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LeDoux JE. Consciousness, the affectome, and human life. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 159:105601. [PMID: 38401575 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
I have been working on interactions between conscious and non-conscious processes since the late 1970s. In this commentary, I offer a perspective on conscious/non-conscious interactions that might a useful adjunct to the Human Affectome Project as it evolves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science and Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY 1003, USA; Department of Psychiatry, and Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School, New York, NY 1003, USA.
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2
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Abstract
In an interview with Neuron, Joseph LeDoux outlines his early work on consciousness in split-brain patients, his transition into studying emotional behavior in rodents, and his continued exploration of consciousness in books and other writings. He describes how his research fused with his interest in music, which he pursued though his band, The Amygdaloids, and their unique genre, "heavy mental."
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3
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Wen Z, Pace-Schott EF, Lazar SW, Rosén J, Åhs F, Phelps EA, LeDoux JE, Milad MR. Distributed neural representations of conditioned threat in the human brain. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2231. [PMID: 38472184 PMCID: PMC10933283 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46508-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Detecting and responding to threat engages several neural nodes including the amygdala, hippocampus, insular cortex, and medial prefrontal cortices. Recent propositions call for the integration of more distributed neural nodes that process sensory and cognitive facets related to threat. Integrative, sensitive, and reproducible distributed neural decoders for the detection and response to threat and safety have yet to be established. We combine functional MRI data across varying threat conditioning and negative affect paradigms from 1465 participants with multivariate pattern analysis to investigate distributed neural representations of threat and safety. The trained decoders sensitively and specifically distinguish between threat and safety cues across multiple datasets. We further show that many neural nodes dynamically shift representations between threat and safety. Our results establish reproducible decoders that integrate neural circuits, merging the well-characterized 'threat circuit' with sensory and cognitive nodes, discriminating threat from safety regardless of experimental designs or data acquisition parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenfu Wen
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Faillace Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Edward F Pace-Schott
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Sara W Lazar
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Jörgen Rosén
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Åhs
- Department of Psychology and Social Work, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | | | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Center for Neural Science and Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- The Neuroscience Institute, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mohammed R Milad
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
- Faillace Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA.
- The Neuroscience Institute, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
- Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY, USA.
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4
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Boender AJ, Boon M, Albers HE, Eck SR, Fricker BA, Kelly AM, LeDoux JE, Motta SC, Shrestha P, Taylor JH, Trainor BC, Triana-Del Rio R, Young LJ. An AAV-CRISPR/Cas9 strategy for gene editing across divergent rodent species: Targeting neural oxytocin receptors as a proof of concept. Sci Adv 2023; 9:eadf4950. [PMID: 37256960 PMCID: PMC10413677 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adf4950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
A major issue in neuroscience is the poor translatability of research results from preclinical studies in animals to clinical outcomes. Comparative neuroscience can overcome this barrier by studying multiple species to differentiate between species-specific and general mechanisms of neural circuit functioning. Targeted manipulation of neural circuits often depends on genetic dissection, and use of this technique has been restricted to only a few model species, limiting its application in comparative research. However, ongoing advances in genomics make genetic dissection attainable in a growing number of species. To demonstrate the potential of comparative gene editing approaches, we developed a viral-mediated CRISPR/Cas9 strategy that is predicted to target the oxytocin receptor (Oxtr) gene in >80 rodent species. This strategy specifically reduced OXTR levels in all evaluated species (n = 6) without causing gross neuronal toxicity. Thus, we show that CRISPR/Cas9-based tools can function in multiple species simultaneously. Thereby, we hope to encourage comparative gene editing and improve the translatability of neuroscientific research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjen J. Boender
- Center for Translational Social Neuroscience, Silvio O. Conte Center for Oxytocin and Social Cognition, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Marina Boon
- Center for Translational Social Neuroscience, Silvio O. Conte Center for Oxytocin and Social Cognition, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - H. Elliott Albers
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Samantha R. Eck
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | | | - Aubrey M. Kelly
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Joseph E. LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School, New York, NY, USA
| | - Simone C. Motta
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Anatomy, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Prerana Shrestha
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Renaissance School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Jack H. Taylor
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Brian C. Trainor
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | | | - Larry J. Young
- Center for Translational Social Neuroscience, Silvio O. Conte Center for Oxytocin and Social Cognition, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
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5
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Abstract
Neuroscience has a long history of investigating the neural correlates of brain functions. One example is fear, which has been studied intensely in a variety of species. In parallel, unease about definitions of brain functions has existed for over 100 years. Because the translational impact of basic research hinges on how we define these functions, these definitions should be carefully considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole C Rust
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA; Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA; Emotional Brain Institute, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA; Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School, New York, NY 10003, USA; Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School, New York, NY 10003, USA; London School of Economics, London, UK.
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Cushing CA, Dawes AJ, Hofmann SG, Lau H, LeDoux JE, Taschereau-Dumouchel V. A generative adversarial model of intrusive imagery in the human brain. PNAS Nexus 2023; 2:pgac265. [PMID: 36733294 PMCID: PMC9887942 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The mechanisms underlying the subjective experiences of mental disorders remain poorly understood. This is partly due to long-standing over-emphasis on behavioral and physiological symptoms and a de-emphasis of the patient's subjective experiences when searching for treatments. Here, we provide a new perspective on the subjective experience of mental disorders based on findings in neuroscience and artificial intelligence (AI). Specifically, we propose the subjective experience that occurs in visual imagination depends on mechanisms similar to generative adversarial networks that have recently been developed in AI. The basic idea is that a generator network fabricates a prediction of the world, and a discriminator network determines whether it is likely real or not. Given that similar adversarial interactions occur in the two major visual pathways of perception in people, we explored whether we could leverage this AI-inspired approach to better understand the intrusive imagery experiences of patients suffering from mental illnesses such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and acute stress disorder. In our model, a nonconscious visual pathway generates predictions of the environment that influence the parallel but interacting conscious pathway. We propose that in some patients, an imbalance in these adversarial interactions leads to an overrepresentation of disturbing content relative to current reality, and results in debilitating flashbacks. By situating the subjective experience of intrusive visual imagery in the adversarial interaction of these visual pathways, we propose testable hypotheses on novel mechanisms and clinical applications for controlling and possibly preventing symptoms resulting from intrusive imagery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cody A Cushing
- Department of Psychology, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Alexei J Dawes
- RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0106, Japan
| | - Stefan G Hofmann
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Philipps-University Marburg, 35037 Marburg, Germany
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Hakwan Lau
- RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0106, Japan
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science and Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, 10012, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, and Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Vincent Taschereau-Dumouchel
- Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3T 1J4, Canada
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H1N 3M5, Canada
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Oyarzun JP, Kuntz TM, Stussi Y, Karaman OT, Vranos S, Callaghan BL, Huttenhower C, LeDoux JE, Phelps EA. Human threat learning is associated with gut microbiota composition. PNAS Nexus 2022; 1:pgac271. [PMID: 36712344 PMCID: PMC9802442 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
The ability to learn about threat and safety is critical for survival. Studies in rodent models have shown that the gut microbiota can modulate such behaviors. In humans, evidence showing an association with threat or extinction learning is lacking. Here, we tested whether individual variability in threat and extinction learning was related to gut microbiota composition in healthy adults. We found that threat, but not extinction learning, varies with individuals' microbiome composition. Our results provide evidence that the gut microbiota is associated with excitatory threat learning across species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javiera P Oyarzun
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Center for Neural Science and Department of Psychology, New York University, New York NY, 10003, USA
| | - Thomas M Kuntz
- Department of Biostatistics, Microbiome Analysis Core, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Yoann Stussi
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Olivia T Karaman
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Sophia Vranos
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | | | - Curtis Huttenhower
- Department of Biostatistics, Microbiome Analysis Core, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science and Department of Psychology, New York University, New York NY, 10003, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School, New York, NY 1003,USA
| | - Elizabeth A Phelps
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
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LeDoux JE. The day I told Karim Nader, "Don't do the study". Brain Res Bull 2022; 189:1-3. [PMID: 35981628 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Karim Nader changed the course of memory research by reviving interest in the mostly forgotten topic of post-retrieval manipulations of memory. In this paper I summarize the events leading up to his ground-breaking study in my lab on so-called memory reconsolidation, and the effects of that study on the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA; Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA; Max-Planck-NYU Center for Language, Music, and Emotion (CLaME), New York University, New York, NY, USA; Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School, New York, NY, USA; Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School, New York, NY, USA
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Taschereau-Dumouchel V, Michel M, Lau H, Hofmann SG, LeDoux JE. Putting the "mental" back in "mental disorders": a perspective from research on fear and anxiety. Mol Psychiatry 2022; 27:1322-1330. [PMID: 35079126 PMCID: PMC9095479 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-021-01395-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Mental health problems often involve clusters of symptoms that include subjective (conscious) experiences as well as behavioral and/or physiological responses. Because the bodily responses are readily measured objectively, these have come to be emphasized when developing treatments and assessing their effectiveness. On the other hand, the subjective experience of the patient reported during a clinical interview is often viewed as a weak correlate of psychopathology. To the extent that subjective symptoms are related to the underlying problem, it is often assumed that they will be taken care of if the more objective behavioral and physiological symptoms are properly treated. Decades of research on anxiety disorders, however, show that behavioral and physiological symptoms do not correlate as strongly with subjective experiences as is typically assumed. Further, the treatments developed using more objective symptoms as a marker of psychopathology have mostly been disappointing in effectiveness. Given that "mental" disorders are named for, and defined by, their subjective mental qualities, it is perhaps not surprising, in retrospect, that treatments that have sidelined mental qualities have not been especially effective. These negative attitudes about subjective experience took root in psychiatry and allied fields decades ago when there were few avenues for scientifically studying subjective experience. Today, however, cognitive neuroscience research on consciousness is thriving, and offers a viable and novel scientific approach that could help achieve a deeper understanding of mental disorders and their treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Taschereau-Dumouchel
- Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada.
