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Fentem JH. The 19th FRAME Annual Lecture, November 2022: Safer Chemicals and Sustainable Innovation Will Be Achieved by Regulatory Use of Modern Safety Science, Not by More Animal Testing. Altern Lab Anim 2023; 51:90-101. [PMID: 36856032 DOI: 10.1177/02611929231158236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/02/2023]
Abstract
The decisions we make on chemical safety, for consumers, workers and the environment, must be based on the best scientific data and knowledge available. Rapid advances in biology, in cell-based technologies and assays, and in analytical and computational approaches, have led to new types of highly relevant scientific data being generated. Such data enable us to improve the safety decisions we make, whilst also enabling us to avoid animal testing. Stimulated by the UK and EU bans on animal testing for cosmetics, Next Generation Risk Assessment (NGRA) approaches, which integrate various types of non-animal scientific data, have been established for assessing the safety of chemical ingredients used in cosmetics and other consumer products. In stark contrast, the chemicals regulations in Europe and other parts of the world have not kept pace with modern safety science and regulators are now mandating even more animal testing. Urgently closing this science-regulation gap is essential to upholding the EU's legislative requirement that any animal testing is a last resort. The ongoing revisions of UK and EU chemicals strategy and regulations provide an opportunity to fundamentally change the design and assessment paradigm needed to underpin safe and more sustainable innovation, through applying the best science and tools available rather than continuing to be anchored in animal tests dating back many decades. A range of initiatives have recently been launched in response to this urgent need, in the UK as well as in the EU.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia H Fentem
- 3099Unilever Safety & Environmental Assurance Centre (SEAC), Bedford, UK
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2
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Balls M, Goldberg AM, Fentem JH, Broadhead CL, Burch RL, Festing MF, Frazier JM, Hendriksen CF, Jennings M, van der Kamp AD, Morton DB, Rowan AN, Russell C, Russell WM, Spielmann H, Stephens ML, Stokes WS, Straughan DW, Yager JD, Zurlo J, van Zutphen BF. The Three Rs: The Way Forward. Altern Lab Anim 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299502300614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Balls
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, 21020 Ispra (Va), Italy
| | - Alan M. Goldberg
- CAAT, School of Hygiene and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 111 Market Place/Suite 840, Baltimore, MD 21202-6709, USA
| | | | - Caren L. Broadhead
- FRAME Russell & Burch House, 96–98 North Sherwood Street, Nottingham NG1 4EE, UK
| | | | - Michael F.W. Festing
- MRC Toxicology Unit, Hodgkin Building, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 9HN, UK
| | - John M. Frazier
- Toxic Hazards Research Unit, ManTech Environmental Technology Inc., Dayton, OH 45431-0009, USA
| | | | - Margaret Jennings
- Research Animals Department, RSPCA, The Causeway, Horsham, West Sussex RH12 1HG, UK
| | | | - David B. Morton
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Ethics, University of Birmingham Medical School, Birmingham B15 2TJ, UK
| | - Andrew N. Rowan
- Tufts Center for Animals and Public Policy, School for Veterinary Medicine, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA
| | - Claire Russell
- Department of Sociology, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 2AA, UK
| | - William M.S. Russell
- Department of Sociology, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 2AA, UK
| | | | - Martin L. Stephens
- Humane Society of the United States, 2100 L Street NW, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | | | - Donald W. Straughan
- FRAME Russell & Burch House, 96–98 North Sherwood Street, Nottingham NG1 4EE, UK
| | - James D. Yager
- Division of Toxicological Sciences, School of Hygiene and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Joanne Zurlo
- CAAT, School of Hygiene and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 111 Market Place/Suite 840, Baltimore, MD 21202-6709, USA
| | - Bert F.M. van Zutphen
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
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3
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Curren RD, Southee JA, Spielmann H, Liebsch M, Fentem JH, Balls M. The Role of Prevalidation in the Development, Validation and Acceptance of Alternative Methods. Altern Lab Anim 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299502300206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Experience has shown that the outcome of large and expensive validation studies on alternative methods can be compromised if their managers do not insist that optimised test protocols and proof of their performance are submitted before the start of the formal validation study. One way for the sponsors of validation studies to confirm both the likely relevance of a method for its stated purpose and its readiness for validation would be to require a prevalidation study before formal validation was contemplated. This process would involve the developers (or other proponents of the method) and selected independent laboratories in protocol refinement (Phase I) and protocol transfer (Phase II). The optimised protocol would then be assessed in a protocol performance phase (Phase III), which would involve the testing of a relevant set of coded test materials and an evaluation of a proposed prediction model. In certain circumstances, a successful outcome of Phase III might be sufficient for promotion of the regulatory acceptance of the method. Normally, however, the method would proceed to a formal validation study. The European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods, a recognised validation authority, now proposes to introduce this prevalidation scheme into its validation strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodger D. Curren
- Microbiological Associates, Inc., 9900 Blackwell Road, Rockville, MD 20850, USA
| | - Jacqueline A. Southee
- Microbiological Associates Ltd, Stirling University Innovation Park, Stirling FK9 4NF, UK
| | - Horst Spielmann
- ZEBET, Bundesinstitut für gesundheitlichen Verbraucherschutz und Veterinärmedizin (BgVV), Diedersdorfer Weg 1, D-12277 Berlin, Germany
| | - Manfred Liebsch
- ZEBET, Bundesinstitut für gesundheitlichen Verbraucherschutz und Veterinärmedizin (BgVV), Diedersdorfer Weg 1, D-12277 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Michael Balls
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, 21020 Ispra (Va), Italy
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Barratt MD, Castell JV, Chamberlain M, Combes RD, Dearden JC, Fentem JH, Gerner I, Giuliani A, Gray TJ, Livingstone DJ, Provan WM, Rutten FA, Verhaar HJ, Zbinden P. The Integrated Use of Alternative Approaches for Predicting Toxic Hazard. Altern Lab Anim 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299502300315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martin D. Barratt
