In vivo toxicity, anti-hyperlipidaemic, antioxidant and anti-atherogenic activities of 'LIPO A' A traditional herbal product in rodents

Hyperlipidemia accounts for about 17 million deaths worldwide each year. High cost and side effects have limited the use of conventional anti-lipidaemic agents in some cases, majority of whom resort to traditional medicine. The current research focused on validating the safety and efficacy of a herbal product, 'LIPO A' used in the management of hyperlipidaemia. Induction of hyperlipidaemia was achieved by oral administration of 3 mL of cholesterol in coconut oil for 4 weeks in male Sprague Dawley rats with water available as 40 % sucrose. Subsequently, the animals were treated with 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg of the product 'LIPO A' for 4 additional weeks with atorvastatin as reference drug (at 2 mg/kg body weight). Blood samples were taken for serum biochemistry and atherogenic ratios were then calculated. 2,2-Diphenyl-1-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging assay, total antioxidant capacity, physicochemical and phytochemical analysis were also carried out using standard methods. Treatment resulted in a dose-dependent reduction in total cholesterol with maximum reduction of 46.01 % at 400 mg/kg compared to atorvastatin with 49.30 %. There were significant changes in the low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c/HDL-c) and Total Cholesterol (TC/HDL-c) ratios which measures the atherogenic and coronary risk indices respectively. Acute and subacute toxicity studies did not reveal any signs of toxicity. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) fingerprint revealed six well resolved peaks with two prominent compounds with retention times 24.88 and 23.95 min, which could serve as quality control markers for the product. The herbal product showed considerable antihyperlipidemic and antioxidant actions in rodent models and lend credence to its use in traditional medicine for hyperlipidaemia.

Antibacterial, Resistance Modulation, Anti-Biofilm Formation, and Efflux Pump Inhibition Properties of Loeseneriella africana (Willd.) N. Halle (Celastraceae) Stem Extract and Its Constituents

This study investigated the antibacterial, resistance modulation, biofilm inhibition, and efflux pump inhibition potentials of Loeseneriella africana stem extract and its constituents. The antimicrobial activity was investigated by the high-throughput spot culture growth inhibition (HT-SPOTi) and broth microdilution assays. The resistance modulation activity was investigated using the anti-biofilm formation and efflux pump inhibition assays. Purification of the extract was carried out by chromatographic methods, and the isolated compounds were characterized based on nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier transform infrared and mass spectrometry spectral data and comparison with published literature. The whole extract, methanol, ethyl acetate, and pet-ether fractions of L. africana all showed antibacterial activity against the test bacteria with MICs ranging from 62.5 to 500.0 µg/mL The whole extract demonstrated resistance modulation effect through strong biofilm inhibition and efflux pump inhibition activities against S. aureus ATCC 25923, E. coli ATCC 25922 and P. aeruginosa ATCC 27853. Chromatographic fractionation of the ethyl acetate fraction resulted in the isolation of a triterpenoid (4S,4αS,6αR,6βS,8αS,12αS,12βR,14αS,14βR)-4,4α,6β,8α,11,11,12β,14α-Octamethyloctadecahydropicene-1,3(2H,4H)-dione) and a phytosterol (β-sitosterol). These compounds showed antibacterial activity against susceptible bacteria at a MIC range of 31-125 µg/mL and potentiated the antibacterial activity of amoxicillin (at ¼ MIC of compounds) against E. coli and P. aeruginosa with modulation factors of 32 and 10, respectively. These compounds also demonstrated good anti-biofilm formation effect at a concentration range of 3-100 µg/mL, and bacterial efflux pump inhibition activity at ½ MIC and ¼ MIC against E. coli and P. aeruginosa. Loeseneriella africana stem bark extracts and constituents elicit considerable antibacterial, resistance modulation, and biofilm and efflux pump inhibition activities. The results justify the indigenous uses of L. africana for managing microbial infections.