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Montréal, Montreal, Canada.
| | - Matthias Michel
- Department of Philosophy, New York University, New York, NY, 1003, USA
| | - Hakwan Lau
- RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Japan
| | - Stefan G Hofmann
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science and Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, 1003, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, and Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School, New York, NY, 1003, USA
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10
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LeDoux JE. As soon as there was life, there was danger: the deep history of survival behaviours and the shallower history of consciousness. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20210292. [PMID: 34957848 PMCID: PMC8710881 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
It is often said that fear is a universal innate emotion that we humans have inherited from our mammalian ancestors by virtue of having inherited conserved features of their nervous systems. Contrary to this common sense-based scientific point of view, I have argued that what we have inherited from our mammalian ancestors, and they from their distal vertebrate ancestors, and they from their chordate ancestors, and so forth, is not a fear circuit. It is, instead, a defensive survival circuit that detects threats, and in response, initiates defensive survival behaviours and supporting physiological adjustments. Seen in this light, the defensive survival circuits of humans and other mammals can be conceptualized as manifestations of an ancient survival function-the ability to detect danger and respond to it-that may in fact predate animals and their nervous systems, and perhaps may go back to the beginning of life. Fear, on the other hand, from my perspective, is a product of cortical cognitive circuits. This conception is not just of academic interest. It also has practical implications, offering clues as to why efforts to treat problems related to fear and anxiety are not more effective, and what might make them better. This article is part of the theme issue 'Systems neuroscience through the lens of evolutionary theory'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph E. LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA
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11
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LeDoux JE. Review of The Hidden Spring: A Journey to the Source of Consciousness. Psychoanalytic Psychology 2022. [DOI: 10.1037/pap0000389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Campese VD, Brannigan LA, LeDoux JE. Conditional Control of Instrumental Avoidance by Context Following Extinction. Front Behav Neurosci 2021; 15:730113. [PMID: 34650411 PMCID: PMC8505733 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.730113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Using rodents, three training arrangements (i.e., ABB vs. ABA, AAA vs. AAB and ABB vs. ABC) explored whether extinction influences the expression of avoidance in a manner controlled by context. Retention testing following extinction showed that more avoidance responding (i.e., renewal) was observed when extinguished cues were tested outside of the context where they had undergone extinction. In contrast, response rates were significantly lower when stimuli were tested within the context where extinction learning had occurred. These findings add to the emerging literature assessing the role of Pavlovian extinction processes in the development of instrumental avoidance responding by demonstrating conditional control over extinguished responding by context. This study was conducted using a within-subjects approach that minimized the potential for context-outcome associations to bias responding, and thus, reflects hierarchical control over behavior based on the specific associative status of each tested cue in each training context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent D Campese
- Department of Psychology, University of Evansville, Evansville, IN, United States
| | - Lauren A Brannigan
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, United States.,Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY, United States
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13
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Haaker J, Diaz-Mataix L, Guillazo-Blanch G, Stark SA, Kern L, LeDoux JE, Olsson A. Observation of others' threat reactions recovers memories previously shaped by firsthand experiences. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2101290118. [PMID: 34301895 PMCID: PMC8325359 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2101290118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Information about dangers can spread effectively by observation of others' threat responses. Yet, it is unclear if such observational threat information interacts with associative memories that are shaped by the individual's direct, firsthand experiences. Here, we show in humans and rats that the mere observation of a conspecific's threat reactions reinstates previously learned and extinguished threat responses in the observer. In two experiments, human participants displayed elevated physiological responses to threat-conditioned cues after observational reinstatement in a context-specific manner. The elevation of physiological responses (arousal) was further specific to the context that was observed as dangerous. An analogous experiment in rats provided converging results by demonstrating reinstatement of defensive behavior after observing another rat's threat reactions. Taken together, our findings provide cross-species evidence that observation of others' threat reactions can recover associations previously shaped by direct, firsthand aversive experiences. Our study offers a perspective on how retrieval of threat memories draws from associative mechanisms that might underlie both observations of others' and firsthand experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Haaker
- Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany;
- Division of Psychology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lorenzo Diaz-Mataix
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003;
- Emotional Brain Institute, New York University, New York, NY 10003
| | - Gemma Guillazo-Blanch
- Departament de Psicobiologia i Metodologia de les Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sara A Stark
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003
| | - Lea Kern
- Division of Psychology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003
- Emotional Brain Institute, New York University, New York, NY 10003
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY 10003
| | - Andreas Olsson
- Division of Psychology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
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14
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Dukes D, Abrams K, Adolphs R, Ahmed ME, Beatty A, Berridge KC, Broomhall S, Brosch T, Campos JJ, Clay Z, Clément F, Cunningham WA, Damasio A, Damasio H, D’Arms J, Davidson JW, de Gelder B, Deonna J, de Sousa R, Ekman P, Ellsworth PC, Fehr E, Fischer A, Foolen A, Frevert U, Grandjean D, Gratch J, Greenberg L, Greenspan P, Gross JJ, Halperin E, Kappas A, Keltner D, Knutson B, Konstan D, Kret ME, LeDoux JE, Lerner JS, Levenson RW, Loewenstein G, Manstead ASR, Maroney TA, Moors A, Niedenthal P, Parkinson B, Pavlidis L, Pelachaud C, Pollak SD, Pourtois G, Roettger-Roessler B, Russell JA, Sauter D, Scarantino A, Scherer KR, Stearns P, Stets JE, Tappolet C, Teroni F, Tsai J, Turner J, Van Reekum C, Vuilleumier P, Wharton T, Sander D. The rise of affectivism. Nat Hum Behav 2021; 5:816-820. [PMID: 34112980 PMCID: PMC8319089 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-021-01130-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Research over the past decades has demonstrated the explanatory power of emotions, feelings, motivations, moods, and other affective processes when trying to understand and predict how we think and behave. In this consensus article, we ask: has the increasingly recognized impact of affective phenomena ushered in a new era, the era of affectivism?