- Environmental Safety Laboratory, Unilever Research, Colworth House, Sharnbrook, Bedford MK44 1LQ, UK
| | - Jose V. Castell
- Unidad de Hepatologia Experimental, Hospital Universitario La Fe, Avda de Campanar 21, 46009 Valencia, Spain
| | - Mark Chamberlain
- Environmental Safety Laboratory, Unilever Research, Colworth House, Sharnbrook, Bedford MK44 1LQ, UK
| | - Robert D. Combes
- FRAME, Russell & Burch House, 96–98 North Sherwood Street, Nottingham NG1 4EE, UK
| | - John C. Dearden
- School of Pharmacy, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK
| | | | - Ingrid Gerner
- Bundesinstitut für gesundheitlichen Verbraucherschutz und Veterinärmedizin (BgVV), Thielallee 88–92, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Alessandro Giuliani
- Istituto di Ricerca sulla Senescenza, Sigma-Tau, Via Pontina, km 30.400, 00040 Pomezia, Italy
| | - Tim J.B. Gray
- Sanofi Research Division, Alnwick Research Centre, Alnwick, Northumberland NE66 2 JH, UK
| | - David J. Livingstone
- ChemQuest, Cheyney House, 19–21 Cheyney Street, Steeple Morden, Herts. SG8 OLP, UK
| | - W. McLean Provan
- ZENECA Central Toxicology Laboratory, A Iderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire SK10 4TJ, UK
| | - Fons A.J.J.L. Rutten
- TNO Nutrition and Food Research Institute, Division of Toxicology, P.O. Box 360, 3700 AJ Zeist, The Netherlands
| | - Henk J.M. Verhaar
- Research Institute of Toxicology (RITOX), Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.176, Yalelaan 2, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
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5
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Abstract
Non-animal procedures, including in vitro test systems and test strategies, can already make a significant contribution to the background to risk assessment — in predicting both the toxic potential and toxic potency of chemicals, as well as, in some circumstances, the toxic hazard they may represent under specified conditions of exposure. They can be particularly useful for investigating molecular and cellular mechanisms of chemical-induced toxicity, and for identifying species-specific effects, which greatly limit the value of data from laboratory animal studies in the human risk assessment process. Attention is focused on the need for greater effort to be invested in the development of non-animal procedures for evaluating the biokinetic factors which will determine the ultimate form and concentration of a particular chemical at possible sites of toxic action. The relative merits of correlative and mechanistic approaches to test development and test validation are discussed. The need for realism is emphasised, not only in relation to our expectations of the validation process, but also in terms of the current and future status of regulatory toxicology, in vitro or in vivo, as a scientific discipline. Finally, it is concluded that the intelligent and strategic use of in vitro test systems, in conjunction with predictive computer modelling, could markedly improve the scientific basis of human risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Balls
- FRAME (Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments), 34 Stoney Street, Nottingham NG1 1NB, UK, and Department of Human Morphology, University of Nottingham Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Julia H. Fentem
- FRAME (Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments), 34 Stoney Street, Nottingham NG1 1NB, UK, and Department of Human Morphology, University of Nottingham Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
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Seibert H, Balls M, Fentem JH, Bianchi V, Clothier RH, Dierickx PJ, Ekwall B, Garle MJ, Gómez-Lechón MJ, Gribaldo L, Gulden M, Liebsch M, Rasmussen E, Roguet R, Shrivastava R, Walum E. Acute Toxicity Testing in Vitro and the Classification and Labelling of Chemicals. Altern Lab Anim 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299602400409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hasso Seibert
- Institut für Toxikologie, Christian-Albrechts Universität, Weimarer Str. 8 Haus 3, 24106 Kiel, Germany
| | - Michael Balls
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, 21020 Ispra (Va), Italy
| | | | - Vera Bianchi
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, via Trieste 75, 35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Richard H. Clothier
- Department of Human Morphology, University of Nottingham Medical School, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Paul J. Dierickx
- Division of Toxicology, Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology, J. Wytsmanstraat 14, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Björn Ekwall
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Division of Toxicology, Uppsala University, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Michael J. Garle
- Department of Human Morphology, University of Nottingham Medical School, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Maria José Gómez-Lechón
- Unidad de Hepatologia Experimental, Centro de Investigacion, Hospital Universitario La Fe, Avda de Campanar 21, 46009 Valencia, Spain
| | - Laura Gribaldo
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, 21020 Ispra (Va), Italy
| | - Michael Gulden
- Institut für Toxikologie, Christian-Albrechts Universität, Weimarer Str. 8 Haus 3, 24106 Kiel, Germany
| | - Manfred Liebsch
- ZEBET, Bundesinstitut für gesundheitlichen Verbraucherschutz und Veterinärmedizin (BgVV), Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany
| | - Eva Rasmussen
- Institute of Toxicology, Danish National Food Agency, 19 Morkhøj Bygade, 2860 Søborg, Denmark
| | - Roland Roguet
- Central Department of Product Safety, Recherche Avancée, L'Oréal, 93601 Aulnay-sous-Bois, France
| | - Ravi Shrivastava
- VITRO-BIO, Biopôle, Clermont-Limagne, 63360 Saint Beauzire, France
| | - Erik Walum
- Pharmacia AB, Biopharmaceuticals, 112 87 Stockholm, Sweden
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7
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Abstract
ECVAM's role in the practical validation of replacement alternative methods for use in regulatory testing is reviewed, including an outline of the criteria which have been used in determining ECVAM's priorities. Some of the difficulties which have arisen in validation studies are discussed, and solutions to these are proposed, with particular emphasis on ensuring that methods are sufficiently well-developed to enter the validation process, and on the ECVAM prevalidation scheme for encouraging protocol optimisation and the prior assessment of interlaboratory transferability. Comments are made on problems encountered in selecting test materials backed by adequate in vivo data and in undertaking appropriate in vivo/in vitro comparisons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Balls
- ECVAM (European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods), JRC Environment Institute, 21020 Ispra (Va), Italy
| | - Julia H. Fentem
- ECVAM (European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods), JRC Environment Institute, 21020 Ispra (Va), Italy
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8