Knowledge, perception, and pesticide application practices among smallholder cocoa farmers in four Ghanaian cocoa-growing regions

Pesticides are widely used in Ghana, especially in cocoa farming. However, the practice is suboptimal and unsupervised. Incorrect use of these chemicals can seriously harm human health, the environment, and economies that rely on these farmers' output. The study assessed cocoa farmers' pesticide knowledge, practices, and risk perception. Four hundred and four cocoa farmers were chosen randomly from 26 communities in four cocoa-growing regions of Ghana to answer questions about their risk knowledge, awareness, and practices, including personal protective equipment, storage and disposal of leftover pesticides, and used containers. The study revealed that 87% of the respondents belonged to cooperatives and certification groups. There was a significant positive relationship between group membership and benefits derived from inputs and training in pesticide use. About 70% of insecticides used were approved by the Ghana Cocoa Board, with neonicotinoids and pyrethroids being the most highly used insecticide classes in cocoa farms. Although farmers claimed adequate pesticide knowledge, this did not translate into practice, with the majority exhibiting improper pesticide storage, application, and disposal practices. Farmers appeared to know a lot but lacked the skills and attitude to put their knowledge to use. The improper practices appear to manifest in a variety of health symptoms experienced by farmers as a result of chemical exposure. The findings from this study suggest that cocoa farmers in Ghana require adequate practical training and support on pesticide use to reduce their associated health risks, protect the environment and ensure sustainable cocoa production in the world's second-largest cocoa bean exporter.

Trace Metals in Cannabis Seized by Law Enforcement in Ghana and Multivariate Analysis to Distinguish among Different Cannabis Farms

For hundreds of years, cannabis has been one of the most known cultivated plants due to its variety of uses, which include as a psychoactive drug, as well as for medicinal activity. Although prohibiting cannabis products, the countries of the African continent are the largest producers of cannabis in the world; a fact that makes the trafficking of cannabis-based illicit drugs a high priority for local law enforcement authorities. The latter are exceedingly interested in the use of chemical analyses for facilitating quantification, identification, and tracing of the origin of seized cannabis samples. Targeting these goals, and focusing on the country of Ghana, the present study used inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for the determination of 12 elements (Pb, Cu, Ca, Mg, Mn, Zn, Cd, As, Hg, Fe, Na, and K) in cannabis seized by Ghana's law enforcement authorities and soils of cannabis farms. Furthermore, multivariate analysis was applied to distinguish among different cannabis farms and match them with the samples. As a result, 22 seized cannabis samples and 12 other cannabis samples with their respective soils were analyzed to reveal considerable As and Pb concentrations. As and Pb levels in cannabis were found up to 242 ppb for As and 854 ppb for Pb. Multivariate analysis was applied for separating different cannabis farms and seized samples based on elemental analysis, evidently linking the seized samples with two Ghana regions.

Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential of the stem bark extract and some constituents of Aidia genipiflora (DC.) dandy (rubiaceae)

Aidia genipiflora (DC.) Dandy (Rubiaceae) is used to treat various microbial and inflammatory conditions by traditional healers in West African countries. However, there is no information on anti-inflammatory potential of A. genipiflora. This work therefore provides information on the anti-inflammatory and the antioxidant activities of the stem bark extracts and some bioactive constituents of Aidia genipiflora.

Method

The anti-inflammatory activities of the extracts and compounds from A. genipiflora were investigated using the carrageenan-induced footpad oedema assay and the egg albumin denaturation assay. The antioxidant activities of the extract and compounds were investigated using the DPPH radical scavenging assay and the phosphomolybdenum total antioxidant capacity assay. The whole extract of A. genipiflora was also investigated for its acute oral toxicity using the fixed-dose procedure described by the Organization for Economic Cooperation Development guidelines.

