Critical factors in the design of growth factor releasing scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering

BACKGROUND

Trauma or degenerative diseases of the joints are common clinical problems resulting in high morbidity. Although various orthopedic treatments have been developed and evaluated, the low repair capacities of articular cartilage renders functional results unsatisfactory in the long term. Over the last decade, a different approach (tissue engineering) has emerged that aims not only to repair impaired cartilage, but also to fully regenerate it, by combining cells, biomaterials mimicking extracellular matrix (scaffolds) and regulatory signals. The latter is of high importance as growth factors have the potency to induce, support or enhance the growth and differentiation of various cell types towards the chondrogenic lineage. Therefore, the controlled release of different growth factors from scaffolds appears to have great potential to orchestrate tissue repair effectively.

OBJECTIVE

This review aims to highlight considerations and limitations of the design, materials and processing methods available to create scaffolds, in relation to the suitability to incorporate and release growth factors in a safe and defined manner. Furthermore, the current state of the art of signalling molecules release from scaffolds and the impact on cartilage regeneration in vitro and in vivo is reported and critically discussed.

METHODS

The strict aspects of biomaterials, scaffolds and growth factor release from scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering applications are considered.

CONCLUSION

Engineering defined scaffolds that deliver growth factors in a controlled way is a task seldom attained. If growth factor delivery appears to be beneficial overall, the optimal delivery conditions for cartilage reconstruction should be more thoroughly investigated.

Tailored release of TGF-β1 from porous scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering

In view of cartilage tissue engineering, the possibility to prepare porous scaffolds releasing transforming growth factor-beta(1) (TGF-beta(1)) in a well controlled fashion was investigated by means of an emulsion-coating method. Poly(ether-ester) multiblock copolymers were used to prepare emulsions containing TGF-beta(1) which were subsequently applied onto prefabricated scaffolds. This approach resulted in defined porous structures (66%) with interconnected porosity, suitable to allow tissue ingrowth. The scaffolds were effectively associated with TGF-beta(1) and allowed to tailor precisely the release of the growth factor from 12 days to more than 50 days by varying the copolymer composition of the coating. An incomplete release was measured by ELISA, possibly linked to the rapid concentration decrease of the protein in solution. The released growth factor retained its biological activity as was assessed by a cell proliferation assay and by the ability of the released protein to induce chondrogenic differentiation of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells. However, exact bioactivity quantification was rendered difficult by the protein concentration decrease during storage. Therefore, this study confirms the interest of poly(ether-ester) multiblock copolymers for controlled release of growth factors, and indicates that emulsion-coated scaffolds are promising candidates for cartilage tissue engineering applications requiring precise TGF-beta(1) release rates.

Dual release of proteins from porous polymeric scaffolds

To create porous scaffolds releasing in a controlled and independent fashion two different proteins, a novel approach based on protein-loaded polymeric coatings was evaluated. In this process, two water-in-oil emulsions are forced successively through a prefabricated scaffold to create coatings, containing each a different protein and having different release characteristics. In a first step, a simplified three-layered system was designed with model proteins (myoglobin and lysozyme). Poly(ether-ester) multiblock copolymers were chosen as polymer matrix, to allow the diffusion of proteins through the coatings. The model system showed the independent release of the two proteins. The myoglobin release was tailored from a burst to a linear release still on-going after 60 days, while the lysozyme release rate was kept constant. Macro-porous scaffolds, with a porosity of 59 vol.%, showed the same ability to control the release rate of the model proteins independently. The relation between the coatings properties and their release characteristics were investigated with the use of a mathematical diffusion model based on Fick's second law. It confirmed that the multiple coated scaffolds are biphasic system, where each coating controls the release of the protein that it contains. This approach could be of value for tissue engineering applications.

Controlled release of proteins from degradable poly(ether-ester) multiblock copolymers

A new series of multiblock poly(ether-ester)s based on poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), butylene terephthalate (BT) and butylene succinate (BS) segments were introduced as matrices for controlled release applications. The release of two model proteins, lysozyme and bovine serum albumin (BSA), from poly(ether-ester) films were evaluated and correlated to the swelling and degradation characteristics of the polymer matrices. First- and zero-order profiles were found for the release of lysozyme, depending on the composition of the polymer matrix. The initial diffusion coefficient was correlated to the swelling of the matrix, which increased with longer PEG segments and lower BT/BS ratios of the polymer. High swelling matrices released the lysozyme according to diffusion-controlled first-order release profiles. Zero-order release profiles were obtained from less swollen matrices due to a combination of diffusion and degradation of the matrix. In contrast to the release of lysozyme, BSA was released from the poly(ether-ester) matrices via delayed release profiles. Both the delay time and the release rate could be tailored by varying the matrix composition. The BSA release rate was mainly determined by the degradation, whereas the delay time was determined by a combination of the swelling and the degradation rate of the polymer matrix.