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Worth AP, Fentem JH, Balls M, Botham PA, Curren RD, Earl LK, Esdaile DJ, Liebsch M. An Evaluation of the Proposed OECD Testing Strategy for Skin Corrosion. Altern Lab Anim 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299802600512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The use of testing strategies which incorporate a range of alternative methods and which use animals only as a last resort is widely considered to provide a reliable way of predicting chemical toxicity while minimising animal testing. The widespread concern over the severity of the Draize rabbit test for assessing skin irritation and corrosion led to the proposal of a stepwise testing strategy at an OECD workshop in January 1996. Subsequently, the proposed testing strategy was adopted, with minor modifications, by the OECD Advisory Group on Harmonization of Classification and Labelling. This article reports an evaluation of the proposed OECD testing strategy as it relates to the classification of skin corrosives. By using a set of 60 chemicals, an assessment was made of the effect of applying three steps in the strategy, taken both individually and in sequence. The results indicate that chemicals can be classified as corrosive (C) or non-corrosive (NC) with sufficient reliability by the sequential application of three alternative methods, i.e., structure-activity relationships (where available), pH measurements, and a single in vitro method (either the rat skin transcutaneous electrical resistance (TER) assay or the EPISKIN™ assay). It is concluded that the proposed OECD strategy for skin corrosion can be simplified without compromising its predictivity. For example, it does not appear necessary to measure acid/alkali reserve (buffering capacity) in addition to pH for the classification of pure chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michael Balls
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, 21020 Ispra (VA), Italy
| | - Philip A. Botham
- Central Toxicology Laboratory, ZENECA, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire SK10 4TJ, UK
| | - Rodger D. Curren
- Institute for In Vitro Sciences, 21 Firstfield Road, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA
| | - Lesley K. Earl
- SEAC Toxicology Unit, Unilever Research, Colworth House, Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire MK44 1LQ, UK
| | - David J. Esdaile
- Rhône-Poulenc Agro, 355 rue Dostoievski, 06903 Sophia Antipolis Cedex, France
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9
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Leahy DE, Duncan R, Ahr HJ, Bayliss MK, de Boer A(BG, Darvas F, Fentem JH, Fry JR, Hopkins R, Houston JB, Karlsson J, Kedderis GL, Pratten MK, Prieto P, Smith DA, Straughan DW. Pharmacokinetics in Early Drug Research. Altern Lab Anim 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299702500105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David E. Leahy
- Lead Discovery Department, ZENECA Pharmaceuticals, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, UK
| | - Ruth Duncan
- Centre for Polymer Therapeutics, The School of Pharmacy, University of London, 29/39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK
| | - Hans J. Ahr
- PH-PD-T Research Toxicology, Bayer AG, 42096 Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Martin K. Bayliss
- Bioanalysis and Drug Metabolism, Glaxo Wellcome, Park Road, Ware, Herts. SG12 ODP, UK
| | - A. (Bert) G. de Boer
- Division of Pharmacology, LACDR, Sylvius Laboratories, Leiden University, Wassenaarseweg 72, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Jeffrey R. Fry
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, University of Nottingham Medical School, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Robert Hopkins
- Corning Hazleton, Otley Road, Harrogate, North Yorkshire HG3 1PY, UK
| | - J. Brian Houston
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Johan Karlsson
- Elan Corporation Research Institute, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | | | - Margaret K. Pratten
- Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Nottingham Medical School, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Pilar Prieto
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, 21020 Ispra (VA), Italy
| | - Dennis A. Smith
- Department of Drug Metabolism, Pfizer Central Research, Sandwich, Kent CT13 9NJ, UK
| | - Donald W. Straughan
- FRAME, Russell & Burch House, 96–98 North Sherwood Street, Nottingham NG1 4EE, UK
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Abstract
The ECVAM Skin Irritation Task Force was established in November 1996, primarily to prepare a report on the current status of the development and validation of alternative tests for skin irritation and corrosion and, in particular, to identify any appropriate non-animal tests for predicting human skin irritation which were sufficiently well-developed to warrant ECVAM supporting their prevalidation/validation. The task force based its discussions around the proposed testing strategy for skin irritation/corrosion emanating from an OECD workshop held in January 1996. The following have been reviewed: a) structure-activity and structure-property relationships for skin corrosion and irritation; b) the use of pH and acid/alkaline reserve measurements in predicting skin corrosivity; c) in vitro tests for skin corrosion; d) in vitro tests for skin irritation (keratinocyte cultures, organ cultures, and reconstituted human skin models); and e) human patch tests for skin irritation. It was apparent that, although several promising candidate in vitro tests for skin irritation (for example, reconstituted human skin methods, and human and animal skin organ culture methods) were under development and evaluation, a test protocol, a preliminary prediction model and supporting data on different types of chemicals were only available for a method employing EpiDerm™. Thus, it is proposed that this EpiDerm test undergoes prevalidation during 1998. In addition, since it was felt preferable to be able to include other in vitro tests in such a prevalidation study, it is recommended that a “challenge” be set to anyone interested in taking part. This involves submitting data on ten test chemicals selected by the task force, obtained according to a standard protocol with a preliminary prediction model, for review by the task force by 31 May 1998.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip A. Botham
- Central Toxicology Laboratory, ZENECA, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire SK10 4TJ, UK
| | - Lesley K. Earl
- SEAC Toxicology Unit, Unilever Research, Colworth House, Sharnbrook, Bedford MK44 1LQ, UK
| | | | - Roland Roguet
- L'Oréal, Life Sciences Research, 1 Avenue Eugène Schueller, 93600 Aulnay-sous-Bois, France
| | - Johannes J.M. van de Sandt
- TNO Nutrition and Food Research Institute, Toxicology Division, Utrechtseweg 48, 3700 AJ Zeist, The Netherlands
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Archer G, Balls M, Bruner LH, Curren RD, Fentem JH, Holzhütter HG, Liebsch M, Lovell DP, Southee JA. The Validation of Toxicological Prediction Models. Altern Lab Anim 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299702500507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
