Silava
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Tabios IKB, Sato MO, Tantengco OAG, Fornillos RJC, Kirinoki M, Sato M, Rojo RD, Fontanilla IKC, Chigusa Y, Medina PMB, Kikuchi M, Leonardo LR. Diagnostic Performance of Parasitological, Immunological, Molecular, and Ultrasonographic Tests in Diagnosing Intestinal Schistosomiasis in Fieldworkers From Endemic Municipalities in the Philippines. Front Immunol 2022; 13:899311. [PMID: 35774791 PMCID: PMC9237846 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.899311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis remains to ha/ve a significant public health impact in the Philippines. The Kato-Katz (K-K) technique is the reference standard and most used technique for definitive diagnosis of intestinal schistosomiasis for control programs in endemic regions. However, this has a very low sensitivity when applied in areas of low endemicity and patients with light infection. Hence, this study determined the diagnostic performance of immunological, molecular, parasitological, and ultrasonographic tests in diagnosing intestinal schistosomiasis in endemic municipalities in the Philippines. We performed a community-based cross-sectional study to determine the positivity of schistosomiasis in Leyte, Philippines. The diagnostic performance of five different detection techniques: (1) three stool K-K with duplicate smears; (2) soluble egg antigen IgG ELISA; (3) urine point-of-care circulating cathodic antigen (POC-CCA) test; (4) detection of Schistosoma japonicum circulating DNA (SjcDNA) in serum and urine samples; (5) focused abdominal ultrasound (US), were also obtained in this study. Multiple stool examinations enhanced the sensitivity of K-K from 26.2% (95% CI [16.4, 38.8]) with single stool to 53.8% (95% CI [41.1, 66.1]) and 69.2% (95% CI [56.4, 80.0]) with two and three stools from consecutive days, respectively. Among the SjcDNA nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT)-based detection assays, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) PCR using sera had the highest sensitivity at 92.3% (95% CI [82.2, 97.1]) with LAMP consistently identifying more positive cases in both serum and urine samples. This study showed that single stool K-K, which remains the only diagnostic test available in most endemic areas in the Philippines, had low sensitivity and failed to identify most patients with light infection. SjcDNA detection assay and POC-CCA urine test were more sensitive than stool microscopy in detecting schistosomiasis. On the other hand, US was less sensitive than the widely utilized K-K technique in diagnosing schistosomiasis. This study emphasizes the need to revisit the use of single stool K-K in the surveillance and case detection of schistosomiasis in endemic areas of the Philippines. The availability of advanced and more sensitive diagnostic tests will help better control, prevent, and eliminate schistosomiasis in the country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Kim B. Tabios
- Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
- College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
- Laboratory of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Dokkyo Medical University, Tochigi, Japan
- *Correspondence: Marcello Otake Sato, ; Ian Kim B. Tabios,
| | - Marcello Otake Sato
- Laboratory of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Dokkyo Medical University, Tochigi, Japan
- *Correspondence: Marcello Otake Sato, ; Ian Kim B. Tabios,
| | | | - Raffy Jay C. Fornillos
- Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Masashi Kirinoki
- Laboratory of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Dokkyo Medical University, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Megumi Sato
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata City, Japan
| | - Raniv D. Rojo
- College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - Ian Kendrich C. Fontanilla
- Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Yuichi Chigusa
- Center for International Cooperation, Dokkyo Medical University, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Paul Mark B. Medina
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - Mihoko Kikuchi
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Lydia R. Leonardo
- Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
- Office of Research Coordination, University of the East, Manila, Philippines
- College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
- University of the East Ramon Magsaysay Graduate School, Quezon City, Philippines
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Fornillos RJC, Sato MO, Tabios IKB, Sato M, Leonardo LR, Chigusa Y, Minamoto T, Kikuchi M, Legaspi ER, Fontanilla IKC. Detection of Schistosoma japonicum and Oncomelania hupensis quadrasi environmental DNA and its potential utility to schistosomiasis japonica surveillance in the Philippines. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0224617. [PMID: 31747401 PMCID: PMC6867693 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the prevalence and infection intensity of Schistosoma japonicum in endemic areas of the Philippines have significantly decreased due to yearly population-based treatment strategies, yet transmission rates remain high and uninterrupted. An important indicator of active disease transmission is the presence of Schistosoma japonicum and its snail intermediate host Oncomelania hupensis quadrasi in freshwater habitats. In this study, we sought to apply a species-specific real-time PCR (qPCR) assay for the detection of S. japonicum and O. hupensis quadrasi in freshwater samples using environmental DNA approach that can complement the commonly utilized malacological survey in determining potential transmission foci in order to have a more effective snail surveillance strategy for schistosomiasis japonica in endemic areas. The newly developed assay was specific to S. japonicum and O. hupensis quadrasi with no amplification detected against non-target trematode Fasciola spp. and snails such as Lymnaea spp., Pomacea canaliculata, and Melanoides spp. that typically co-exist in the same environment. The assay effectiveness was determined using 19 environmental water samples collected from Northern Samar (N = 5 sites), Leyte (N = 11 sites) and Compostela Valley (N = 3 sites) and compared to malacological survey for determining O. hupensis quadrasi snail colonies and snail crushing to visualize S. japonicum cercariae. TaqMan qPCR targeting a short fragment of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) gene was positive for S. japonicum in 9 sites, for O. hupensis quadrasi in 9 sites, and for both S. japonicum and O. hupensis quadrasi in 5 sampling sites. Moreover, it was able to detect O. hupensis quadrasi in 3 out of 12 sites found negative and 6 out of 7 sites found positive through malacological survey, and in 4 of the 5 snail sites positive for snails with cercariae. Overall, this method can complement malacological surveys for monitoring of schistosomes in endemic areas of the Philippines, especially those with high risk of human infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffy Jay C. Fornillos
