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Reed SM, Furr M, Howe DK, Johnson AL, MacKay RJ, Morrow JK, Pusterla N, Witonsky S. Equine Protozoal Myeloencephalitis: An Updated Consensus Statement with a Focus on Parasite Biology, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention. J Vet Intern Med 2016; 30:491-502. [PMID: 26857902 PMCID: PMC4913613 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.13834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2015] [Revised: 12/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) remains an important neurologic disease of horses. There are no pathognomonic clinical signs for the disease. Affected horses can have focal or multifocal central nervous system (CNS) disease. EPM can be difficult to diagnose antemortem. It is caused by either of 2 parasites, Sarcocystis neurona and Neospora hughesi, with much less known about N. hughesi. Although risk factors such as transport stress and breed and age correlations have been identified, biologic factors such as genetic predispositions of individual animals, and parasite‐specific factors such as strain differences in virulence, remain largely undetermined. This consensus statement update presents current published knowledge of the parasite biology, host immune response, disease pathogenesis, epidemiology, and risk factors. Importantly, the statement provides recommendations for EPM diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Reed
- Rood and Riddle Equine Hospital, 2150 Georgetown Road, Lexington, Kentucky, 40511.,Department of Veterinary Science, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
| | - M Furr
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK
| | - D K Howe
- Department of Veterinary Science, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
| | - A L Johnson
- New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA
| | - R J MacKay
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - J K Morrow
- Equine Diagnostic Solutions LLC, Lexington, KY
| | - N Pusterla
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA
| | - S Witonsky
- Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, Blacksburg, VA
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Johnson AL, Morrow JK, Sweeney RW. Indirect fluorescent antibody test and surface antigen ELISAs for antemortem diagnosis of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Vet Intern Med 2013; 27:596-9. [PMID: 23517480 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.12061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2012] [Revised: 12/30/2012] [Accepted: 01/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent research suggests that serum : CSF titer ratios could provide the most accurate antemortem diagnosis of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) caused by Sarcocystis neurona. OBJECTIVES The purpose of this study was to assess the utility of two commercially available tests, the indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and the surface antigen 2, 4/3 ELISA (SAG2, 4/3 ELISA), using archived paired serum and CSF samples. ANIMALS Samples were obtained from 4 types of clinical patients. Confirmed positive cases (n = 9 horses; 11 sample sets) had neurologic deficits and postmortem lesions consistent with EPM. Confirmed negative cases (n = 28) had variable clinical signs and postmortem lesions consistent with another disease. Suspected positive cases (n = 6) had neurologic deficits consistent with EPM, marked improvement after treatment, and exclusion of other diseases. Suspected negative cases (n = 14) had variable signs with a strong presumptive diagnosis of another disease. METHODS For each test, descriptive statistics were calculated using serum results alone, CSF results alone, and a serum : CSF titer ratio. RESULTS Overall accuracy was highest for SAG2, 4/3 ELISA titer ratio at 0.97 (95% CI 0.88-0.99) with sensitivity = 0.88 (95% CI 0.66-0.97) and specificity = 1 (95% CI 0.92-1). IFAT CSF and titer ratio results also showed high accuracy at 0.88 (95% CI 0.77-0.94), but lower sensitivity = 0.65 (95% CI 0.41-0.83). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE Using serum results alone was least accurate for both test types. The more accurate methods, such as the SAG2, 4/3 ELISA serum : CSF titer ratio, should be utilized.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Johnson
- Department of Clinical Studies - New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA 19348, USA.