An alternative method is shown to consist of two parts: the test system itself; and a prediction model for converting in vitro endpoints into predictions of in vivo toxicity. For the alternative method to be relevant and reliable, it is important that its prediction model component is of high predictive power and is sufficiently robust against sources of data variability. In other words, the prediction model must be subjected to criticism, leading successful models to the state of confirmation. It is shown that there are certain circumstances in which a new prediction model may be introduced without the necessity to generate new test system data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graeme Archer
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, 21020 Ispra (VA), Italy
| | - Michael Balls
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, 21020 Ispra (VA), Italy
| | - Leon H. Bruner
- The Procter & Gamble Company, Health and Beauty Care Europe, Egham, Surrey TW20 9NW, UK
| | - Rodger D. Curren
- Institute for In Vitro Sciences Inc., Suite 220, 21 Firstfield Road, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA
| | | | - Hermann-Georg Holzhütter
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Bereich Medizin (Charité), Institut für Biochemie, Mon Bijou Strasse 2a, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Manfred Liebsch
- ZEBET, Bundesinstitut für gesundheitlichen Verbraucherschutz und Veterinärmedizin (BgVV), Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany
| | - David P. Lovell
- BIBRA International, Woodmansterne Road, Carshalton, Surrey SM5 4DS, UK
| | - Jacqueline A. Southee
- Microbiological Associates Ltd, Stirling University Innovation Park, Stirling FK9 4NF, UK
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12
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Fentem JH, Botham PA. Update on the Validation and Regulatory Acceptance of Alternative Tests for Skin Corrosion and Irritation. Altern Lab Anim 2019; 32 Suppl 1B:683-8. [DOI: 10.1177/026119290403201s113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) has supported validation studies on in vitro tests for skin corrosion, resulting in the validities of four alternative tests being endorsed. The US Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods (ICCVAM) has also evaluated the validity of these alternative methods for skin corrosion testing. In the European Union, a new Test Method on Skin Corrosion (B.40), incorporating the rat skin transcutaneous electrical resistance and human skin model assays, was included in Annex V of Directive 67/548/EEC in mid-2000. At an international level, two OECD Test Guidelines (430 and 431) on these alternative methods have been approved as of May 2002. To date, there are no validated in vitro tests for predicting the dermal irritancy of chemicals. ECVAM supported prevalidation studies on five in vitro tests for acute skin irritation during 1999–2001. These tests were based on human, pig and mouse skin. However, none of them met the criteria set for inclusion in a large-scale formal validation study. Following additional work on the test protocols and/or prediction models, it appears that several modified tests could now be ready for validation in 2003.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia H. Fentem
- Safety & Environmental Assurance Centre (SEAC), Unilever Colworth Laboratory, Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire, UK
| | - Philip A. Botham
- Syngenta Central Toxicology Laboratory, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire, UK
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13
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P. Worth
- ECVAM, JRC Institute for Health & Consumer Protection, 21020 Ispra (VA), Italy
| | - Julia H. Fentem
- ECVAM, JRC Institute for Health & Consumer Protection, 21020 Ispra (VA), Italy
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14
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Spielmann H, Hoffmann S, Liebsch M, Botham P, Fentem JH, Eskes C, Roguet R, Cotovio J, Cole T, Worth A, Heylings J, Jones P, Robles C, Kandárová H, Gamer A, Remmele M, Curren R, Raabe H, Cockshott A, Gerner I, Zuang V. The ECVAM international validation study on in vitro tests for acute skin irritation: report on the validity of the EPISKIN and EpiDerm assays and on the Skin Integrity Function Test. Altern Lab Anim 2007; 35:559-601. [PMID: 18186667 DOI: 10.1177/026119290703500614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2024]
Abstract
ECVAM sponsored a formal validation study on three in vitro tests for skin irritation, of which two employ reconstituted human epidermis models (EPISKIN, EpiDerm), and one, the skin integrity function test (SIFT), employs ex vivo mouse skin. The goal of the study was to assess whether the in vitro tests would correctly predict in vivo classifications according to the EU classification scheme, "R38" and "no label" (i.e. non-irritant). 58 chemicals (25 irritants and 33 non-irritants) were tested, having been selected to give broad coverage of physico-chemical properties, and an adequate distribution of irritancy scores derived from in vivo rabbit skin irritation tests. In Phase 1, 20 of these chemicals (9 irritants and 11 non-irritants) were tested with coded identities by a single lead laboratory for each of the methods, to confirm the suitability of the protocol improvements introduced after a prevalidation phase. When cell viability (evaluated by the MTT reduction test) was used as the endpoint, the predictive ability of both EpiDerm and EPISKIN was considered sufficient to justify their progression to Phase 2, while the predictive ability of the SIFT was judged to be inadequate. Since both the reconstituted skin models provided false predictions around the in vivo classification border (a rabbit Draize test score of 2), the release of a cytokine, interleukin-1alpha (IL-1alpha), was also determined. In Phase 2, each human skin model was tested in three laboratories, with 58 chemicals. The main endpoint measured for both EpiDerm and EPISKIN was cell viability. In samples from chemicals which gave MTT assay results above the threshold of 50% viability, IL-1alpha release was also measured, to determine whether the additional endpoint would improve the predictive ability of the tests. For EPISKIN, the sensitivity was 75% and the specificity was 81% (MTT assay only); with the combination of the MTT and IL-1alpha assays, the sensitivity increased to 91%, with a specificity of 79%. For EpiDerm, the sensitivity was 57% and the specificity was 85% (MTT assay only), while the predictive capacity of EpiDerm was not improved by the measurement of IL-1alpha release. Following independent peer review, in April 2007 the ECVAM Scientific Advisory Committee endorsed the scientific validity of the EPISKIN test as a replacement for the rabbit skin irritation method, and of the EpiDerm method for identifying skin irritants as part of a tiered testing strategy. This new alternative approach will probably be the first use of in vitro toxicity testing to replace the Draize rabbit skin irritation test in Europe and internationally, since, in the very near future, new EU and OECD Test Guidelines will be proposed for regulatory acceptance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Horst Spielmann
- National Centre for Alternative Methods (ZEBET), Berlin, Germany.