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Dukes
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland,Department of Special Education, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland,;
| | - Kathryn Abrams
- Berkeley Law School, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Ralph Adolphs
- Division of Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Mohammed E. Ahmed
- Department of Computer Science, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Andrew Beatty
- Department of Anthropology, Brunel University London, London, UK
| | - Kent C. Berridge
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Susan Broomhall
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for History of Emotions, Australian Catholic University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Tobias Brosch
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland,Department of Psychology, FPSE, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Joseph J. Campos
- Institute of Human Development, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA,USA
| | - Zanna Clay
- Department of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, UK
| | - Fabrice Clément
- Cognitive Science Centre, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | | | - Antonio Damasio
- Brain and Creativity Institute, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Hanna Damasio
- Dornsife Cognitive Neuroscience Imaging Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Justin D’Arms
- Department of Philosophy, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Jane W. Davidson
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for History of Emotions, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Beatrice de Gelder
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands,Department of Computer Science, University College London, London, UK
| | - Julien Deonna
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland,Department of Philosophy, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ronnie de Sousa
- Department of Philosophy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Paul Ekman
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA,Paul Ekman Group, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Ernst Fehr
- Department of Economics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Agneta Fischer
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ad Foolen
- Centre for Language Studies, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ute Frevert
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany
| | - Didier Grandjean
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland,Department of Psychology, FPSE, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jonathan Gratch
- Institute for Creative Technologies, University of Southern California, Playa Vista, CA, USA
| | - Leslie Greenberg
- Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - James J. Gross
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Eran Halperin
- Psychology Department, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Arvid Kappas
- Department of Psychology and Methods, Jacobs University Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Dacher Keltner
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Brian Knutson
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - David Konstan
- Department of Classics, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mariska E. Kret
- Cognitive Psychology Unit, Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Joseph E. LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jennifer S. Lerner
- Harvard Kennedy School and Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Robert W. Levenson
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - George Loewenstein
- Department of Social and Decision Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | - Terry A. Maroney
- Vanderbilt University Law School, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Agnes Moors
- Department of Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Paula Niedenthal
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Brian Parkinson
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - loannis Pavlidis
- Department of Computer Science, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Catherine Pelachaud
- CNRS-Institut des Systèmes Intelligents et de Robotique, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Seth D. Pollak
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Gilles Pourtois
- Department of Experimental, Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - James A. Russell
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Boston College, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Disa Sauter
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Klaus R. Scherer
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland,Department of Psychology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Peter Stearns
- Department of History, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA
| | - Jan E. Stets
- Department of Sociology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Christine Tappolet
- Département de Philosophie, Université de Montreal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Fabrice Teroni
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland,Department of Philosophy, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jeanne Tsai
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Jonathan Turner
- Department of Sociology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Carien Van Reekum
- School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, Reading UK
| | - Patrik Vuilleumier
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland,Department of Neuroscience, University Medical School, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Tim Wharton
- School of Humanities, University of Brighton, Brighton, UK
| | - David Sander
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland,Department of Psychology, FPSE, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland,;
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15
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Abstract
In this My Word, Joseph LeDoux describes how his work as a graduate student got him interested in human consciousness. Although he has not studied this topic since 1970s, he never stopped thinking and writing about it during his four-decade career exploring how non-conscious processes involving the amygdala detect and respond to danger. Here, he tells us what is on his mind about consciousness these days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science and Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY 1003, USA; Department of Psychiatry, and Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medial School, New York, NY 1003, USA; Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY 10962, USA.
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16
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Campese VD, Kim IT, Kurpas B, Branigan L, Draus C, LeDoux JE. Motivational factors underlying aversive Pavlovian-instrumental transfer. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 27:477-482. [PMID: 33060285 PMCID: PMC7571266 DOI: 10.1101/lm.052316.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
While interest in active avoidance has recently been resurgent, many concerns relating to the nature of this form of learning remain unresolved. By separating stimulus and response acquisition, aversive Pavlovian-instrumental transfer can be used to measure the effect of avoidance learning on threat processing with more control than typical avoidance procedures. However, the motivational substrates that contribute to the aversive transfer effect have not been thoroughly examined. In three studies using rodents, the impact of a variety of aversive signals on shock-avoidance responding (i.e., two-way shuttling) was evaluated. Fox urine, as well as a tone paired with the delivery of the predator odor were insufficient modulatory stimuli for the avoidance response. Similarly, a signal for the absence of food did not generate appropriate aversive motivation to enhance shuttling. Only conditioned Pavlovian stimuli that had been paired with unconditioned threats were capable of augmenting shock-avoidance responding. This was true whether the signaled outcome was the same (e.g., shock) or different (e.g., klaxon) from the avoidance outcome (i.e., shock). These findings help to characterize the aversive transfer effect and provide a more thorough analysis of its generalization to warning signals for different kinds of threats. This feature of aversive motivation has not been demonstrated using conventional avoidance procedures and could be potentially useful for applying avoidance in treatment settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinn D Campese
- Department of Psychology, University of Evansville, Evansville, Indiana 47722, USA
| | - Ian T Kim
- Behavioral and Neural Sciences Graduate Program, Rutgers University-Newark, Newark, New Jersey 07102, USA.,Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University-Newark, Newark, New Jersey 07102, USA
| | - Botagoz Kurpas
- Department of Psychology, Kingsborough College, Brooklyn, New York 11235, USA
| | - Lauren Branigan
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10010, USA
| | - Cassandra Draus
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10010, USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10010, USA.,Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
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17
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Awasthi S, Pan H, LeDoux JE, Cloitre M, Altemus M, McEwen B, Silbersweig D, Stern E. The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and functionally linked neurocircuitry modulate emotion processing and HPA axis dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuroimage Clin 2020; 28:102442. [PMID: 33070099 PMCID: PMC7569227 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2020.102442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Task-based functional cooccurrence (tbFC) elucidates role of BNST in human PTSD neurocircuitry. The BNST is hyperactive during the processing of trauma-related words in PTSD. BNST activity correlates to PTSD symptom severity and reduced diurnal cortisol index. The BNST has positive tbFC with negative emotion- and stress-related neurocircuitry. The BNST has negative tbFC with executive function and stress regulation neurocircuitry.
Background The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) plays an important role in rodent posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but evidence to support its relevance to human PTSD is limited. We sought to understand the role of the BNST in human PTSD via fMRI, behavioral, and physiological measurements. Methods 29 patients with PTSD (childhood sexual abuse) and 23 healthy controls (HC) underwent BOLD imaging with an emotional word paradigm. Symptom severity was assessed using the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale and HPA-axis dysfunction was assessed by measuring the diurnal cortisol amplitude index (DCAI). A data-driven multivariate analysis was used to determine BNST task-based functional co-occurrence (tbFC) across individuals. Results In the trauma-versus-neutral word contrast, patients showed increased activation compared to HC in the BNST, medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), posterior cingulate gyrus (PCG), caudate heads, and midbrain, and decreased activation in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Symptom severity positively correlated with activity in the BNST, caudate head, amygdala, hippocampus, dorsal anterior cingulate gyrus (dACG), and PCG, and negatively with activity in the medial orbiotofrontal cortex (mOFC) and DLPFC. Patients and HC showed marked differences in the relationship between the DCAI and BOLD activity in the BNST, septal nuclei, dACG, and PCG. Patients showed stronger tbFC between the BNST and closely linked limbic and subcortical regions, and a loss of negative tbFC between the BNST and DLPFC. Conclusions Based upon novel data, we present a new model of dysexecutive emotion processing and HPA-axis dysfunction in human PTSD that incorporates the role of the BNST and functionally linked neurocircuitry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samir Awasthi
- Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Hong Pan
- Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Marylene Cloitre
- National Center for PTSD, Veteran Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Margaret Altemus
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | - David Silbersweig
- Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Emily Stern
- Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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18
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19
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Abstract