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Dubey JP, Mitchell SM, Morrow JK, Rhyan JC, Stewart LM, Granstrom DE, Romand S, Thulliez P, Saville WJ, Lindsay DS. Prevalence of antibodies to Neospora caninum, Sarcocystis neurona, and Toxoplasma gondii in wild horses from central Wyoming. J Parasitol 2003; 89:716-20. [PMID: 14533680 DOI: 10.1645/ge-66r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Sarcocystis neurona, Neospora caninum, N. hughesi, and Toxoplasma gondii are 4 related coccidians considered to be associated with encephalomyelitis in horses. The source of infection for N. hughesi is unknown, whereas opossums, dogs, and cats are the definitive hosts for S. neurona, N. caninum, and T. gondii, respectively. Seroprevalence of these coccidians in 276 wild horses from central Wyoming outside the known range of the opossum (Didelphis virginiana) was determined. Antibodies to T. gondii were found only in 1 of 276 horses tested with the modified agglutination test using 1:25, 1:50, and 1:500 dilutions. Antibodies to N. caninum were found in 86 (31.1%) of the 276 horses tested with the Neospora agglutination test--the titers were 1:25 in 38 horses, 1:50 in 15, 1:100 in 9, 1:200 in 8, 1:400 in 4, 1:800 in 2, 1:1,600 in 2, 1:3,200 in 2, and 1:12,800 in 1. Antibodies to S. neurona were assessed with the serum immunoblot; of 276 horses tested, 18 had antibodies considered specific for S. neurona. Antibodies to S. neurona also were assessed with the S. neurona direct agglutination test (SAT). Thirty-nine of 265 horses tested had SAT antibodies--in titers of 1:50 in 26 horses and 1:100 in 13. The presence of S. neurona antibodies in horses in central Wyoming suggests that either there is cross-reactivity between S. neurona and some other infection or a definitive host other than opossum is the source of infection. In a retrospective study, S. neurona antibodies were not found by immunoblot in the sera of 243 horses from western Canada outside the range of D. virginiana.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Dubey
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Animal and Natural Resources Institute, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Building 1001, Beltsville, Maryland 20705-2350, USA.
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Cook AG, Buechner-Maxwell V, Morrow JK, Ward DL, Parker NA, Dascanio JJ, Ley WB, Cooper W. Interpretation of the detection of Sarcocystis neurona antibodies in the serum of young horses. Vet Parasitol 2001; 95:187-95. [PMID: 11223199 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-4017(00)00390-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Horses that are exposed to Sarcocystis neurona, a causative agent of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis, produce antibodies that are detectable in serum by western blot (WB). A positive test is indicative of exposure to the organism. Positive tests in young horses can be complicated by the presence of maternal antibodies. Passive transfer of maternal antibodies to S. neurona from seropositive mares to their foals was evaluated. Foals were sampled at birth (presuckle), at 24h of age (postsuckle), and at monthly intervals. All foals sampled before suckling were seronegative. Thirty-three foals from 33 seropositive mares became seropositive with colostrum ingestion at 24h of age, confirming that passive transfer of S. neurona maternal antibodies occurs. Thirty-one of the 33 foals became seronegative by 9 months of age, with a mean seronegative conversion time of 4.2 months. These results indicate that evaluation of exposure to S. neurona by WB analysis of serum may be misleading in young horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- A G Cook
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Duck Pond Drive Phase II, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
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Miller MM, Sweeney CR, Russell GE, Sheetz RM, Morrow JK. Effects of blood contamination of cerebrospinal fluid on western blot analysis for detection of antibodies against Sarcocystis neurona and on albumin quotient and immunoglobulin G index in horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1999; 215:67-71. [PMID: 10397068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/13/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine effects of blood contamination on western blot (WB) analysis of CSF samples for detection of anti-Sarcocystis neurona antibodies, and on CSF albumin and IgG concentrations, albumin quotient (AQ), and IgG index in horses. DESIGN Prospective in vitro study. SAMPLES Blood with various degrees of immunoreactivity against S neurona was collected from 12 healthy horses. Cerebrospinal fluid without immunoreactivity against S neurona was harvested from 4 recently euthanatized horses. PROCEDURE Blood was serially diluted with pooled nonimmunoreactive CSF so that final dilutions corresponded to 10(-3) to 100 microliters of blood/ml CSF, and WB analysis was performed on contaminated CSF samples. Number of RBC, albumin and IgG concentrations, AQ, and IgG index were also determined. RESULTS Antibodies against S neurona were detected in CSF contaminated with 10(-3) microliters of strongly immunoreactive blood/ml. In CSF samples contaminated with 10 microliters of blood/ml, AQ remained within reference range. Volume of blood required to increase IgG index varied among blood samples and was primarily influenced by serum IgG concentrations. Number of RBC in contaminated samples was correlated with volume of blood added, but not with degree of immunoreactivity detected in contaminated CSF samples. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE During collection of CSF from horses, contamination with blood may introduce serum antibodies against S neurona at concentrations sufficient for detection by WB analysis, thus yielding false-positive results. When blood is moderately or strongly immunoreactive, the amount of contaminating albumin may be small enough as to not increase AQ above reference range. In these cases, AQ and IgG index should be interpreted with caution.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Miller