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15
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Abstract
This paper presents a personal perspective on efforts during the past 15 years to replace animal testing for assessing the safety of chemicals and products. It is based on an invited lecture — the FRAME Annual Lecture — given in October 2005, with the theme of “making progress by working together” (government–industry–academia–NGOs). Where we have achieved some successes, these have clearly been due to effective cooperation and collaboration between the relevant stakeholders. In recent times, there has not been this same level of active commitment and coordination. This needs to change, since, if we are to make good progress in the years to come in responding to the new challenges of the EU policy to replace animal testing, this will undoubtedly require us to work together, hopefully facilitated by effective leadership and coordination from the EU policy-makers themselves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia H Fentem
- Unilever Safety & Environmental Assurance Centre, Colworth Laboratory, Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire, MK44 1LQ, UK.
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16
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Abstract
ECVAM has funded and managed validation studies on in vitro tests for skin corrosion, resulting in the validities of four in vitro tests being endorsed by the ECVAM Scientific Advisory Committee: the rat skin transcutaneous electrical resistance (TER) assay, two tests based on the use of commercial reconstituted human skin equivalents, EPISKIN and EpiDerm, and another commercially-produced test, CORROSITEX. In the European Union (EU), a new test method on skin corrosion (B.40), incorporating the rat skin TER and human skin model assays, was included in Annex V of Directive 67/548/EEC in mid-2000, thereby making the use of in vitro alternatives for skin corrosion testing of chemicals mandatory in the EU. At the recommendation of its Skin Irritation Task Force, ECVAM has funded prevalidation studies on five in vitro tests for acute skin irritation: EpiDerm, EPISKIN, PREDISKIN, the pig-ear test, and the mouse-skin integrity function test (SIFT). However, none of the tests met the criteria (set by the Management Team for the studies) for inclusion in a large-scale formal validation study. Thus, to date, there are no validated in vitro tests for predicting the dermal irritancy of chemicals. Following further work on the EPISKIN, EpiDerm and SIFT test protocols and/or prediction models after the completion of the prevalidation studies, it appears that the modified tests could meet the performance criteria defined for progression to a validation study. This will now be assessed independently by the ECVAM Skin Irritation Task Force, with the objective of taking a decision before the end of 2002 on whether to conduct a formal validation study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia H Fentem
- Safety & Environmental Assurance Centre (SEAC), Unilever Colworth Laboratory, Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire MK44 1LQ, UK
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17
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Robinson MK, Cohen C, de Fraissinette ADB, Ponec M, Whittle E, Fentem JH. Non-animal testing strategies for assessment of the skin corrosion and skin irritation potential of ingredients and finished products. Food Chem Toxicol 2002; 40:573-92. [PMID: 11955663 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-6915(02)00005-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The dermatotoxicologist today is faced with a dilemma. Protection of workers and consumers from skin toxicities (irritation and allergy) associated with exposure to products, and the ingredients they contain, requires toxicological skin testing prior to manufacture, transport, or marketing. Testing for skin corrosion or irritation has traditionally been conducted in animals, particularly in rabbits via the long established Draize test method. However, this procedure, among others, has been subject to criticism, both for its limited predictive capacity for human toxicity, as well as for its use of animals. In fact, legislation is pending in the European Union which would ban the sale of cosmetic products, the ingredients of which have been tested in animals. These considerations, and advancements in both in vitro skin biology and clinical testing, have helped drive an intensive effort among skin scientists to develop alternative test methods based either on in vitro test systems (e.g. using rat, pig or human skin ex vivo, or reconstructed human skin models) or ethical clinical approaches (human volunteer studies). Tools are now in place today to enable a thorough skin corrosion and irritation assessment of new ingredients and products without the need to test in animals. Herein, we describe general testing strategies and new test methods for the assessment of skin corrosion and irritation. The methods described, and utilized within industry today, provide a framework for the practicing toxicologist to support new product development initiatives through the use of reliable skin safety testing and risk assessment tools and strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Robinson
- Human & Environmental Safety Division, The Procter & Gamble Co., Miami Valley Laboratories, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
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18