Biodegradable poly(ether-ester) multiblock copolymers for controlled release applications: Anin vivoevaluation

Multiblock poly(ether-ester)s based on poly(ethylene glycol), butylene terephthalate, and butylene succinate segments were evaluated for their in vivo degradation and biocompatibility in order to establish a correlation with previously reported in vitro results. Porous polymer sheets were implanted subcutaneously for 32 weeks in rats. The degradation was monitored visually (histology), by molecular weight (GPC), and by copolymer composition (NMR). Substitution of the aromatic terephthalate units by aliphatic succinate units was shown to accelerate the degradation rate of the copolymers. Direct correlation of the in vivo and in vitro degradation of the porous implants showed a slightly faster initial molecular weight decrease in vivo. Besides hydrolysis, oxidation occurs in vivo due to the presence of radicals produced by inflammatory cells. In addition, the higher molecular weight plateau of the residue found in vivo indicated a higher solubility of the oligomers in the extracellular fluid compared to a phosphate buffer. Minor changes in the poly(ether-ester) compositions were noted due to degradation. Microscopically, fragmentation of the porous implants was observed in time. At later stages of degradation, macrophages were observed phagocytozing small polymer particles. Both in vitro cytotoxicity studies and histology on in vivo samples proved the biocompatibility of the poly(ether-ester)s.

In Vitro/in Vivo Correlation for14C-Methylated Lysozyme Release from Poly(Ether-Ester) Microspheres

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to obtain an in vitro/in vivo correlation for the sustained release of a protein from poly(ethylene glycol) terephthalate (PEGT)/poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) microspheres.

METHODS

Radiolabeled lysozyme was encapsulated in PEGT/PBT microspheres via a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion. Three microsphere formulations varying in copolymer composition were administered subcutaneously to rats. The blood plasma was analyzed for radioactivity content representing released lysozyme at various time points post-dose. The in vitro release was studied in phosphate-buffered saline.

RESULTS

The encapsulation efficiency, calculated from the radioactivity in the outer water phase of the emulsion, varied from 60-87%. Depending on the PEG segment length and wt% PEGT, the lysozyme was released completely in vitro within 14 to 28 days without initial burst. 14C-methylated lysozyme could be detected in the plasma over the same time courses. The in vitro/in vivo correlation coefficients obtained from point-to-point analysis were greater than 0.96 for all microsphere formulations. In addition, less then 10% of administered radioactivity remained at dose site at 28 days for the microsphere formulations, indicating no notable retention of the protein at the injection site.

CONCLUSION

The in vitro release in phosphate-buffered saline and the in vivo release in rats showed an excellent congruence independent of the release rate of 14C-methylated lysozyme from PEGT/PBT microspheres.

Biodegradable poly(ether‐ester) multiblock copolymers for controlled release applications

Multiblock poly(ether-ester)s based on poly(ethylene glycol), butylene terephthalate, and butylene succinate units were synthesized by a two-step melt polycondensation reaction, with the aim of developing a new series of degradable polymers for controlled release applications. The copolymers were characterized with respect to their composition (NMR), thermal properties (DSC), and swelling. The main focus was on the degradation kinetics and release properties of the copolymers. The crystallinity and swelling could be tailored by the PEG segment length and the ratio of the building units. With increasing mol fraction succinate in the hard segment, the swelling increased. The in vitro degradation was found to occur by molecular weight decrease and mass loss. Substitution of the aromatic terephthalate units by aliphatic succinate units increased the degradation rate of the copolymers. Polymers with PEG segments of 1000 kg/mol showed a more pronounced degradation than copolymers containing shorter and longer PEG segments. Model proteins were successfully incorporated and released from the poly(ether-ester) films. Depending on the size of the protein, the release mechanism was based on diffusion of the protein and degradation of the matrix.