- Department of Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square 19348-1692, USA
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Skinker DM, Warnecke SC, Morrow JK, Hunsaker JC. DNA typing of azoospermic semen at the D1S80 locus. J Forensic Sci 1997; 42:718-20. [PMID: 9243839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The examination of azoospermic semen poses a special problem for the forensic scientist. Both serologic and RFLP methods may result in inconclusive results. PCR analysis is known to have an advantage in the evaluation of variably degraded, small quantities of DNA. This investigation addresses the feasibility of detecting the DNA profiles of azoospermic males in cases of suspected rape by the use of PCR amplification of the VNTR locus DIS80. DNA profiles were produced from aspermic semen samples from six vasectomized males. Two mixed postcoital vaginal samples containing azoospermic semen from two of the vasectomized males were also obtained and both revealed the combined profiles of the azoospermic semen donors and the vaginal epithelial donors. All cases resulted in an allelic banding pattern of the donor semen matching the respective blood/saliva standard.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Skinker
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center, Lexington, USA
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Tse KF, Morrow JK, Hughes NK, Gallicchio VS. Stromal cell lines derived from LP-BM5 murine leukemia virus-infected long-term bone marrow cultures impair hematopoiesis in vitro. Blood 1994; 84:1508-18. [PMID: 7520775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Murine acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (MAIDS) induced by defective LP-BM5 murine leukemia virus is a disease with many similarities to human AIDS. Previous studies indicated that the depressed hematopoiesis observed in LP-BM5-infected marrow cultures may be attributable to a defect of hematopoietic stroma. We report here the generation of permanent stromal cell lines from noninfected and LP-BM5-infected marrow cultures. Retrovirus infection was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction for viral genome. The ability of these cell lines to support in vitro hematopoiesis was studied. Results indicated that, when cocultured with normal or infected nonadherent mononuclear cells, noninfected cell lines efficiently supported the production of hematopoietic precursors, whereas viral-infected cell lines induced suppression of both normal and viral-infected progenitors. Expression of cytokine genes in stromal cell lines was also examined. All cell lines expressed equivalent levels of transcripts for stem cell factor and tumor necrosis factor alpha. However, infection was associated with higher levels of interleukin-4 and transforming growth factor beta 1 transcript expression. These findings suggest that infected stromal cell lines exhibit a defective hematopoietic microenvironment that produced altered cytokine expression resulting in faulty hematopoiesis. Further characterization of the defective cell lines should prove valuable for studies of the pathogenesis of murine AIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- K F Tse
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington
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Gallion HH, Powell DE, Morrow JK, Pieretti M, Case E, Turker MS, DePriest PD, Hunter JE, van Nagell JR. Molecular genetic changes in human epithelial ovarian malignancies. Gynecol Oncol 1992; 47:137-42. [PMID: 1468689 DOI: 10.1016/0090-8258(92)90096-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The frequent finding of loss of heterozygosity (LOH) for a specific chromosomal marker in tumor DNA compared to normal DNA suggests the presence of a closely linked tumor-suppressor gene. Using Southern blot analysis, 34 primary ovarian epithelial tumors were examined for the presence of tumor-specific allelic losses, using six probes for chromosomes 6q, 11p, 13q, 16q, and 17p. A high incidence of LOH was observed on 11p, 13q, and 17p. LOH for 17p was present in 3 of 4 (75%) informative benign ovarian tumors, 1 of 5 (20%) borderline tumors, and 16 of 24 (67%) invasive ovarian cancers. Allelic loss with the H-ras1 probe on 11p was present in 10 of 19 (53%) invasive tumors but was not identified in 6 benign or borderline tumors. LOH on 13q was present in 18 of 31 (58%) informative cases including 8 of 10 (80%) Stage 1 tumors. This preliminary study suggests that loss of tumor-suppressor genes on chromosomes 13q and 17p may be early events in ovarian tumorigenesis and that changes on chromosome 11p are later events.