Result

The whole extract showed no acute toxicity effect and the LD₅₀ was estimated to be greater than 3000 mg/kg body weight. The whole extract, methanol, and ethyl acetate fractions (30, 100, and 300 mg/kg) showed in vivo anti-inflammatory activity with respective percentage inhibition of oedema of 45.11 ± 3.41, 31.12 ± 3.42 and 29.28 ± 3.58 (p < 0.001) at the highest dose of 300 mg/kg. Diclofenac, used as a reference drug, gave a % inhibition of 48.94 ± 3.58. The compounds isolated from A. genipiflora demonstrated in-vitro anti-inflammatory activity at the IC₅₀ range (16-96 μg/mL) compared to diclofenac (IC₅₀ of 74.48 μg/mL). Oleanonic acid (AG1) and D-mannitol (AG4) further demonstrated in vivo anti-inflammatory activity (ED₅₀ = 20.61 ± 1.29; 23.51 ± 1.26 mg/kg respectively) which was less potent compared to diclofenac (ED₅₀ = 12.50 ± 1.41 mg/kg) in the carrageenan-induced oedema assay. The whole extract, pet. ether, ethyl acetate, and methanol fractions of A. genipiflora exhibited DPPH scavenging activities with respective IC₅₀ of 222.2, 169.7, 121.5, and 40.7 μg/mL. The whole extract of A. genipiflora exhibited considerable total antioxidant capacity with respective values of 248.5 mg/g of ascorbic acid equivalent. All the compounds exhibited low DPPH scavenging activity with IC₅₀ (64-86 μg/mL), compared to ascorbic acid (IC₅₀ of 3.13 ± 1.20 μg/mL). These results highlight the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of Aidia genipiflora stem bark extract and its constituents as evidence to support its traditional uses.

Hypoglycaemic activity of Oleanonic acid, a 3-oxotriterpenoid isolated from Aidia Genipiflora (DC.) Dandy, involves inhibition of carbohydrate metabolic enzymes and promotion of glucose uptake

The present study evaluated the antidiabetic activities of the 70% ethanol stem bark extract of Aidia genipiflora (AGB) and one of its constituents, oleanonic acid in streptozotocin (40 mg/kg)-induced diabetic rats. In vitro assays of glucose uptake and inhibition of carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes were then used to investigate their mechanism(s) of hypoglycaemic action. In silico evaluation of the pharmacokinetic and toxicity properties of the compound was also carried out. Administration of AGB (100-400 mg/kg) and oleanonic acid (15 - 60 mg/kg) resulted in significant reductions (p < 0.001) in the blood glucose and considerable decrease (p < 0.05) in the elevated lipid parameters of the diabetic animals. AGB activity at 200 and 400 mg/kg; and oleanonic acid at 60 mg/kg were comparable to glibenclamide (5 mg/kg). The extract and its isolate strongly inhibited α-glucosidase and α-amylase activity with IC₅₀ values of (10.48 ± 1.39 µg/mL and 14.51 ± 1.26 µg/mL) and (36.52 ± 1.95 µM and 105.84 ± 1.08 µM) respectively. The glucose uptake assays showed that AGB and oleanonic acid exerted both insulin-dependent and independent promotional effect of glucose transport into the periphery by upregulating the expression of PI3K and PPARγ transcripts with a concomitant increase in GLUT-4 transcripts. Although oleanonic acid was predicted to be teratogenic, it was found to be generally non-lethal with favourable pharmacokinetics properties making it suitable for further studies. The study has shown that the stem bark of A. genipiflora is a source of new hypoglycaemic agents and that oleanonic acid possesses hypoglycaemic and anti-hyperlipidaemic activities.

Assessment of some quality parameters and chemometric-assisted FTIR spectral analysis of commercial powdered ginger products on the Ghanaian market

Background

Zingiber officinale Roscoe (ginger) rhizome is a global spice with marked pharmacological activities and industrial applications. The demand for the powdered spice soared in the wake of the COVID-19 global pandemic. The present study sought to assess powdered ginger products on the Ghanaian market for some quality parameters and compare their chemical composition via chemometric analysis of their FT-IR data.

Methods

A survey was conducted in three major markets in Ghana to determine the commercially available powdered ginger products. These products were purchased and assessed for microbial load, heavy metals contents and ash values using official methods. Also, principal component and hierarchical cluster analysis, as multivariate algorithms, were applied to their FT-IR spectral fingerprints, using Z. officinale, Z. zerumbet and some dried ginger rhizomes from Nigeria as reference samples.