Consciousness is currently a thriving area of research in psychology and neuroscience. While this is often attributed to events that took place in the early 1990s, consciousness studies today are a continuation of research that started in the late 19th century and that continued throughout the 20th century. From the beginning, the effort built on studies of animals to reveal basic principles of brain organization and function, and of human patients to gain clues about consciousness itself. Particularly important and our focus here is research in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s involving three groups of patients-amnesia, split brain, and blindsight. Across all three groups, a similar pattern of results was found-the patients could respond appropriately to stimuli that they denied seeing (or in the case of amnesiacs, having seen before). These studies paved the way for the current wave of research on consciousness. The field is, in fact, still grappling with the implications of the findings showing that the ability to consciously know and report the identity of a visual stimulus can be dissociated in the brain from the mechanisms that underlie the ability to behave in a meaningful way to the same stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003;
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY 10003
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School, New York, NY 10003
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School, New York, NY 10003
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY 10962
| | - Matthias Michel
- Consciousness, Cognition & Computation Group, Université Libre de Bruxelles, B1050 Bruxelles, Belgium
- Center for Mind, Brain and Consciousness, New York University, New York, NY 10003
| | - Hakwan Lau
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095
- Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095
- Department of Psychology, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
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20
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Ostroff LE, Santini E, Sears R, Deane Z, Kanadia RN, LeDoux JE, Lhakhang T, Tsirigos A, Heguy A, Klann E. Axon TRAP reveals learning-associated alterations in cortical axonal mRNAs in the lateral amgydala. eLife 2019; 8:e51607. [PMID: 31825308 PMCID: PMC6924958 DOI: 10.7554/elife.51607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Local translation can support memory consolidation by supplying new proteins to synapses undergoing plasticity. Translation in adult forebrain dendrites is an established mechanism of synaptic plasticity and is regulated by learning, yet there is no evidence for learning-regulated protein synthesis in adult forebrain axons, which have traditionally been believed to be incapable of translation. Here, we show that axons in the adult rat amygdala contain translation machinery, and use translating ribosome affinity purification (TRAP) with RNASeq to identify mRNAs in cortical axons projecting to the amygdala, over 1200 of which were regulated during consolidation of associative memory. Mitochondrial and translation-related genes were upregulated, whereas synaptic, cytoskeletal, and myelin-related genes were downregulated; the opposite effects were observed in the cortex. Our results demonstrate that axonal translation occurs in the adult forebrain and is altered after learning, supporting the likelihood that local translation is more a rule than an exception in neuronal processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linnaea E Ostroff
- Department of Physiology and NeurobiologyUniversity of ConnecticutStorrsUnited States
| | | | - Robert Sears
- Center for Neural ScienceNew York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
- Emotional Brain InstituteNathan Kline Institute for Psychiatry ResearchOrangeburgUnited States
- Department of Child and Adolescent PsychiatryNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkUnited States
| | - Zachary Deane
- Department of Physiology and NeurobiologyUniversity of ConnecticutStorrsUnited States
| | - Rahul N Kanadia
- Department of Physiology and NeurobiologyUniversity of ConnecticutStorrsUnited States
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural ScienceNew York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
- Emotional Brain InstituteNathan Kline Institute for Psychiatry ResearchOrangeburgUnited States
| | - Tenzin Lhakhang
- Applied Bioinformatics LaboratoriesNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkUnited States
| | - Aristotelis Tsirigos
- Applied Bioinformatics LaboratoriesNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkUnited States
- Department of PathologyNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkUnited States
| | - Adriana Heguy
- Department of PathologyNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkUnited States
- Genome Technology CenterNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkUnited States
| | - Eric Klann
- Center for Neural ScienceNew York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
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21
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Campese VD, Kim IT, Hou M, Gupta S, Draus C, Kurpas B, Burke K, LeDoux JE. Chemogenetic Inhibition Reveals That Processing Relative But Not Absolute Threat Requires Basal Amygdala. J Neurosci 2019; 39:8510-8516. [PMID: 31492771 PMCID: PMC6807280 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2530-18.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
While our understanding of appetitive motivation has benefited immensely from the use of selective outcome devaluation tools, the same cannot be said about aversive motivation. Findings from appetitive conditioning studies have shown that basal amygdala is required for behaviors that are sensitive to updates in outcome value, but similar results in aversive motivation are difficult to interpret due to a lack of outcome specificity. The studies reported here sought to develop procedures to isolate sensory-specific processes in aversive learning and behavior and to assess the possible contribution of the basal amygdala. Post-training changes to outcome value produced commensurate changes to subsequently tested conditioned responding in male rodents. Specifically, increases in shock intensity (i.e., inflation) augmented, while repeated exposure to (i.e., habituation of) an aversive sound (klaxon-horn) reduced freezing to conditioned stimuli previously paired with these outcomes. This was extended to a discriminative procedure, in which following revaluation of one event, but not the other, responding was found to be dependent on outcome value signaled by each cue. Chemogenetic inactivation of basal amygdala impaired this discrimination between stimuli signaling differently valued outcomes, but did not affect the revaluation process itself. These findings demonstrate a contribution of the basal amygdala to aversive outcome-dependent motivational processes.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The specific content of pavlovian associative learning has been well studied in appetitive motivation, where the value of different foods can be easily manipulated. This has facilitated our understanding of the neural circuits that generate different forms of motivation (i.e., sensory specific vs general). Studies of aversive learning have not produced the same degree of understanding with regard to sensory specificity due to a lack of tools for evaluating sensory-specific processes. Here we use a variant of outcome devaluation procedures with aversive stimuli to study the role of basal amygdala in discriminating between aversive stimuli conveying different degrees of threat. These findings have implications for how we study generalized threat to identify dysregulation that can contribute to generalized anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent D Campese
- Department of Psychology, University of Evansville, Evansville Indiana 47722,
| | - Ian T Kim
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003
| | - Mian Hou
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003
| | - Saurav Gupta
- Department of Psychology, University of Evansville, Evansville Indiana 47722
| | - Cassandra Draus
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003
| | - Botagoz Kurpas
- Department of Psychology, Kingsborough College, Brooklyn, New York 11235
| | - Kelsey Burke
- Department of Psychology, Hunter College, New York, New York 10065, and
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg New York 10962
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22
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Abstract
There is disagreement on how best to define and investigate fear. Nature Neuroscience asked Dean Mobbs to lead experts from the fields of human and animal affective neuroscience to discuss their viewpoints on how to define fear and how to move forward with the study of fear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dean Mobbs
- Department of Humanities and Social Sciences and Computation and Neural Systems Program, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA.
| | - Ralph Adolphs
- Department of Humanities and Social Sciences and Computation and Neural Systems Program, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
| | - Michael S Fanselow
- Departments of Psychology and Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Lisa Feldman Barrett
- Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging and Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York, USA
- Nathan Kline Institute, New York State Office of Mental Health, New York, New York, USA
- Departments of Psychiatry and Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, NYU Langone Medical School, New York, New York, USA
| | - Kerry Ressler
- Division of Depression & Anxiety Disorders, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Kay M Tye
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
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23
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Brown R, Lau H, LeDoux JE. Understanding the Higher-Order Approach to Consciousness. Trends Cogn Sci 2019; 23:754-768. [PMID: 31375408 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2019.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The higher-order theory (HOT) of consciousness has often been misunderstood by critics. Here, we clarify its position on several issues, and distinguish it from other views, such as the global workspace theory (GWT) and early sensory models (e.g., first-order local recurrency theories). For example, HOT has been criticized for overintellectualizing consciousness. We show that, while higher-order states are cognitively assembled, the requirements are in fact considerably less than often presumed. In this sense, HOT may be viewed as an intermediate position between GWT and early sensory views. We also clarify that most proponents of HOT do not stipulate consciousness as equivalent to metacognition or confidence. Furthermore, compared with other existing theories, HOT can arguably account better for complex everyday experiences, such as emotions and episodic memories. This makes HOT particularly useful as a framework for conceptualizing pathological mental states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Brown
- Philosophy Program LaGuardia Community College, City University of New York, Long Island City, NY, USA
| | - Hakwan Lau
- Department of Psychology and Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Department of Psychology, and State Key Laboratory for Brain and Cognitive Sciences, the University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science and Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA; Departments of Psychiatry and Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School, New York, NY, USA; Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, USA.
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24
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Junod A, Opendak M, LeDoux JE, Sullivan RM. Development of Threat Expression Following Infant Maltreatment: Infant and Adult Enhancement but Adolescent Attenuation. Front Behav Neurosci 2019; 13:130. [PMID: 31293397 PMCID: PMC6603125 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Early life maltreatment by the caregiver constitutes a major risk factor for the development of later-life psychopathologies, including fear-related pathologies. Here, we used an animal model of early life maltreatment induced by the Scarcity-Adversity Model of low bedding (LB) where the mother is given insufficient bedding for nest building while rat pups were postnatal days (PN) 8-12. To assess effects of maltreatment on the expression of threat-elicited defensive behaviors, animals underwent odor-shock threat conditioning at three developmental stages: late infancy (PN18), adolescence (PN45) or adulthood (>PN75) and tested the next day with odor only presentations (cue test). Results showed that in typically developing rats, the response to threat increases with maturation, although experience with maltreatment in early infancy produced enhanced responding to threat in infancy and adulthood, but a decrease in maltreated adolescents. To better understand the unique features of this decreased threat responding in adolescence, c-Fos expression was assessed within the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) associated with the cued expression of threat learning. Fos counts across amygdala subregions were lower in LB rats compared to controls, while enhanced c-Fos expression was observed in the vmPFC prelimbic cortex (PL). Correlational analysis between freezing behavior and Fos revealed freezing levels were correlated with CeA in controls, although more global correlations were detected in LB-reared rats, including the BA, LA, and CeA. Functional connectivity analysis between brain regions showed that LB reared rats exhibited more diffuse interconnectivity across amygdala subnuclei, compared the more heterogeneous patterns observed in controls. In addition, functional connectivity between the IL and LA switched from positive to negative in abused adolescents. Overall, these results suggest that in adolescence, the unique developmental decrease in fear expression following trauma is associated with distinct changes in regional function and long-range connectivity, reminiscent of pathological brain function. These results suggest that early life maltreatment from the caregiver perturbs the developmental trajectory of threat-elicited behavior. Indeed, it is possible that this form of trauma, where the infant's safety signal or "safe haven" (the caregiver) is actually the source of the threat, produces distinct outcomes across development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anouchka Junod