Scaffolds for tissue engineering of cartilage

Articular cartilage lesions resulting from trauma or degenerative diseases are commonly encountered clinical problems. It is well-established that adult articular cartilage has limited regenerative capacity, and, although numerous treatment protocols are currently employed clinically, few approaches exist that are capable of consistently restoring long-term function to damaged articular cartilage. Tissue engineering strategies that focus on the use of three-dimensional scaffolds for repairing articular cartilage lesions offer many advantages over current treatment strategies. Appropriate design of biodegradable scaffold conduits (either preformed or injectable) allow for the delivery of reparative cells bioactive factors, or gene factors to the defect site in an organized manner. This review seeks to highlight pertinent design considerations and limitations related to the development, material selection, and processing of scaffolds for articular cartilage tissue engineering, evidenced over the last decade. In particular, considerations for novel repair strategies that use scaffolds in combination with controlled release of bioactive factors or gene therapy are discussed, as are scaffold criteria related to mechanical stimulation of cell-seeded constructs. Furthermore, the subsequent impact of current and future aspects of these multidisciplinary scaffold-based approaches related to in vitro and in vivo cartilage tissue engineering are reported herein.

Release of small water-soluble drugs from multiblock copolymer microspheres: a feasibility study

Poly(ethylene glycol)-terephthalate/poly(butylene terephthalate) (PEGT/PBT) multiblock copolymer was investigated as a possible matrix for controlled delivery of small water-soluble drugs. Two molecules were selected as sustained release candidates from microspheres: leuprorelin acetate (peptide of Mw = 1270 D) and vitamin B(12) (Mw = 1355 D). First, vitamin B(12)-loaded microspheres were prepared using a double emulsion method and preparation parameters were varied (surfactant in the first emulsion and copolymer composition). The resulting microsphere structure, entrapment efficiency and release rate were evaluated. Vitamin B(12)-loaded microsphere parameters could easily be tailored to achieve specific requirements. The addition of surfactant in the first preparation process led to a significant increase of the microsphere entrapment efficiency, whereas the decrease of the PEGT copolymer content allowed the release rates from microspheres to be precisely decreased. However, leuprorelin acetate-loaded microspheres did not show the same characteristics when prepared with the same parameters, possibly because of a high water solubility discrepancy between the vitamin B(12) and the peptide. This study shows the suitability of PEGT/PBT microspheres as a controlled release system for vitamin B(12), but not for leuprorelin acetate. It also underlines the necessity of tailored development for each individual drug and emphasizes the risk of using model molecules.

A novel method to obtain protein release from porous polymer scaffolds: emulsion coating

To obtain the controlled release of proteins from macro-porous polymeric scaffolds, a novel emulsion-coating method has been developed. In this process, a water-in-oil emulsion, from an aqueous protein solution and a polymer solution, is forced through a prefabricated scaffold by applying a vacuum. After solvent evaporation, a polymer film, containing the protein, is then deposited on the porous scaffold surface. This paper reports the effect of processing parameters on the emulsion coating characteristics, scaffold structure, and protein release and stability. Poly(ether-ester) multiblock copolymers were chosen as the polymer matrix for both scaffolds and coating. Macro-porous scaffolds, with a porosity of 77 vol% and pores of approximately 500 microm were prepared by compression moulding/salt leaching. A micro-porous, homogeneous protein-loaded coating could be obtained on the scaffold surface. Due to the coating, the scaffold porosity was decreased, whereas the pore interconnection was increased. A model protein (lysozyme) could effectively be released in a controlled fashion from the scaffolds. Complete lysozyme release could be achieved within 3 days up to more than 2 months by adjusting the coated emulsion parameters. In addition, the coating process did not reduce the enzymatic activity. This new method appears to be promising for tissue engineering applications.

Biocompatibility and degradation of poly(ether-ester) microspheres: in vitro and in vivo evaluation

Microspheres of a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic poly(ether-ester) copolymer were evaluated for their in vitro and in vivo biocompatibility and degradation. The microspheres prior to and after sterilization were tested for in vitro cytotoxicity. The in vivo biocompatibility of the poly(ethylene glycol) terephthalate and poly(butylene terephthalate) (PEGT/PBT) microspheres was evaluated subcutaneously and intramuscularly for 24 weeks in rabbits. The in vivo degradation of the microspheres was studied microscopically and compared to the in vitro degradation. The in vitro and in vivo studies showed the biocompatibility of the microspheres of both the hydrophobic and the hydrophilic PEGT/PBT copolymer. Extracts of these microspheres showed no cytotoxic reactivity in the in vitro cytotoxicity test. Sterilization of the microspheres by gamma irradiation did not affect the cytotoxicity. PEGT/PBT microspheres injected subcutaneously and intramuscularly in rabbits showed a mild tissue response in vivo, in terms of the inflammatory response, the foreign body reaction and the granulation tissue response. Although an in vitro degradation experiment showed a decrease in molecular weight due to hydrolysis, the in vivo degradation of the microspheres was slower than previously published.