Results

Seven products were found in the survey: three local and four foreign. The local products failed to meet regulatory label requirements. The microbial load, heavy metals and ash values of all commercial samples were generally within specifications except for the aerobic bacterial counts of some local samples. Pharmacopoeial identity test and the chemometric analysis revealed all the products to contain Z. officinale. The reference ginger sample from Nigeria also demonstrated some level of similarity with Z. officinale. The variations in physical attributes and slight difference in chemical composition of the different products was presumed to be due to chemical changes arising from different processing methods and possible adulteration with other flours.

Conclusion

The sampled ginger products on the market originate from Z. officinale and have quality attributes that make them suitable for food and medicinal applications. The observed deviations, however, suggest an urgent need for standardized processing methods to ensure consistency in quality indices, as well as regular quality checks by regulatory bodies.

Antinociceptive effects of a hydroethanolic stem bark extract of Burkea africana

Introduction

Pain is a major symptom of many clinical disorders and its relief has long been a concern for individuals across the globe. There is therefore an unmet need to search for new efficacious agents for the effective management of pain. The stem bark of the savanna tree Burkea africana (Hook) (Family: Leguminosae) is used in the Ghanaian traditional medicine for the treatment and management of various pain-related diseases.

Method

An acute oral toxicity study in mice was conducted by administering BAE (50–5000 mg kg⁻¹p.o.). Antinociceptive effect of BAE (50–1000 mg kg⁻¹p.o.) was evaluated using the acetic acid-induced abdominal constriction, acidic saline-induced muscle pain and formalin-induced pain models. The antinociceptive mechanism of BAE was also assessed using the formalin-induced pain model.

Results

The LD₅₀ of BAE was thus estimated to be above 5000 mg kg⁻¹ since none of the animals died in the acute toxicity study. Pretreatment with BAE (50–1000 mg kg⁻¹p.o.) significantly reduced the number of writhes after acetic-acid administration compared to the vehicle treated group. BAE also produced a significant and dose-dependent reversal of mechanical hyperalgesia induced by the injection of the acidic saline. Administration of BAE was able to significantly suppress both phases of the formalin test. This effect of the extract was however reversed by pretreatment with naloxone and granisetron.

Conclusions

BAE exhibits antinociceptive effects in rodent pain models with a possible involvement of 5-HT₃ receptors and opioidergic pathways.

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Burkea africana stem bark extract.

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Acetic acid-induced abdominal constriction.

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Acidic saline-induced muscle pain.

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Formalin-induced pain.

Alkaloidal extract from Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides stimulates insulin secretion in normoglycemic and nicotinamide/streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

Introduction

Increase in the prevalence of type-2 diabetes in Sub-Sahara Africa has created the need for robust treatment and management programs. However, an effective diabetes management program requires a high annual budget that most countries in this region cannot afford. That said, various plants and plant products in this region have either been confirmed and/or ethnopharmacologically used for the management of type-2 diabetes.

Aim

To investigate the antidiabetic and insulin secretory effects of an alkaloidal extract derived from Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides in normoglycemic and experimental diabetic rats.

Materials and methods

Alkaloidal extract was prepared from leaves of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (ZZAE). Nicotinamide/streptozotocin-induced type-2 diabetes was modeled in male Sprague Dawley rats weighing between 130 to 150 g. The experimental diabetic rats were grouped into six treatment groups [Model, 20% Tween20, chlorpropamide, and ZZAE (50, 100, and 150 mg/kg)], and one control group. Fasting blood glucose (FBG), and body weight were measured weekly. Rats were sacrificed 2 days after treatment under chloroform anesthesia to collect blood samples and to isolate major organs for biochemical, and histological analyses respectively. Islets of Langerhans were isolated from normoglycemic rats and co-cultured with ZZAE and chlorpropamide (10 μg/mL) to assess the insulin secretory effect of ZZAE.

Results

ZZAE improved glucose kinetics curve in normoglycemic (p < 0.001) and experimental diabetic rats (p < 0.05) compared to the model. ZZAE (100 and 150 mg/kg) restored islets population, and improved kidney, and liver, histoarchitecture. ZZAE (150 mg/kg) improved post-treatment serum insulin levels compared to the model group (p < 0.001) and the Chlorpropamide group (p < 0.05). ZZAE also restored glycogen synthesis in skeletal muscles of experimental diabetic rats and stimulated insulin secretion in pancreatic islets of Langerhans isolated from normoglycemic rats.