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, United States
- Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
| | - Maya Opendak
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, United States
- Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
| | - Joseph E. LeDoux
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, United States
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Regina M. Sullivan
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, United States
- Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, United States
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25
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Krypotos AM, Moscarello JM, Sears RM, LeDoux JE, Galatzer-Levy I. A principled method to identify individual differences and behavioral shifts in signaled active avoidance. Learn Mem 2018; 25:564-568. [PMID: 30322888 PMCID: PMC6191017 DOI: 10.1101/lm.047399.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Signaled active avoidance (SigAA) is the key experimental procedure for studying the acquisition of instrumental responses toward conditioned threat cues. Traditional analytic approaches (e.g., general linear model) often obfuscate important individual differences, although individual differences in learned responses characterize both animal and human learning data. However, individual differences models (e.g., latent growth curve modeling) typically require large samples and onerous computational methods. Here, we present an analytic methodology that enables the detection of individual differences in SigAA performance at a high accuracy, even when a single animal is included in the data set (i.e., n = 1 level). We further show an online software that enables the easy application of our method to any SigAA data set.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Justin M Moscarello
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 4235 TAMU, USA
| | - Robert M Sears
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016, USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
| | - Isaac Galatzer-Levy
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York 10016, USA
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26
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Abstract
Noradrenergic signaling in the amygdala is important for processing threats and other emotionally salient stimuli, and β-adrenergic receptor activation is known to enhance neuronal spiking in the lateral amygdala (LA) of juvenile animals. Nevertheless, intracellular recordings have not yet been conducted to determine the effect of β-adrenergic receptor activation on spike properties in the adult LA, despite the potential significance of developmental changes between adolescence and adulthood. Here we demonstrate that the β-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol (15 μM) enhances spike frequency in dorsal LA principal neurons of juvenile male C57BL/6 mice and fails to do so in strain- and sex-matched adults. Furthermore, we find that the age-dependent effect of isoproterenol on spike frequency is occluded by the GABAA receptor blocker picrotoxin (75 μM), suggesting that β-adrenergic receptors downregulate tonic inhibition specifically in juvenile animals. These findings indicate a significant shift during adolescence in the cellular mechanisms of β-adrenergic modulation in the amygdala. NEW & NOTEWORTHY β-Adrenergic receptors (β-ARs) in amygdala are important in processing emotionally salient stimuli. Most cellular recordings have examined juvenile animals, while behavioral data are often obtained from adults. We replicate findings showing that β-ARs enhance spiking of principal cells in the lateral amygdala of juveniles, but we fail to find this in adults. These findings have notable scientific and clinical implications regarding the noradrenergic modulation of threat processing, alterations of which underlie fear and anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann E Fink
- Center for Neural Science, New York University , New York, New York
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University , New York, New York.,Department of Psychology, New York University , New York, New York.,Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York
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27
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28
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel S Pine
- From the Section on Development and Affective Neuroscience, NIMH Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, Md.; the Center for Neural Science, the Department of Psychology, the Department of Psychiatry, and the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University, New York; and the Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, N.Y
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- From the Section on Development and Affective Neuroscience, NIMH Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, Md.; the Center for Neural Science, the Department of Psychology, the Department of Psychiatry, and the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University, New York; and the Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, N.Y
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29
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Campese VD, Kim IT, Rojas G, LeDoux JE. Pavlovian Extinction and Recovery Effects in Aversive Pavlovian to Instrumental Transfer. Front Behav Neurosci 2017; 11:179. [PMID: 28993726 PMCID: PMC5622165 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Three studies explored the sensitivity of aversive Pavlovian to instrumental transfer (PIT) to Pavlovian extinction in rodents. Rats underwent Pavlovian conditioning prior to avoidance training. The PIT test then involved assessment of the effects of the Pavlovian conditioned stimulus (CS) on the performance of the avoidance response (AR). Conducting extinction prior to avoidance training and transfer testing, allowed spontaneous recovery and shock reinstatement of extinguished motivation, whereas conducting extinction following avoidance training and just prior to PIT testing successfully reduced transfer effects. This was also the case in a design that compared responding to an extinguished CS against a non-extinguished CS rather than comparing extinguished and non-extinguished groups to one another. While extinction treatments in many appetitive PIT studies do not successfully reduce transfer, and can sometimes enhance the effect, the current findings show that an extinction treatment temporally close to transfer testing can reduce the motivational impact of the aversive Pavlovian CS on instrumental avoidance responding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent D. Campese
- Center for Neural Science, New York UniversityNew York, NY, United States
| | - Ian T. Kim
- Center for Neural Science, New York UniversityNew York, NY, United States
| | - Gerardo Rojas
- Department of Neuroscience, Carthage CollegeKenosha, WI, United States
| | - Joseph E. LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York UniversityNew York, NY, United States
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric ResearchOrangeburg, NY, United States
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30
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Campese VD, Soroeta JM, Vazey EM, Aston-Jones G, LeDoux JE, Sears RM. Noradrenergic Regulation of Central Amygdala in Aversive Pavlovian-to-Instrumental Transfer. eNeuro 2017; 4:ENEURO.0224-17.2017. [PMID: 29071299 PMCID: PMC5654237 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0224-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural mechanisms through which a Pavlovian conditioned stimulus (CS) elicits innate defense responses are well understood. But a Pavlovian CS can also invigorate ongoing instrumental responding, as shown by studies of aversive Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT). While the neural circuitry of appetitive PIT has been studied extensively, little is known about the brain mechanisms of aversive PIT. We recently showed the central amygdala (CeA) is essential for aversive PIT. In the current studies, using pharmacology and designer receptors in rodents, we demonstrate that noradrenergic (NE) activity negatively regulates PIT via brainstem locus coeruleus (LC) activity and LC projections to CeA. Our results provide evidence for a novel pathway through which response modulation occurs between brainstem neuromodulatory systems and CeA to invigorate adaptive behavior in the face of threat.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jose M. Soroeta
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701
| | - Elena M. Vazey
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003
| | - Gary Aston-Jones
- Brain Health Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854
| | - Joseph E. LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY 10962
| | - Robert M. Sears
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY 10962
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016
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31
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Díaz-Mataix L, Piper WT, Schiff HC, Roberts CH, Campese VD, Sears RM, LeDoux JE. Characterization of the amplificatory effect of norepinephrine in the acquisition of Pavlovian threat associations. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 24:432-439. [PMID: 28814469 PMCID: PMC5580522 DOI: 10.1101/lm.044412.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 06/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The creation of auditory threat Pavlovian memory requires an initial learning stage in which a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS), such as a tone, is paired with an aversive one (US), such as a shock. In this phase, the CS acquires the capacity of predicting the occurrence of the US and therefore elicits conditioned defense responses. Norepinephrine (NE), through β-adrenergic receptors in the amygdala, enhances threat memory by facilitating the acquisition of the CS–US association, but the nature of this effect has not been described. Here we show that NE release, induced by the footshock of the first conditioning trial, promotes the subsequent enhancement of learning. Consequently, blocking NE transmission disrupts multitrial but not one-trial conditioning. We further found that increasing the time between the conditioning trials eliminates the amplificatory effect of NE. Similarly, an unsignaled footshock delivered in a separate context immediately before conditioning can enhance learning. These results help define the conditions under which NE should and should not be expected to alter threat processing and fill an important gap in the understanding of the neural processes relevant to the pathophysiology of stress and anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Díaz-Mataix
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA.,Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
| | - Walter T Piper
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
| | - Hillary C Schiff
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA.,Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, The State University of New York-Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York 11794, USA
| | - Clark H Roberts
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
| | - Vincent D Campese
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
| | - Robert M Sears
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA.,Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA.,Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
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32
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Abstract
When subjective state words are used to describe behaviors, or brain circuits that control them nonconsciously, the behaviors and circuits take on properties of the subjective state. Research on fear illustrates the problems that can result. Subjective state words should be limited to the description of inner experiences, and avoided when referring to circuits underlying nonsubjectively controlled behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA; Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY 10962, USA.