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Zuang V, Balls M, Botham PA, Coquette A, Corsini E, Curren RD, Elliott GR, Fentem JH, Heylings JR, Liebsch M, Medina J, Roguet R, van de Sandt JJM, Wiemann C, Worth AP. Follow-up to the ECVAM prevalidation study on in vitro tests for acute skin irritation. The European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods Skin Irritation Task Force report 2. Altern Lab Anim 2002; 30:109-29. [PMID: 11827575 DOI: 10.1177/026119290203000110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) Skin Irritation Task Force was established in 1996, to review the status of the development and validation of alternative tests for skin irritation and corrosion, and to identify appropriate non-animal tests for predicting human skin irritation that were sufficiently well-developed to be prevalidated and validated by ECVAM. The EpiDerm method, based on a reconstituted human skin model, was proposed as being sufficiently well advanced to enter a prevalidation (PV) study. Based on a review of test protocols, prediction models (PMs), and data submitted by test developers on ten specified chemicals, with 20% sodium lauryl sulphate as a reference standard, the task force recommended the inclusion of four other tests: EPISKIN and PREDISKIN, based on reconstituted human epidermis or on human skin; the non-perfused pig-ear test, based on pig skin; and the skin integrity function test (SIFT), with ex vivo mouse skin. The prevalidation study on these methods was funded by ECVAM, and took place during 1999-2000. The outcome of the PV study was that none of the methods was ready to enter a formal validation study, and that the protocols and PMs of the methods had to be improved in order to increase their predictive abilities. Improved protocols and PMs for the EpiDerm and EPISKIN methods, the pig ear test, and the SIFT were presented at an extended Task Force meeting held in May 2001. It was agreed that, in the short term, the performance of the revised and harmonised EpiDerm and EPISKIN methods, as well as the modified SIFT, should be evaluated in a further study with a new set of 20 test chemicals. In addition, it was decided that the SIFT and the pig ear test would be compared to see if common endpoints (transepidermal water loss, methyl green-pyronine stain) could be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Zuang
- ECVAM, Institute for Health & Consumer Protection, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 21020 Ispra (VA), Italy
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Jones PA, Budynsky E, Cooper KJ, Decker D, Griffiths HA, Fentem JH. Comparative evaluation of five in vitro tests for assessing the eye irritation potential of hair-care products. Altern Lab Anim 2001; 29:669-92. [PMID: 11709042 DOI: 10.1177/026119290102900606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This study compared five methods, the isolated rabbit eye (IRE), bovine corneal opacity and permeability (BCOP), EpiOcular, fluorescein leakage (FL) and neutral red release (NRR) assays, for predicting the eye irritation potential of hair-care formulations. Ten shampoo and seven conditioner formulations of known ocular irritation potential were tested. Each group included a market-acceptable formulation as a comparative benchmark. Predictions of ocular irritation were made by using classification models (IRE, BCOP and EpiOcular assays) or by direct comparison with benchmarks (IRE, EpiOcular, FL and NRR assays). The BCOP assay was less sensitive than the IRE test in discriminating between formulations of different irritation potentials, and did not perform as well as the other assays in identifying mild formulations. All of the assays appeared to be better at discriminating correctly between the shampoos than between the conditioners. The EpiOcular assay showed the closest concordance between the in vivo results and the in vitro data from cell-based assays (particularly for shampoos). The FL assay also showed a high concordance (particularly for conditioners). There was a tendency for these in vitro assays to over-predict eye irritation potential, but there was no under-prediction and they were particularly successful at identifying mild formulations. The NRR assay was less predictive with both shampoos and conditioners. The results from this comparative evaluation fully support the continued use of the IRE test as a suitable alternative to in vivo eye irritation testing in rabbits, although it also over-predicted the irritancies of several of the formulations. The value of using concurrent benchmarks (reference standards), appropriate to the materials being tested, in interpreting the data obtained from in vitro tests, was also demonstrated. Overall, the results indicate that further comparisons of the IRE, EpiOcular and FL assays are warranted using much larger numbers of test materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Jones
- Safety & Environmental Assurance Centre (SEAC), Unilever Colworth Laboratory, Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire MK44 1LQ, UK
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20
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Abstract
There is a need to investigate the mechanistic basis of the human skin irritation response if relevant in vitro test systems for the predictive identification of skin irritation hazards are to be developed. Recent progress in genomics technologies mean that tools for the identification and investigation of important biochemical events in the processes of skin irritation are now available. The aim of this work was to identify genes (for further mechanistic investigation) which may be regulated in response to skin irritation, following exposure of the EpiDerm skin model to the known skin irritant sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS). EpiDerm cultures were treated in triplicate with a non-cytotoxic dose of SLS (0.1 mg/ml, as determined by the MTT assay and histological examination) for 15 min, 30 min, 1 h, 2 h, 3 h, 4 h and 24 h. Total RNA was extracted from the pooled EpiDerm cultures and used to probe Atlas human arrays (Clontech) covering approximately 3600 genes. Preliminary data indicated an up-regulation at early time points (15-30 min) of a number of genes involved in transportation (e.g. the sodium and chloride dependent taurine transporter) and receptors (e.g. ZAP70 and protocadherin 42 precursor). The gene encoding the UV excision repair protein and other DNA repair genes (e.g. DNA-directed RNA polymerase II) were up-regulated after 1-3 h, along with TGF beta 3 and other tumour suppressors, which play a role in cellular development and wound healing. At the later time points of 4-24 h, genes involved in protein translation (e.g. Cathepsin D receptor) and metabolism (e.g. CYP27A) were up-regulated. In addition, a number of genes were down-regulated in response to treatment with SLS, although these followed less of a time dependent pattern. These results indicate the differential regulation of a number of genes in response to treatment with SLS, some of which may provide additional clues to the molecular events underpinning the irritation response to this particular surfactant and possibly to other chemical irritants.