Conclusion

These results showed that ZZAE has active alkaloids that can be explored for diabetes management.

Utilization of Plants for Medicinal Purposes and Concerns with Endangered Plant Species from Ghana

There has always been a strong human dependency on plants for health purposes and such an important relationship should be sustained. Plants remain a repository of drug leads for discovering new pharmaceutical agents for prevention, treatment and improving the quality of health for many people globally. In the effort to improve healthcare services, Ghana put up the Recommended Essential Herbal Medicine List (REHML) consisting of products that are used in the treatment of both Communicable and non-Communicable diseases. To inspire confidence among prescribers and clients of the products it has become necessary to validate the plants and their products. The aim of the study was to identify the medicinal plants' species in the herbal products in Ghana’s REHML commonly used for treatment, the conditions being treated with them and finding published research for the plants therapeutic use. Medicinal plants on the REHML with chances of getting extinct were also assessed. The REHML of Ghana and the Ghana Herbal Pharmacopoeia were reviewed for the required information. Electronic databases; PubMed and Scopus, as well as online search engines, Google Scholar and Google were used to obtain information on the identified medicinal plants and their families. A total of 167 medicinal plant species were found to be used in 180 products as compiled in the Ghana REHML and these belonged to 63 botanical families. Most of the medicinal plants are collected from the wild making sustainability and bio-conservation a challenge. Decoctions, creams and ointments are the commonest dosage forms. The REHML of Ghana caters for 13 disease areas using 180 finished herbal products. These products are made from 167 medicinal plants, 16 of which are in the group of medicinal plants classified as endangered species. There should be a conscious effort to bio-conserve these endangered medicinal plant species so that there can be continuous supply for use in the preparation of herbal products for healthcare purposes. 

Myrianthus libericus: Possible mechanisms of hypoglycaemic action and in silico prediction of pharmacokinetics and toxicity profile of its bioactive metabolite, friedelan-3-one

The hypoglycaemic and anti-hyperlipidaemic effects of the 70% ethanol stem bark extract of Myrianthus libericus (MLB), used traditionally in the management of diabetes in Ghana, was evaluated in this study using streptozotocin (45 mg/kg)-induced diabetic rats. In vitro hypoglycaemic activities of the extract and one of its principal compounds, friedelan-3-one were then investigated using α-amylase inhibitory and glucose uptake assay in C2C12 myotubes. In silico analysis of the pharmacokinetic and toxicity properties of the compound was also performed. MLB significantly (p < 0.001) reduced the elevated blood glucose levels and corrected considerably (p < 0.01) the altered serum lipid profiles of the diabetic rats which was comparable to glibenclamide (5 mg/kg). Together with friedelan-3-one, the extract markedly inhibited the activity of α-amylase and promoted glucose uptake in C2C12 cells. Whereas MLB significantly (p < 0.001) up-regulated PI3K and PPARγ transcripts with a corresponding increase in GLUT-4 transcripts within the muscle cells, friedelan-3-one only up-regulated PI3K and GLUT-4 transcripts to promote glucose transport. Friedelan-3-one was shown to be non-carcinogenic, non-hepatotoxic, has decent oral bioavailability and a good compound for optimisation into a drug candidate. The study has demonstrated that MLB possess hypoglycaemic and anti-hyperlipidaemic activities and could be used as a therapeutic agent in the management of diabetes mellitus.

Bioactive constituents with antibacterial, resistance modulation, anti-biofilm formation and efflux pump inhibition properties from Aidia genipiflora stem bark

Background

Antimicrobial resistance is a global health challenge. The involvement of bacterial biofilms and efflux pumps in the development of multidrug resistance (MDR) is well established. Medicinal plants have been proposed as alternatives for combating MDR focusing on their bioactive constituents with resistance modulatory activities. This study was aimed at investigating the stem bark of Aidia genipiflora for bioactive constituents with anti-biofilm, efflux pump inhibition and resistance modulatory activities.

Method

The crude methanol extract was purified by column chromatography and isolated compounds characterized by mass and nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry. Antibacterial activity was determined by the High-throughput spot culture growth inhibition and the broth micro-dilution assay. The ethidium bromide accumulation assay was used to determine efflux pump inhibition property. Biofilm inhibition was determined in a microplate crystal violet retention assay.