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33
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Abstract
Emotional states of consciousness, or what are typically called emotional feelings, are traditionally viewed as being innately programmed in subcortical areas of the brain, and are often treated as different from cognitive states of consciousness, such as those related to the perception of external stimuli. We argue that conscious experiences, regardless of their content, arise from one system in the brain. In this view, what differs in emotional and nonemotional states are the kinds of inputs that are processed by a general cortical network of cognition, a network essential for conscious experiences. Although subcortical circuits are not directly responsible for conscious feelings, they provide nonconscious inputs that coalesce with other kinds of neural signals in the cognitive assembly of conscious emotional experiences. In building the case for this proposal, we defend a modified version of what is known as the higher-order theory of consciousness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003;
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY 10962
| | - Richard Brown
- Philosophy Program, LaGuardia Community College, The City University of New York, Long Island City, NY 10017
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34
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Tallot L, Diaz-Mataix L, Perry RE, Wood K, LeDoux JE, Mouly AM, Sullivan RM, Doyère V. Updating of aversive memories after temporal error detection is differentially modulated by mTOR across development. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 24:115-122. [PMID: 28202715 PMCID: PMC5311387 DOI: 10.1101/lm.043083.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Accepted: 12/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The updating of a memory is triggered whenever it is reactivated and a mismatch from what is expected (i.e., prediction error) is detected, a process that can be unraveled through the memory's sensitivity to protein synthesis inhibitors (i.e., reconsolidation). As noted in previous studies, in Pavlovian threat/aversive conditioning in adult rats, prediction error detection and its associated protein synthesis-dependent reconsolidation can be triggered by reactivating the memory with the conditioned stimulus (CS), but without the unconditioned stimulus (US), or by presenting a CS–US pairing with a different CS–US interval than during the initial learning. Whether similar mechanisms underlie memory updating in the young is not known. Using similar paradigms with rapamycin (an mTORC1 inhibitor), we show that preweaning rats (PN18–20) do form a long-term memory of the CS–US interval, and detect a 10-sec versus 30-sec temporal prediction error. However, the resulting updating/reconsolidation processes become adult-like after adolescence (PN30–40). Our results thus show that while temporal prediction error detection exists in preweaning rats, specific infant-type mechanisms are at play for associative learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucille Tallot
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay (Neuro-PSI), UMR 9197, Université Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France.,Emotional Brain Institute, Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA.,Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA.,Child Study Center Institute for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York 10016, USA
| | - Lorenzo Diaz-Mataix
- Emotional Brain Institute, Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA.,Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
| | - Rosemarie E Perry
- Emotional Brain Institute, Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA.,Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA.,Child Study Center Institute for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York 10016, USA
| | - Kira Wood
- Emotional Brain Institute, Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA.,Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA.,Child Study Center Institute for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York 10016, USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Emotional Brain Institute, Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA.,Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
| | - Anne-Marie Mouly
- Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon, CNRS UMR 5292-INSERM U1028-Université Lyon 1, France
| | - Regina M Sullivan
- Emotional Brain Institute, Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA.,Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA.,Child Study Center Institute for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York 10016, USA
| | - Valérie Doyère
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay (Neuro-PSI), UMR 9197, Université Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France.,Emotional Brain Institute, Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
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35
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Dallérac G, Graupner M, Knippenberg J, Martinez RCR, Tavares TF, Tallot L, El Massioui N, Verschueren A, Höhn S, Bertolus JB, Reyes A, LeDoux JE, Schafe GE, Diaz-Mataix L, Doyère V. Updating temporal expectancy of an aversive event engages striatal plasticity under amygdala control. Nat Commun 2017; 8:13920. [PMID: 28067224 PMCID: PMC5227703 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 11/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Pavlovian aversive conditioning requires learning of the association between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned, aversive stimulus (US) but also involves encoding the time interval between the two stimuli. The neurobiological bases of this time interval learning are unknown. Here, we show that in rats, the dorsal striatum and basal amygdala belong to a common functional network underlying temporal expectancy and learning of a CS-US interval. Importantly, changes in coherence between striatum and amygdala local field potentials (LFPs) were found to couple these structures during interval estimation within the lower range of the theta rhythm (3-6 Hz). Strikingly, we also show that a change to the CS-US time interval results in long-term changes in cortico-striatal synaptic efficacy under the control of the amygdala. Collectively, this study reveals physiological correlates of plasticity mechanisms of interval timing that take place in the striatum and are regulated by the amygdala.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenn Dallérac
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay (Neuro-PSI), Cognition and Behaviour Department, UMR 9197, Université Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Orsay F-91405, France
| | - Michael Graupner
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
| | - Jeroen Knippenberg
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay (Neuro-PSI), Cognition and Behaviour Department, UMR 9197, Université Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Orsay F-91405, France
| | - Raquel Chacon Ruiz Martinez
- Laboratory of Neuromodulation, Teaching and Research Institute, Hospital Sirio Libanes, Rua Professor Daher Cutait, 69, Sao Paulo 01308-060, Brazil
| | - Tatiane Ferreira Tavares
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay (Neuro-PSI), Cognition and Behaviour Department, UMR 9197, Université Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Orsay F-91405, France
| | - Lucille Tallot
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay (Neuro-PSI), Cognition and Behaviour Department, UMR 9197, Université Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Orsay F-91405, France
| | - Nicole El Massioui
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay (Neuro-PSI), Cognition and Behaviour Department, UMR 9197, Université Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Orsay F-91405, France
| | - Anna Verschueren
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay (Neuro-PSI), Cognition and Behaviour Department, UMR 9197, Université Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Orsay F-91405, France
- École Normale Supérieure, Paris F-75005, France
| | - Sophie Höhn
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay (Neuro-PSI), Cognition and Behaviour Department, UMR 9197, Université Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Orsay F-91405, France
| | - Julie Boulanger Bertolus
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay (Neuro-PSI), Cognition and Behaviour Department, UMR 9197, Université Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Orsay F-91405, France
- École Normale Supérieure, Lyon F-69007, France
| | - Alex Reyes
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
| | - Joseph E. LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
- Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
| | - Glenn E. Schafe
- Department of Psychology, Hunter College, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Lorenzo Diaz-Mataix
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
| | - Valérie Doyère
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay (Neuro-PSI), Cognition and Behaviour Department, UMR 9197, Université Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Orsay F-91405, France
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36
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Abstract
Distinguishing threatening from nonthreatening stimuli is essential for survival and stimulus generalization is a hallmark of anxiety disorders. While auditory threat learning produces long-lasting plasticity in primary auditory cortex (Au1), it is not clear whether such Au1 plasticity regulates memory specificity or generalization. We used muscimol infusions in rats to show that discriminatory threat learning requires Au1 activity specifically during memory acquisition and retrieval, but not during consolidation. Memory specificity was similarly disrupted by infusion of PKMζ inhibitor peptide (ZIP) during memory storage. Our findings show that Au1 is required at critical memory phases and suggest that Au1 plasticity enables stimulus discrimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattis B Wigestrand
- Center for Neuroscience, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Oslo, 0371 Oslo, Norway
| | - Hillary C Schiff
- Center for Neuroscience, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
| | - Marianne Fyhn
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Oslo, 0371 Oslo, Norway
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neuroscience, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
| | - Robert M Sears
- Center for Neuroscience, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
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37
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LeDoux JE, Moscarello J, Sears R, Campese V. The birth, death and resurrection of avoidance: a reconceptualization of a troubled paradigm. Mol Psychiatry 2017; 22:24-36. [PMID: 27752080 PMCID: PMC5173426 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2016.166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Revised: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Research on avoidance conditioning began in the late 1930s as a way to use laboratory experiments to better understand uncontrollable fear and anxiety. Avoidance was initially conceived of as a two-factor learning process in which fear is first acquired through Pavlovian aversive conditioning (so-called fear conditioning), and then behaviors that reduce the fear aroused by the Pavlovian conditioned stimulus are reinforced through instrumental conditioning. Over the years, criticisms of both the avoidance paradigm and the two-factor fear theory arose. By the mid-1980s, avoidance had fallen out of favor as an experimental model relevant to fear and anxiety. However, recent progress in understanding the neural basis of Pavlovian conditioning has stimulated a new wave of research on avoidance. This new work has fostered new insights into contributions of not only Pavlovian and instrumental learning but also habit learning, to avoidance, and has suggested that the reinforcing event underlying the instrumental phase should be conceived in terms of cellular and molecular events in specific circuits rather than in terms of vague notions of fear reduction. In our approach, defensive reactions (freezing), actions (avoidance) and habits (habitual avoidance) are viewed as being controlled by unique circuits that operate nonconsciously in the control of behavior, and that are distinct from the circuits that give rise to conscious feelings of fear and anxiety. These refinements, we suggest, overcome older criticisms, justifying the value of the new wave of research on avoidance, and offering a fresh perspective on the clinical implications of this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA
- Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, USA
| | - J Moscarello
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - R Sears
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - V Campese
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA
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38
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Abstract
Maladaptive learned responses and memories contribute to psychiatric disorders that constitute a significant socio-economic burden. Primary treatment methods teach patients to inhibit maladaptive responses, but do not get rid of the memory itself, which explains why many patients experience a return of symptoms even after initially successful treatment. This highlights the need to discover more persistent and robust techniques to diminish maladaptive learned behaviours. One potentially promising approach is to alter the original memory, as opposed to inhibiting it, by targeting memory reconsolidation. Recent research shows that reactivating an old memory results in a period of memory flexibility and requires restorage, or reconsolidation, for the memory to persist. This reconsolidation period allows a window for modification of a specific old memory. Renewal of memory flexibility following reactivation holds great clinical potential as it enables targeting reconsolidation and changing of specific learned responses and memories that contribute to maladaptive mental states and behaviours. Here, we will review translational research on non-human animals, healthy human subjects, and clinical populations aimed at altering memories by targeting reconsolidation using biological treatments (electrical stimulation, noradrenergic antagonists) or behavioural interference (reactivation-extinction paradigm). Both approaches have been used successfully to modify aversive and appetitive memories, yet effectiveness in treating clinical populations has been limited. We will discuss that memory flexibility depends on the type of memory tested and the brain regions that underlie specific types of memory. Further, when and how we can most effectively reactivate a memory and induce flexibility is largely unclear. Finally, the development of drugs that can target reconsolidation and are safe for use in humans would optimize cross-species translations. Increasing the understanding of the mechanism and limitations of memory flexibility upon reactivation should help optimize efficacy of treatments for psychiatric patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marijn C W Kroes
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Daniela Schiller
- Department of Psychiatry and Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Phelps
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
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39
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Abstract
Tremendous progress has been made in basic neuroscience in recent decades. One area that has been especially successful is research on how the brain detects and responds to threats. Such studies have demonstrated comparable patterns of brain-behavior relationships underlying threat processing across a range of mammalian species, including humans. This would seem to be an ideal body of information for advancing our understanding of disorders in which altered threat processing is a key factor, namely, fear and anxiety disorders. But research on threat processing has not led to significant improvements in clinical practice. The authors propose that in order to take advantage of this progress for clinical gain, a conceptual reframing is needed. Key to this conceptual change is recognition of a distinction between circuits underlying two classes of responses elicited by threats: 1) behavioral responses and accompanying physiological changes in the brain and body and 2) conscious feeling states reflected in self-reports of fear and anxiety. This distinction leads to a "two systems" view of fear and anxiety. The authors argue that failure to recognize and consistently emphasize this distinction has impeded progress in understanding fear and anxiety disorders and hindered attempts to develop more effective pharmaceutical and psychological treatments. The two-system view suggests a new way forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph E LeDoux
- From the Center for Neural Science, the Department of Psychology, the Department Psychiatry, and the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University, New York; the Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, N.Y.; and the Section on Development and Affective Neuroscience, NIMH Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, Md
| | - Daniel S Pine
- From the Center for Neural Science, the Department of Psychology, the Department Psychiatry, and the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University, New York; the Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, N.Y.; and the Section on Development and Affective Neuroscience, NIMH Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, Md
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40
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Abstract
Much of the early research in aversive learning concerned motivation and reinforcement in avoidance conditioning and related paradigms. When the field transitioned toward the focus on Pavlovian threat conditioning in isolation, this paved the way for the clear understanding of the psychological principles and neural and molecular mechanisms responsible for this type of learning and memory that has unfolded over recent decades. Currently, avoidance conditioning is being revisited, and with what has been learned about associative aversive learning, rapid progress is being made. We review, below, the literature on the neural substrates critical for learning in instrumental active avoidance tasks and conditioned aversive motivation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert M Sears
- Emotional Brain Institute at NYU and Nathan Kline Institute, New York, USA
| | | | | | - Christopher K Cain
- Emotional Brain Institute at NYU and Nathan Kline Institute, New York, USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, NYU, New York, USA
- Emotional Brain Institute at NYU and Nathan Kline Institute, New York, USA
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41
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Campese VD, Gonzaga R, Moscarello JM, LeDoux JE. Modulation of instrumental responding by a conditioned threat stimulus requires lateral and central amygdala. Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:293. [PMID: 26578921 PMCID: PMC4626560 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Two studies explored the role of the amygdala in response modulation by an aversive conditioned stimulus (CS) in rats. Experiment 1 investigated the role of amygdala circuitry in conditioned suppression using a paradigm in which licking for sucrose was inhibited by a tone CS that had been previously paired with footshock. Electrolytic lesions of the lateral amygdala (LA) impaired suppression relative to sham-operated animals, and produced the same pattern of results when applied to central amygdala. In addition, disconnection of the lateral and central amygdala, by unilateral lesion of each on opposite sides of the brain, also impaired suppression relative to control subjects that received lesions of both areas on the same side. In each case, lesions were placed following Pavlovian conditioning and instrumental training, but before testing. This procedure produced within-subjects measures of the effects of lesion on freezing and between-group comparisons for the effects on suppression. Experiment 2 extended this analysis to a task where an aversive CS suppressed shuttling responses that had been previously food reinforced and also found effects of bilateral lesions of the central amygdala in a pre-post design. Together, these studies demonstrate that connections between the lateral and central amygdala constitute a serial circuit involved in processing aversive Pavlovian stimuli, and add to a growing body of findings implicating central amygdala in the modulation of instrumental behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rosemary Gonzaga
- Center for Neural Science, New York University New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University New York, NY, USA ; Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research Orangeburg, NY, USA
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42
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Dunsmoor JE, Campese VD, Ceceli AO, LeDoux JE, Phelps EA. Novelty-facilitated extinction: providing a novel outcome in place of an expected threat diminishes recovery of defensive responses. Biol Psychiatry 2015; 78:203-9. [PMID: 25636175 PMCID: PMC4469636 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Revised: 11/07/2014] [Accepted: 12/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Experimental extinction serves as a model for psychiatric treatments based on associative learning. However, the effects of extinction are often transient, as evidenced by postextinction return of defensive behaviors. From a therapeutic perspective, an inherent problem with extinction may be that mere omission of threat is not sufficient to reduce future threat uncertainty. The current study tested an augmented form of extinction that replaced, rather than merely omitted, expected threat outcomes with novel nonthreat outcomes, with the goal of reducing postextinction return of defensive behaviors. METHODS Thirty-two healthy male Sprague-Dawley rats and 47 human adults underwent threat conditioning to a conditioned stimulus paired with an electrical shock. Subjects then underwent a standard extinction protocol with shock omitted or an augmented extinction protocol wherein the shock was replaced by a surprising tone. Tests of postextinction recovery occurred 24 hours later in the absence of the tone. RESULTS Replacing the shock with a novel nonthreat outcome, as compared with shock omission, reduced postextinction recovery (freezing in rats and anticipatory skin conductance responses in humans) when tested 24 hours later. Self-reported intolerance of uncertainty was positively correlated with recovery following standard extinction in humans, providing new evidence that postextinction recovery is related to sensitivity to future threat uncertainty. CONCLUSIONS These findings provide cross-species evidence of a novel strategy to enhance extinction that may have broad implications for how to override associative learning that has become maladaptive and offer a simple technique that could be straightforwardly adapted and implemented in clinical situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph E Dunsmoor
- Psychology Department and Center for Neural Sciences, New York University, New York
| | - Vinn D Campese
- Psychology Department and Center for Neural Sciences, New York University, New York
| | - Ahmet O Ceceli
- Psychology Department and Center for Neural Sciences, New York University, New York
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Psychology Department and Center for Neural Sciences, New York University, New York; Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York
| | - Elizabeth A Phelps
- Psychology Department and Center for Neural Sciences, New York University, New York; Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York.