Bone growth in biomimetic apatite coated porous Polyactive 1000PEGT70PBT30 implants

We recently, developed a simple one-day one-step incubation method to obtain bone-like apatite coating on flexible and biodegradable Polyactive 1000PEGT70PBT30. The present study reports a preliminary biological evaluation on the coated polymer after implantation in rabbit femurs. The porous cylindrical implants were produced from a block fabricated by injection molding and salt leaching. This technique provided the block necessary mechanical integrity to make small cylinders (diameter 3.5 x 5 mm2) that were suitable for implantation in rabbits. The coating continuously covered the surface of the polymer, preserving the porous architecture of outer contour of the cylinders. Two defects with a diameter of 3.5 or 4 mm were drilled in the proximal and distal part of femur diaphysis. The implants were inserted as press-fit or undersized into the cortex as well as in the marrow cavity. The polymer swelled after implantation due to hydration, leading to a tight contact with the surrounding bone in both defects. The adherence of the coating on the polymer proved to be sufficient to endure a steam sterilization process as well as the 15% swelling of the polymer in vivo. The coated Polyactive 1000PEGT70PBT30 has a good osteoconductive property, as manifested by abundant bone growth into marrow cavity along the implant surface during 4-week implantation. A favorable bioactive effect of the coating with an intimate bone contact and extensive bone bonding with this polymer was qualitatively confirmed. Concerning the bone ingrowth into the porous implant in the defect of 4 mm diameter, only marginal bone formation was observed up to 8 weeks with a maximal penetration depth of about 1 mm. The pore interconnectivity is important not only for producing a coating inside the porous structure but also for bone ingrowth into this biodegradable material. This preliminary study provided promising evidence for a further study using a bigger animal model.

Stability aspects of salmon calcitonin entrapped in poly(ether-ester) sustained release systems

Poly(ether-ester)s composed of hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol)-terephthalate (PEGT) blocks and hydrophobic poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) blocks were studied as matrix for the controlled release of calcitonin. Salmon calcitonin loaded PEGT/PBT films were prepared from water-in-oil emulsions. The initial calcitonin release rate could be tailored by the copolymer composition, but incomplete release of calcitonin was observed. FTIR measurements indicated aggregation of calcitonin in the matrix, which was not due to the preparation method of the matrices, but due to the instability of calcitonin in an aqueous environment. Release experiments showed the susceptibility of calcitonin towards the composition of the release medium, in particular to the presence of metal ions. With increasing amount of sodium ions, a decrease in the total amount of released calcitonin was observed due to enhanced aggregation. The calcitonin had to be stabilized in the matrix to prevent aggregation. Incorporation of sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) as a stabilizer in PEGT/PBT matrices increased the percentage of calcitonin released, but could not avoid aggregation on a longer term.

Control of vitamin B12 release from poly(ethylene glycol)/poly(butylene terephthalate) multiblock copolymers

The release of vitamin B12 (1355 Da) from matrices based on multiblock copolymers was studied. The copolymers were composed of hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol)-terephthalate (PEGT) blocks and hydrophobic poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) blocks. Vitamin B12 loaded films were prepared by using a water-in-oil emulsion method. The copolymer properties, like permeability, could be varied by increasing the PEG-segment length from 300 up to 4,000 g/mol and by changing the wt% of PEGT. From permeation and release experiments. the diffusion coefficient of vitamin B12 through PEGT/PBT films of different compositions was determined. The diffusion coefficient of Vitamin B12 was strongly dependent on the composition of the copolymers. Although an increased wt% of PEGT (at a constant PEG-segment length) resulted in a higher diffusion coefficient, a major effect was observed at increasing PEG-segment length. By varying the copolymer composition, a complete release of vitamin B12 in 1 day up to a constant release for over 12 weeks was obtained. The release rate could be effectively tailored by blending copolymers with different PEG-segment lengths. The swelling and the crystallinity of the matrix could explain the effect of the matrix composition on the release behavior.