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Affiliation(s)
- H H Gallion
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington 40536
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Gallion HH, Powell DE, Smith LW, Morrow JK, Martin AW, Van Nagell JR, Donaldson ES. Chromosome abnormalities in human epithelial ovarian malignancies. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/0020-7292(91)90191-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Abstract
Karyotypic analysis of tumor specimens from 29 patients with untreated epithelial ovarian carcinoma was performed at the University of Kentucky Medical Center. Twenty-three of the twenty-nine tumors had adequate cells for analysis. Seventeen of these tumors exhibited chromosome abnormalities. Chromosome alterations were complex, with an average of seven different abnormal chromosomal patterns per tumor (range 2-14). Chromosomes 1 and 11 were the most commonly involved, being abnormal in 89 and 83% of tumors, respectively. Chromosomes 3 and 7 were also frequently abnormal. In contrast to invasive tumors, alterations in chromosomes 1 and 11 were not seen in the two tumors of borderline malignant potential. Evidence for DNA amplification of IGF2, Ha-ras-1, and c-ets was not observed. Amplification of the c-erbB-2 oncogene was present in two tumors. These findings indicate that multiple karyotypic abnormalities occur in untreated epithelial ovarian malignancies, with chromosomes 1 and 11 being the most frequently abnormal. These data also suggest that alterations of these chromosomes may be associated with the biologically aggressive behavior of frankly invasive ovarian tumors.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Aged
- Aged, 80 and over
- Blotting, Southern
- Chromosome Aberrations
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 1
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 11
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 3
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 7
- ErbB Receptors
- Female
- Genes, ras/genetics
- Humans
- Insulin-Like Growth Factor II/genetics
- Karyotyping
- Middle Aged
- Multigene Family
- Ovarian Neoplasms/genetics
- Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/genetics
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/genetics
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-ets
- Transcription Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- H H Gallion
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington 40536
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Riley LK, Morrow JK, Danton MJ, Coleman MS. Human terminal deoxyribonucleotidyltransferase: molecular cloning and structural analysis of the gene and 5' flanking region. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1988; 85:2489-93. [PMID: 2833741 PMCID: PMC280022 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.85.8.2489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Human terminal deoxyribonucleotidyltransferase (nucleoside-triphosphate:DNA deoxynucleotidylexotransferase, EC 2.7.7.31) cDNA contains an open reading frame of 1530 base pairs (bp) corresponding to a protein containing 510 amino acids. The encoded protein is a template-independent DNA polymerase found only in a restricted population of normal and malignant prelymphocytes. To begin to investigate the genetic elements responsible for the tissue-specific expression of terminal deoxyribonucleotidyltransferase, genomic clones containing the entire human gene were isolated and characterized. Initially, cDNA clones were isolated from a library generated from the human lymphoblastoid cell line, MOLT-4R. A cDNA clone containing the entire coding region of the protein was used to isolate a series of overlapping clones from two human genomic libraries. The gene comprises 11 exons and 10 introns and spans 49.4 kilobases. The 5' flanking region (709 bp) including exon 1 was sequenced. Several putative transcription initiation sites were mapped. Within 500 nucleotides of the translation start site, a series of promoter elements was detected. "TATA" and "CAAT" sequences, respectively, were found to start at nucleotides -185 and -204, -328, and 465 and -505. Start sites were found for a cyclic AMP-dependent promoter analog at nucleotide -121, an eight-base sequence corresponding to the IgG promoter enhancer (cd) at nucleotide -455, and an analog of the IgG promoter (pd) at nucleotide -159. These findings suggest that transcripts coding for terminal deoxyribonucleotidyltransferase may be variable in length and that transcription may be influenced by a variety of genetic elements.
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Affiliation(s)
- L K Riley
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington 40536-0084
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