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Affiliation(s)
- S T Fletcher
- SEAC Toxicology Unit, Unilever Research, Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire MK44 1LQ, UK.
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21
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Fentem JH, Briggs D, Chesné C, Elliott GR, Harbell JW, Heylings JR, Portes P, Roguet R, van de Sandt JJ, Botham PA. A prevalidation study on in vitro tests for acute skin irritation. results and evaluation by the Management Team. Toxicol In Vitro 2001; 15:57-93. [PMID: 11259870 DOI: 10.1016/s0887-2333(01)00002-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
A prevalidation study on in vitro tests for acute skin irritation was conducted during 1999 and 2000. The overall objective of validation in this area, of which this prevalidation study is an initial stage, is to identify tests capable of discriminating irritants (I) from non-irritants (NI), as defined according to European Union (EU) risk phrases ("R38"; no classification) and the harmonised OECD criteria ("Irritant"; no label). This prevalidation study specifically addressed aspects of: protocol refinement (phase I), protocol transfer (phase II), and protocol performance (phase III), in accordance with the prevalidation scheme defined by the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM). The tests evaluated were: EpiDerm (phases I, II and III), EPISKIN (phases I, II and III), PREDISKIN (phases I and II, and additional protocol refinement), the non-perfused pig ear method (phases I and II, and additional protocol refinement), and the mouse skin integrity function test (SIFT; phases I and II). Modified, standardised test protocols and well-defined prediction models were available for each of the tests at the end of phase I. The results of phase I (intralaboratory reproducibility) were sufficiently promising for all of the tests to progress to phase II. Protocol transfer between the Lead Laboratory and Laboratory 2 was undertaken for all five tests during phase II, and additional refinements were made to the test protocols. For EpiDerm, EPISKIN and the SIFT, the intralaboratory and interlaboratory reproducibilities were acceptable; however, better standardisation of certain aspects of the test protocols was needed prior to commencing phase III. Neither PREDISKIN nor the pig ear test performed sufficiently well in phase II to progress to phase III. The PREDISKIN protocol was overly sensitive, resulting in the prediction of all the NI chemicals as I. The variability in the pig ear test results was too great, indicating that the test would show limited predictive ability. In additional studies (a repeat of phase I), further modification of the PREDISKIN protocol and a change in the prediction model considerably improved the ability of the test to distinguish I from NI chemicals. However, attempts to improve the intralaboratory reproducibility of the pig ear test were unsuccessful. In phase III an initial assessment of the reproducibility and predictive ability, in three independent laboratories per test, was undertaken for the EpiDerm and EPISKIN tests (the SIFT was a late inclusion in the prevalidation study, and is being evaluated in a separate phase III study). A set of 20 coded chemicals (10 I, 10 NI) were tested with the final, refined, test protocols. The intralaboratory reproducibility was acceptable for both EpiDerm and EPISKIN. The interlaboratory reproducibility was considered to be acceptable for EPISKIN; however, for EpiDerm, analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that there was a statistically significant laboratory effect on the overall variability, suggesting that the interlaboratory transferability of the test needs to be improved. The EpiDerm test had an overall accuracy of 58%, with an over-prediction rate of 37% and an under-prediction rate of 47%. The EPISKIN test had an overall accuracy of 58%, showing an under-prediction rate of 23% and an over-prediction rate of 60%. It is concluded that, as yet, none of the tests evaluated in this prevalidation study are ready for inclusion in a formal validation study on in vitro tests for acute skin irritation. Overall protocol performance of the SIFT is currently being evaluated in a phase III study. Further studies are also in progress to improve the test protocols and prediction models for EpiDerm and EPISKIN.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Fentem
- Unilever Research, Colworth House, Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire MK44 1LQ, UK.
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22
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Balls M, Berg N, Bruner LH, Curren RD, de Silva O, Earl LK, Esdaile DJ, Fentem JH, Liebsch M, Ohno Y, Prinsen MK, Spielmann H, Worth AP. Eye Irritation Testing: The Way Forward. The Report and Recommendations of ECVAM Workshop 34. Altern Lab Anim 1999; 27:53-77. [PMID: 25423402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
This is the report of the thirty-fourth of a series of workshops organised by the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM). ECVAM's main goal, as defined in 1993 by its Scientific Advisory Committee, is to promote the scientific and regulatory acceptance of alternative methods which are of importance to the biosciences and which reduce, refine or replace the use of laboratory animals. One of the first priorities set by ECVAM was the implementation of procedures which would enable it to become well-informed about the state-of-the-art of non-animal test development and validation, and the potential for the possible incorporation of alternative tests into regulatory procedures. It was decided that this would be best achieved by the organisation of ECVAM workshops on specific topics, at which small groups of invited experts would review the current status of various types of in vitro tests and their potential uses, and make recommendations about the best ways forward (1). The workshop on Eye Irritation Testing: The Way Forward was held in Egham, UK, on 15-17 June 1998, under the chairmanship of Michael Balls (ECVAM, Italy). The workshop had two aims, the first of which was to review some of the previous multi-laboratory validation studies on alternatives to the Draize eye test and assess why many promising alternative methods were not successful in these studies. The second aim was to discuss strategies for making progress toward the short-term reduction, refinement, and eventual replacement, of the Draize test, including: a new approach to the validation of in vitro tests for eye irritancy, based on the use of reference standards, which promises to overcome some of the problems encountered in previous studies; the use of stepwise testing strategies which reduce and refine the use of animals in eye irritation testing; the use of multivariate and other statistical techniques for the further analysis of data generated in previous validation studies; and a programme of research aimed at understanding the underlying mechanisms of eye irritation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Balls