Results

Purification of the ethyl acetate fraction led to the isolation of oleanonic acid (1), 4-hydroxy cinnamic acid docosyl ester (2), β-stigmasterol/β-sitosterol (mixture 3a/b) and D-mannitol (4). The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) ranged from 250 to > 500 μg/mL for extracts and fractions and from 15 to 250 μg/mL for compounds. In the presence of sub-inhibitory concentrations of the compounds, the MIC of amoxicillin against E. coli (20 μg/mL) and P. aeruginosa (320 μg/mL) was reduced by 32 and 10 folds respectively. The whole extract demonstrated anti-biofilm formation and efflux pump inhibition in E. coli, S. aureus and P. aeruginosa. The sterol mixture (3a/b) at concentration of 100 μg/mL caused the highest inhibition (73%) of biofilm formation in S. aureus. Oleanonic acid (1) demonstrated remarkable efflux pump inhibition at MIC of 7.8 μg/mL in E. coli better than the standard drugs verapamil and chlorpromazine.

Conclusion

This study confirms the prospects of A. genipiflora as a source of new antibacterial agents and adjuvants that could interact with some resistance mechanisms in bacteria to enhance the activity of hitherto ineffective antibiotics. “A small portion of the study has been presented in a conference in the form of poster”.

Flavanols and triterpenoids from Myrianthus arboreus ameliorate hyperglycaemia in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats possibly via glucose uptake enhancement and α-amylase inhibition

Myrianthus arboreus is use traditionally as an antidiabetic agent in Ghana. We reported the in vivo antidiabetic activity of its 70 % ethanol stem bark extract (MAB) which we found to be strongly concentrated in its EtOAc fraction using glucose uptake and enzyme inhibitory assays. The present study sought to investigate the in vivo hypoglycaemic and anti-hyperlipidaemic activity of this ethyl acetate fraction of MAB (MAB-EtOAc, 50 and 100 mg/kg) in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats for 21 days, isolate and evaluate the bioactive constituents responsible for the antidiabetic activity. In silico pharmacokinetic and toxicity properties of the most active compound was also determined. MAB-EtOAc significantly (p < 0.001) reduced the blood glucose levels while normalizing considerably the altered serum lipid parameters of the diabetic rats which was comparable to glibenclamide (5 mg/kg). Chemical investigation of MAB-EtOAc led to the isolation of seven known compounds including three flavanols which are reported for the first time in the plant: epicatechin (1), epigallocatechin (2), dulcisflavan (3), euscaphic acid (4), tormentic acid (5), sitosterol-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (6) and arjunolic acid (7). The compounds markedly inhibited the action of α-amylase and, except for 4 and 6, which stimulated considerably glucose uptake in C2C12 cells. Compounds 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 which were further evaluated in STZ-induced diabetic rats demonstrated hypoglycaemic and anti-hyperlipidaemic activities which, however, were not comparable with MAB-EtOAc. Compound 3, the most active compound was predicted to be non-toxic, non-mutagenic, has reasonable oral bioavailability and a decent substrate for further drug development. The findings of this study show that the isolated compounds may contribute to the antidiabetic activity of M. arboreus and could serve as marker compounds for the quality control of herbal medicines that would be made from the plant.

Antimicrobial pentacyclic triterpenes and glycosides from the stem bark of Cussonia bancoensis

The stem bark of Cussonia bancoensis is used traditionally for the treatment of different types of infection and pain. A bioassay guided fractionation of the methanol stem bark extract led to the isolation of five pentacyclic triterpenes and glycosides identified based on spectroscopic data as 23-hydroxyursolic acid (CB1), hederagenin (CB2), 3-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl-echinocystic acid (CB3), 3-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl- oleanolic acid (CB4) and 3-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl-ursolic acid (CB5). CB2 - CB5 are being reported for the first time from this species. The compounds were evaluated for antimicrobial activity against ten microorganisms using the HT-SPOTi method. CB3 demonstrated remarkable antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, S. pyogens, E. faecalis, S. typhi and C. albicans at MICs between 3.12 and 12.5 µg/mL. Among the studied compounds, it was observed that hydroxylation of position C-16 of the oleanane skeleton may enhance antimicrobial activity. This study gives insight into the anti-infective constituents of the stem bark of C. bancoensis and justifies its use in ethnomedicine.[Formula: see text].