- DNA Barcoding Laboratory, Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
- Natural Sciences Research Institute, University of the Philippines Diliman, P. Velasquez St. Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Marcello Otake Sato
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Dokkyo Medical University, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Ian Kim B. Tabios
- College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Ermita Manilla, Philippines
| | - Megumi Sato
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Niigata, Japan
| | - Lydia R. Leonardo
- DNA Barcoding Laboratory, Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
- Graduate School, University of the East Ramon Magsaysay Memorial Medical Center, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Yuichi Chigusa
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Dokkyo Medical University, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Toshifumi Minamoto
- Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, Tsurukabuto, Nada-ku, Kobe, Japan
| | - Mihoko Kikuchi
- Department of Immunogenetics, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Sakamoto, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Emelda R. Legaspi
- Medical Zoology Laboratory, Schistosomiasis Research and Training Center, Palo Leyte, Philippines
| | - Ian Kendrich C. Fontanilla
- DNA Barcoding Laboratory, Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
- Natural Sciences Research Institute, University of the Philippines Diliman, P. Velasquez St. Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
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Calata FIC, Caranguian CZ, Mendoza JEM, Fornillos RJC, Tabios IKB, Fontanilla IKC, Leonardo LR, Sunico LS, Kawai S, Chigusa Y, Kikuchi M, Sato M, Minamoto T, Baoanan ZG, Sato MO. Analysis of Environmental DNA and Edaphic Factors for the Detection of the Snail Intermediate Host Oncomelania hupensis quadrasi. Pathogens 2019; 8:E160. [PMID: 31547610 PMCID: PMC6963648 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8040160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The perpetuation of schistosomiasis japonica in the Philippines depends to a major extent on the persistence of its intermediate host Oncomelania hupensis quadrasi, an amphibious snail. While the malacological survey remains the method of choice in determining the contamination of the environment as evidenced by snails infected with schistosome larval stages, an emerging technology known as environmental DNA (eDNA) detection provides an alternative method. Previous reports showed that O. hupensis quadrasi eDNA could be detected in water, but no reports have been made on its detection in soil. METHODS This study, thus focused on the detection of O. hupensis quadrasi eDNA from soil samples collected from two selected schistosomiasis-endemic barangays in Gonzaga, Cagayan Valley using conventional and TaqMan-quantitative (qPCR) PCRs. RESULTS The results show that qPCR could better detect O. hupensis quadrasi eDNA in soil than the conventional method. In determining the possible distribution range of the snail, basic edaphic factors were measured and correlated with the presence of eDNA. The eDNA detection probability increases as the pH, phosphorous, zinc, copper, and potassium content increases, possibly indicating the conditions in the environment that favor the presence of the snails. A map was generated to show the probable extent of the distribution of the snails away from the body of the freshwater. CONCLUSION The information generated from this study could be used to determine snail habitats that could be possible hotspots of transmission and should, therefore, be targeted for snail control or be fenced off from human and animal contact or from the contamination of feces by being a dumping site for domestic wastes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fritz Ivy C Calata
- Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Governor Pack Road, Baguio City 2600, Philippines.
| | - Camille Z Caranguian
- Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Governor Pack Road, Baguio City 2600, Philippines.
| | - Jillian Ela M Mendoza
- Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Governor Pack Road, Baguio City 2600, Philippines.
| | - Raffy Jay C Fornillos
- DNA Barcoding Laboratory, College of Science, National Science Complex, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines.
- Natural Sciences Research Institute, College of Science, National Science Complex, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines.
| | - Ian Kim B Tabios
- College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Pedro Gil St. Ermita, Manila 1000, Philippines.
| | - Ian Kendrich C Fontanilla
- DNA Barcoding Laboratory, College of Science, National Science Complex, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines.
- Natural Sciences Research Institute, College of Science, National Science Complex, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines.
| | - Lydia R Leonardo
- DNA Barcoding Laboratory, College of Science, National Science Complex, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines.
- Graduate School, University of the East Ramon Magsaysay Memorial Medical Center, 64 Aurora Blvd., Quezon City 1100, Philippines.
| | - Louie S Sunico
- Rural Health Unit, Municipal Health Office, Gonzaga, Cagayan Valley 3515, Philippines.
| | - Satoru Kawai
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Dokkyo Medical University, 880 Kitakobayashi, Mibu-machi, Shimotsuga-gun, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan.
| | - Yuichi Chigusa
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Dokkyo Medical University, 880 Kitakobayashi, Mibu-machi, Shimotsuga-gun, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan.
| | - Mihoko Kikuchi
- Department of Immunogenetics, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan.
| | - Megumi Sato
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Niigata University 2-746 Asahimachi-dori, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8518, Japan.
| | - Toshifumi Minamoto
- Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, 3-11, Tsurukabuto, Nada-ku, Kobe 657-8501, Japan.
| | - Zenaida G Baoanan
- Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Governor Pack Road, Baguio City 2600, Philippines.
| | - Marcello Otake Sato
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Dokkyo Medical University, 880 Kitakobayashi, Mibu-machi, Shimotsuga-gun, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan.
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