Amphiphilic poly(ether ester amide) multiblock copolymers as biodegradable matrices for the controlled release of proteins

Amphiphilic poly(ether ester amide) (PEEA) multiblock copolymers were synthesized by polycondensation in the melt from hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), 1,4-dihydroxybutane and short bisester-bisamide blocks. These amide blocks were prepared by reaction of 1,4-diaminobutane with dimethyl adipate in the melt. A range of multiblock copolymers were prepared, with PEG contents varying from 23-66 wt %. The intrinsic viscosity of the PEEA polymers varied from 0.58-0.78. Differential scanning calorimetry showed melting transitions for the PEG blocks and for the amide-ester blocks, suggesting a phase separated structure. Both the melting temperature and the crystallinity of the hard amide-ester segments decreased with increasing PEG content of the polymers. The equilibrium swelling ratio in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) increased with increasing amount of PEG in the polymers and varied from 1.7 to 3.7, whereas the polymer that contained 66 wt % PEG was soluble in PBS. During incubation of PEEA films in PBS, weight loss and a continuous decrease in the resulting inherent polymer viscosity was observed. The rate of degradation increased with increasing PEG content. The composition of the remaining matrices did not change during degradation. A preliminary investigation of the protein release characteristics of these PEEA copolymers showed that release of the model protein lysozyme was proportional to the square root of time. The release rate was found to increase with increasing degree of swelling of the polymers.

Microspheres for protein delivery prepared from amphiphilic multiblock copolymers. 1. Influence of preparation techniques on particle characteristics and protein delivery

The entrapment of lysozyme in amphiphilic multiblock copolymer microspheres by emulsification and subsequent solvent removal processes was studied. The copolymers are composed of hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) blocks and hydrophobic poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) blocks. Direct solvent extraction from a water-in-oil (w/o) emulsion in ethanol or methanol did not result in the formation of microspheres, due to massive polymer precipitation caused by rapid solvent extraction in these non-solvents. In a second process, microspheres were first prepared by a water-in-oil-in-water (w/o/w) emulsion system with 4% poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) as stabilizer in the external phase, followed by extraction of the remaining solvent. As non-solvents ethanol, methanol and mixtures of methanol and water were employed. However, the use of alcohols in the extraction medium resulted in microspheres which gave an incomplete lysozyme release at a non-constant rate. Complete lysozyme release was obtained from microspheres prepared by an emulsification-solvent evaporation method in PBS containing poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP) or PVA as stabilizer. PVA was most effective in stabilizing the w/o/w emulsion. Perfectly spherical microspheres were produced, with high protein entrapment efficiencies. These microspheres released lysozyme at an almost constant rate for approximately 28 days. The reproducibility of the w/o/w emulsion process was demonstrated by comparing particle characteristics and release profiles of three batches, prepared under similar conditions.

Microspheres for protein delivery prepared from amphiphilic multiblock copolymers. 2. Modulation of release rate

Amphiphilic multiblock copolymers, based on hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) blocks and hydrophobic poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) blocks were used as matrix material for protein-loaded microspheres. The efficiency of lysozyme entrapment by a double emulsion method was found to depend on the swelling behavior of the polymers in water and decreased from 100% for polymers with a degree of swelling of less than 1.8 to 11% for PEG-PBT copolymers with a degree of swelling of 3.6. The particle size could be controlled by varying the concentration of the polymer solution used in the microsphere preparation. An increase in the polymer concentration resulted in a proportional increase in the particle size. The in vitro release profiles of the encapsulated model protein lysozyme could be precisely tailored by variation of the copolymer composition and the size of the microspheres. Both a slow continuous release of lysozyme, and a fast release which was completed within a few days could be obtained. The release behavior, attributed to a combination of diffusion and polymer degradation, could be described by a previously developed model.

Control of protein delivery from amphiphilic poly(ether ester) multiblock copolymers by varying their water content using emulsification techniques

Protein-containing films and microspheres, based on poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(butylene terephthalate) (PEG-PBT) multiblock copolymers, were prepared from water-in-oil (w/o) emulsions. The properties of the matrices could be controlled by the water-to-polymer ratio (w/p) in the w/o emulsion. A linear increase in water uptake of the matrices was observed with increasing emulsion w/p. This could be explained by an increase in the number of dispersed water-rich domains in the polymer matrix. At low volume fraction of the dispersed phase (epsilon), lysozyme release was mainly dependent on the permeability of the swollen polymer bulk. Above a critical volume fraction (the percolation threshold epsilon(c)), the dispersed water-rich phase formed an interconnected network, which largely enhanced the permeability of the matrix. Determination of the permeability of PEG-PBT matrices for vitamin B(12) as a function of epsilon confirmed the formation of such an interconnected network. This interconnected network could be used to achieve controlled release of a large protein (bovine serum albumin, BSA) from PEG-PBT films and microspheres. Due to its hydrodynamic diameter, BSA was screened by the polymer network when epsilon was low. However above epsilon(c), the fraction released BSA increased with increasing volume fraction of the dispersed phase. A very rapid BSA release could be obtained, with the majority of the incorporated BSA released within 1 day, as well as a slow and continuous release, lasting for over 150 days. When BSA-containing microspheres were prepared with a volume fraction just below the percolation threshold, a delayed release was observed. This was attributed to the effect of polymer degradation on matrix permeability.