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Galatzer-Levy IR, Moscarello J, Blessing EM, Klein J, Cain CK, LeDoux JE. Heterogeneity in signaled active avoidance learning: substantive and methodological relevance of diversity in instrumental defensive responses to threat cues. Front Syst Neurosci 2014; 8:179. [PMID: 25309354 PMCID: PMC4173321 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Individuals exposed to traumatic stressors follow divergent patterns including resilience and chronic stress. However, researchers utilizing animal models that examine learned or instrumental threat responses thought to have translational relevance for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and resilience typically use central tendency statistics that assume population homogeneity. This approach potentially overlooks fundamental differences that can explain human diversity in response to traumatic stressors. The current study tests this assumption by identifying and replicating common heterogeneous patterns of response to signaled active avoidance (AA) training. In this paradigm, rats are trained to prevent an aversive outcome (shock) by performing a learned instrumental behavior (shuttling between chambers) during the presentation of a conditioned threat cue (tone). We test the hypothesis that heterogeneous trajectories of threat avoidance provide more accurate model fit compared to a single mean trajectory in two separate studies. Study 1 conducted 3 days of signaled AA training (n = 81 animals) and study 2 conducted 5 days of training (n = 186 animals). We found that four trajectories in both samples provided the strongest model fit. Identified populations included animals that acquired and retained avoidance behavior on the first day (Rapid Avoiders: 22 and 25%); those who never successfully acquired avoidance (Non-Avoiders; 20 and 16%); a modal class who acquired avoidance over 3 days (Modal Avoiders; 37 and 50%); and a population who demonstrated a slow pattern of avoidance, failed to fully acquire avoidance in study 1 and did acquire avoidance on days 4 and 5 in study 2 (Slow Avoiders; 22.0 and 9%). With the exception of the Slow Avoiders in Study 1, populations that acquired demonstrated rapid step-like increases leading to asymptotic levels of avoidance. These findings indicate that avoidance responses are heterogeneous in a way that may be informative for understanding both resilience and PTSD as well as the nature of instrumental behavior acquisition. Characterizing heterogeneous populations based on their response to threat cues would increase the accuracy and translatability of such models and potentially lead to new discoveries that explain diversity in instrumental defensive responses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Justin Moscarello
- Department of Arts and Sciences, Center for Neural Science, New York University New York, NY, USA
| | - Esther M Blessing
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine New York, NY, USA
| | - JoAnna Klein
- Department of Arts and Sciences, Center for Neural Science, New York University New York, NY, USA
| | - Christopher K Cain
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine New York, NY, USA ; Department of Arts and Sciences, Center for Neural Science, New York University New York, NY, USA ; Nathan Klein Institute Orangeburg, SC, USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Department of Arts and Sciences, Center for Neural Science, New York University New York, NY, USA ; Nathan Klein Institute Orangeburg, SC, USA
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McCue MG, LeDoux JE, Cain CK. Medial amygdala lesions selectively block aversive pavlovian-instrumental transfer in rats. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:329. [PMID: 25278858 PMCID: PMC4166994 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pavlovian conditioned stimuli (CSs) play an important role in the reinforcement and motivation of instrumental active avoidance (AA). Conditioned threats can also invigorate ongoing AA responding [aversive Pavlovian-instrumental transfer (PIT)]. The neural circuits mediating AA are poorly understood, although lesion studies suggest that lateral, basal, and central amygdala nuclei, as well as infralimbic prefrontal cortex, make key, and sometimes opposing, contributions. We recently completed an extensive analysis of brain c-Fos expression in good vs. poor avoiders following an AA test (Martinez et al., 2013, Learning and Memory). This analysis identified medial amygdala (MeA) as a potentially important region for Pavlovian motivation of instrumental actions. MeA is known to mediate defensive responding to innate threats as well as social behaviors, but its role in mediating aversive Pavlovian-instrumental interactions is unknown. We evaluated the effect of MeA lesions on Pavlovian conditioning, Sidman two-way AA conditioning (shuttling) and aversive PIT in rats. Mild footshocks served as the unconditioned stimulus in all conditioning phases. MeA lesions had no effect on AA but blocked the expression of aversive PIT and 22 kHz ultrasonic vocalizations in the AA context. Interestingly, MeA lesions failed to affect Pavlovian freezing to discrete threats but reduced freezing to contextual threats when assessed outside of the AA chamber. These findings differentiate MeA from lateral and central amygdala, as lesions of these nuclei disrupt Pavlovian freezing and aversive PIT, but have opposite effects on AA performance. Taken together, these results suggest that MeA plays a selective role in the motivation of instrumental avoidance by general or uncertain Pavlovian threats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret G McCue
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research , Orangeburg, NY , USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research , Orangeburg, NY , USA ; Center for Neural Science, New York University , New York, NY , USA
| | - Christopher K Cain
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research , Orangeburg, NY , USA ; Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Medical School , New York, NY , USA
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45
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Abstract
While it is common to think that neuroscientists are proponents of basic emotions theory, this is not necessarily the case. My ideas, for example are more aligned with cognitive than basic emotions theories.
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46
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Campese VD, Kim J, Lázaro-Muñoz G, Pena L, LeDoux JE, Cain CK. Lesions of lateral or central amygdala abolish aversive Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer in rats. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:161. [PMID: 24847229 PMCID: PMC4019882 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2014] [Accepted: 04/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Aversive Pavlovian conditioned stimuli (CSs) elicit defensive reactions (e.g., freezing) and motivate instrumental actions like active avoidance (AA). Pavlovian reactions require connections between the lateral (LA) and central (CeA) nuclei of the amygdala, whereas AA depends on LA and basal amygdala (BA). Thus, the neural circuits mediating conditioned reactions and motivation appear to diverge in the amygdala. However, AA is not ideal for studying conditioned motivation, because Pavlovian and instrumental learning are intermixed. Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT) allows for the study of conditioned motivation in isolation. PIT refers to the ability of a Pavlovian CS to modulate a separately-trained instrumental action. The role of the amygdala in aversive PIT is unknown. We designed an aversive PIT procedure in rats and tested the effects of LA, BA, and CeA lesions. Rats received Pavlovian tone-shock pairings followed by Sidman shock-avoidance training. PIT was assessed by comparing shuttling rates in the presence and absence of the tone. Tone presentations facilitated instrumental responding. Aversive PIT was abolished by lesions of LA or CeA, but was unaffected by lesions of BA. These results suggest that LA and CeA are essential for aversive conditioned motivation. More specifically, the results are consistent with a model of amygdala processing in which the CS is encoded in the LA and then, via connections to CeA, the motivation to perform the aversive task is enhanced. These findings have implications for understanding the contribution of amygdala circuits to aversive instrumental motivation, but also for the relation of aversive and appetitive behavioral control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jeanny Kim
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research Orangeburg, NY, USA
| | | | - Lashawn Pena
- Center for Neural Science, New York University New York, NY, USA ; Department of Psychology, Hunter College, CUNY New York, NY, USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University New York, NY, USA ; Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research Orangeburg, NY, USA
| | - Christopher K Cain
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research Orangeburg, NY, USA ; Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine New York, NY, USA
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47
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Abstract
The brain mechanisms of fear have been studied extensively using Pavlovian fear conditioning, a procedure that allows exploration of how the brain learns about and later detects and responds to threats. However, mechanisms that detect and respond to threats are not the same as those that give rise to conscious fear. This is an important distinction because symptoms based on conscious and nonconscious processes may be vulnerable to different predisposing factors and may also be treatable with different approaches in people who suffer from uncontrolled fear or anxiety. A conception of so-called fear conditioning in terms of circuits that operate nonconsciously, but that indirectly contribute to conscious fear, is proposed as way forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph E. LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science and Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY 10003; Department of Psychiatry and Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, NY 10016; and The Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY 10962
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Sears RM, Schiff HC, LeDoux JE. Molecular Mechanisms of Threat Learning in the Lateral Nucleus of the Amygdala. Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science 2014; 122:263-304. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-420170-5.00010-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Debiec J, Diaz-Mataix L, Bush DEA, Doyère V, LeDoux JE. The selectivity of aversive memory reconsolidation and extinction processes depends on the initial encoding of the Pavlovian association. Learn Mem 2013; 20:695-9. [PMID: 24255099 PMCID: PMC3834621 DOI: 10.1101/lm.031609.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
In reconsolidation studies, memories are typically retrieved by an exposure to a single conditioned stimulus (CS). We have previously demonstrated that reconsolidation processes are CS-selective, suggesting that memories retrieved by the CS exposure are discrete and reconsolidate separately. Here, using a compound stimulus in which two distinct CSs are concomitantly paired with the same aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), we show in rats that reexposure to one of the components of the compound CS triggers extinction or reconsolidation of the other component. This suggests that the original training conditions play a critical role in memory retrieval and reconsolidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacek Debiec
- W.M. Keck Foundation Laboratory of Neurobiology, Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York 10003, USA
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50
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Martinez RCR, Gupta N, Lázaro-Muñoz G, Sears RM, Kim S, Moscarello JM, LeDoux JE, Cain CK. Active vs. reactive threat responding is associated with differential c-Fos expression in specific regions of amygdala and prefrontal cortex. Learn Mem 2013; 20:446-52. [PMID: 23869027 PMCID: PMC3718200 DOI: 10.1101/lm.031047.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Active avoidance (AA) is an important paradigm for studying mechanisms of aversive instrumental learning, pathological anxiety, and active coping. Unfortunately, AA neurocircuits are poorly understood, partly because behavior is highly variable and reflects a competition between Pavlovian reactions and instrumental actions. Here we exploited the behavioral differences between good and poor avoiders to elucidate the AA neurocircuit. Rats received Sidman AA training and expression of the activity-dependent immediate-early gene c-fos was measured after a shock-free AA test. Six brain regions with known or putative roles in AA were evaluated: amygdala, periaqueductal gray, nucleus accumbens, dorsal striatum, prefrontal cortex (PFC), and hippocampus. Good avoiders showed little Pavlovian freezing and high AA rates at test, the opposite of poor avoiders. Although c-Fos activation was observed throughout the brain, differential activation was found only in subregions of amygdala and PFC. Interestingly, c-Fos correlated with avoidance and freezing in only five of 20 distinct areas evaluated: lateral amygdala, central amygdala, medial amygdala, basal amygdala, and infralimbic PFC. Thus, activity in specific amygdala–PFC circuits likely mediates the competition between instrumental actions and Pavlovian reactions after AA training. Individual differences in AA behavior, long considered a nuisance by researchers, may be the key to elucidating the AA neurocircuit and understanding pathological response profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel C R Martinez
- University of Sao Paulo, Medical School, Surgery Department LIM 26 HCFMUSP, Sao Paulo 01246-903, Brazil
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