Antinflammatory and Analgesic Effects in Rodent Models of Ethanol Extract of Clausena anisata Roots and their Chemical Constituents

The in vivo antiinflammatory and analgesic activities of the crude ethanol extract and chemical constituents of Clausena anisata roots were investigated. The crude extract, which was devoid of any visible acute toxicity, displayed significant antiinflammatory effect at the dose of 1000 mg/kg (p.o.) when assessed using the carrageenan-induced oedema model. In the acetic acid-induced writhing and hot plate tests, it produced a very significant (p < 0.001); dose- dependent analgesic effect, with maximum analgesic activity of 72.1% at 1000 mg/kg (p.o.). Phytochemical analysis of the crude extract resulted in the isolation of four coumarins (anisocoumarin B, osthol, imperatorin and xanthotoxol) and a carbazole alkaloid, heptaphylline. Among the isolated compounds, osthol and anisocournarin B produced the highest antiinflammatory activity at 9 mg/kg (p.o.): slightly better than the positive control, indomethacin. Except for xanthotoxol, all the isolated compounds administered at 6 mg/kg (p.o.) produced significant analgesic activity and higher than diclofenac; with- heptaphylline being the most potent (48.7%). The analgesic activity of anisocoumarin B (50.4%) was the highest among the isolates tested and the standard, tramadol, in the hot plate test. The nonselective opioid receptor antagonist, naloxone, abolished the analgesic effect of the crude extract and the tested isolates (anisocoumarin B and xanthotoxol) in the hot plate test suggesting an effect via the central opioidergic system. These findings provide the scientific basis for the use of C. anisata roots in traditional medicine as antiinflammatory and analgesic agents.

Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Effects in Rodent Models of Ethanol Extract of Clausena anisata Roots and their Chemical Constituents

The in vivo anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of the crude ethanol extract and chemical constituents of Clausena anisata roots were investigated. The crude extract, which was devoid of any visible acute toxicity, displayed significant anti-inflammatory effect at the dose of 1000 mg/kg (p.o.) when assessed using the carrageenan-induced oedema model. In the acetic acid-induced writhing and hot plate tests, it produced a very significant ( p < 0.001), dose-dependent analgesic effect, with maximum analgesic activity of 72.1% at 1000 mg/kg (p.o.). Phytochemical analysis of the crude extract resulted in the isolation of four coumarins (anisocoumarin B, osthol, imperatorin and xanthotoxol) and a carbazole alkaloid, heptaphylline. Among the isolated compounds, osthol and anisocoumarin B produced the highest anti-inflammatory activity at 9 mg/kg (p.o.): slightly better than the positive control, indomethacin. Except for xanthotoxol, all the isolated compounds administered at 6 mg/kg (p.o.) produced significant analgesic activity and higher than diclofenac; with heptaphylline being the most potent (48.7%). The analgesic activity of anisocoumarin B (50.4%) was the highest among the isolates tested and the standard, tramadol, in the hot plate test. The nonselective opioid receptor antagonist, naloxone, abolished the analgesic effect of the crude extract and the tested isolates (anisocoumarin B and xanthotoxol) in the hot plate test suggesting an effect via the central opioidergic system. These findings provide the scientific basis for the use of C. anisata roots in traditional medicine as anti-inflammatory and analgesic agents.

Chemical constituents from Gouania longipetala and Glyphaea brevis

Five compounds were isolated altogether from the two medicinal plants. Glycerol monotricosanoate (1), palmarumycin BG1 (2) and de-O-methyllasiodiplodin (3) were isolated from Gouania longipetala. In addition, epicatechin (4) and its dimer procyanidin B2 (5) were isolated from the stem bark of Glyphaea brevis. Their structures were elucidated by using spectroscopic experiments. They exhibited radical scavenging and moderate antibacterial effects.