Zero-order release of lysozyme from poly(ethylene glycol)/poly(butylene terephthalate) matrices

Protein release from a series of biodegradable poly(ether ester) multiblock copolymers, based on poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) was investigated. Lysozyme-containing PEG/PBT films and microspheres were prepared using an emulsion technique. Proteins were effectively encapsulated and dense polymer matrices were formed. The swelling in water of PEG/PBT films reached equilibrium within 3 days. The degree of swelling increased with increasing PEG content and with increasing molecular weight of the PEG segment. The release rate of lysozyme from PEG/PBT films could be tailored very precisely by controlling the copolymer composition. Release rates increased with increasing PEG/PBT weight ratio and increasing molecular weight of the PEG segment. For films prepared from block copolymers with PEG blocks of 4000 g/mol, first-order lysozyme release was observed. For matrices prepared from polymers with PEG segments of 1000 and 600 g/mol, the lysozyme release profile followed near zero-order kinetics. A mathematical description of the release mechanism was developed which takes into account the effect of polymer hydrolytic degradation on solute diffusion. The model was found to be consistent with the experimental observations. Finally, determination of the activity of released protein showed that lysozyme was not damaged during the formulation, storage and release periods.

A controlled release system for proteins based on poly(ether ester) block-copolymers: polymer network characterization

The properties of a series of multiblock copolymers, based on hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and hydrophobic poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) blocks were investigated with respect to their application as a matrix for controlled release of proteins. The degree of swelling, Q, of the copolymers increased with increasing PEG content and with increasing molecular weight of the PEG segment. Within the composition range tested, Q varied from 1.26 for polymers with PEG segments of 600 g/mol and a PBT content of 60 weight.% up to 3.64 for polymers with PEG segments of 4000 g/mol and a PEG/PBT weight ratio of 80:20. Equilibrium stress (compression)-strain measurements were performed in order to estimate mesh sizes. The mesh size of the copolymers ranged from 38 to 93 A, which was experimentally confirmed by diffusion of vitamin B(12) (hydrodynamic diameter d(h)=16.6 A), lysozyme (d(h)=41 A) and bovine serum albumin (d(h)=72 A). The in vitro degradation of PEG/PBT copolymers with a PEG block length of 1000 g/mol and PEG/PBT weight ratios of 70:30, 60:40 and 40:60 was studied. Matrices with increasing PEG contents exhibited a faster weight loss in phosphate-buffered saline (pH 7.4) at 37 degrees C. Over a degradation period of 54 days, M(n) decreased by about 35-45%, while the composition of the matrices, determined by NMR, remained almost constant.

Poly(ethylene oxide)-modified carboxylated polystyrene latices--immobilization chemistry and protein adsorption

alpha,omega-Diamino poly(ethylene oxides) (PEOs) with different molecular weights (148, 1000, and 3400) were covalently immobilized onto carboxylated polystyrene latices. The immobilization of PEO was carried out with N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N'-ethylcarbodiimide (EDC) and N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) in aqueous media. The reaction conditions were optimized to obtain a maximal coupling of PEO. The degree of coupling was determined by the surface concentration of amino groups. The maximal surface concentrations of amino groups were close to what is expected for a complete coverage of the surface with PEO. Adsorption of albumin from a buffer solution onto PEO-containing surfaces was about 85% less than the albumin uptake by unmodified polystyrene latices. Protein adsorption from plasma dilutions was lower on surfaces containing PEO molecules with a higher molecular weight. The reduction of the protein uptake from plasma by surfaces containing PEO-3400 molecules was only 40% compared to the adsorption to unmodified surfaces. These results indicate that plasma proteins have a low affinity for surfaces modified with PEO. However the PEO modified surfaces are by no means 'protein resistant' when exposed to plasma.