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, 21020 Ispra, Italy
| | - N Berg
- Novo Nordisk, Novo Alle, 2880 Bagsvaerd, Denmark
| | - L H Bruner
- Procter & Gamble (Health and Beauty Care), Lovett House, Lovett Road, Staines, Middlesex TW18 3AZ, UK
| | - R D Curren
- Institute for In Vitro Sciences, 21 Firstfield Road, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA
| | - O de Silva
- L'Oréal Recherche Avancée - Sciences du Vivant, 1 Avenue Eugène Schueller, 93601 Aulnay-sous-Bois Cedex, France
| | - L K Earl
- SEAC Toxicology Unit, Unilever Research, Colworth House, Sharnbrook, Bedford MK44 1LQ, UK
| | - D J Esdaile
- Rhône-Poulenc, 355 rue Dostoievski, 06903 Sophia Antipolis Cedex, France
| | - J H Fentem
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, 21020 Ispra, Italy
| | - M Liebsch
- ZEBET, BgVV, Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany
| | - Y Ohno
- Division of Pharmacology, Biological Safety Research Centre, National Institute of Health Sciences, 1-18-1 Kamiyoga, Setakaya-ku, Tokyo 158, Japan
| | - M K Prinsen
- TNO Nutrition and Food Research Institute, Division of Toxicology, 3700 AJ Zeist, The Netherlands
| | - H Spielmann
- ZEBET, BgVV, Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany
| | - A P Worth
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, 21020 Ispra, Italy
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23
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Worth AP, Fentem JH, Balls M, Botham PA, Curren RD, Earl LK, Esdaile DJ. An evaluation of the proposed OECD testing strategy for skin corrosion. Altern Lab Anim 1998; 26:709-720. [PMID: 26042494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The use of testing strategies which incorporate a range of alternative methods and which use animals only as a last resort is widely considered to provide a reliable way of predicting chemical toxicity while minimising animal testing. The widespread concern over the severity of the Draize rabbit test for assessing skin irritation and corrosion led to the proposal of a stepwise testing strategy at an OECD workshop in January 1996. Subsequently, the proposed testing strategy was adopted, with minor modifications, by the OECD Advisory Group on Harmonization of Classification and Labelling. This article reports an evaluation of the proposed OECD testing strategy as it relates to the classification of skin corrosives. By using a set of 60 chemicals, an assessment was made of the effect of applying three steps in the strategy, taken both individually and in sequence. The results indicate that chemicals can be classified as corrosive (C) or non-corrosive (NC) with sufficient reliability by the sequential application of three alternative methods, i.e., structure-activity relationships (where available), pH measurements, and a single in vitro method (either the rat skin transcutaneous electrical resistance (TER) assay or the EPISKIN™ assay). It is concluded that the proposed OECD strategy for skin corrosion can be simplified without compromising its predictivity. For example, it does not appear necessary to measure acid/alkali reserve (buffering capacity) in addition to pH for the classification of pure chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Worth
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, Ispra, Italy
| | - J H Fentem
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, Ispra, Italy
| | - M Balls
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, Ispra, Italy
| | - P A Botham
- Central Toxicology Laboratory, ZENECA, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, UK
| | - R D Curren
- Institute for In Vitro Sciences, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
| | - L K Earl
- SEAC Toxicology Unit, Unilever Research, Sharnbrook, UK
| | - D J Esdaile
- Rhône-Poulenc Agro, Sophia Antipolis Cedex, France
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Botham PA, Earl LK, Fentem JH, Roguet R, van de Sandt JJ. Alternative methods for skin irritation testing: the current status. Altern Lab Anim 1998; 26:195-211. [PMID: 26043398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- P A Botham
- Central Toxicology Laboratory, ZENECA, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, UK
| | - L K Earl
- SEAC Toxicology Unit, Unilever Research, Sharnbrook, Bedford, UK
| | - J H Fentem
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, Ispra, Italy
| | - R Roguet
- L'Oréal, Life Sciences Research, Aulnay-sous-Bois, France
| | - J J van de Sandt
- TNO Nutrition and Food Research Institute, Toxicology Division, Zeist, The Netherlands
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25
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Balls M, Fentem JH. Progress Toward the Validation of Alternative Tests. Altern Lab Anim 1997; 25:33-43. [PMID: 26554348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
ECVAM's role in the practical validation of replacement alternative methods for use in regulatory testing is reviewed, including an outline of the criteria which have been used in determining ECVAM's priorities. Some of the difficulties which have arisen in validation studies are discussed, and solutions to these are proposed, with particular emphasis on ensuring that methods are sufficiently well-developed to enter the validation process, and on the ECVAM prevalidation scheme for encouraging protocol optimisation and the prior assessment of interlaboratory transferability. Comments are made on problems encountered in selecting test materials backed by adequate in vivo data and in undertaking appropriate in vivo/in vitro comparisons.
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26
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Leahy DE, Duncan R, Ahr HJ, Bayliss MK, de Boer AB, Darvas F, Fentem JH, Fry JR, Hopkins R, Houston JB, Karlsson J, Kedderis GL, Pratten MK, Prieto P, Smith DA, Straughan DW. Pharmacokinetics in Early Drug Research. Altern Lab Anim 1997; 25:17-31. [PMID: 26554347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D E Leahy
- Lead Discovery Department, ZENECA Pharmaceuticals, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, UK
| | - R Duncan
- Centre for Polymer Therapeutics, The School of Pharmacy, University of London, London, UK
| | - H J Ahr
- PH-PD-T Research Toxicology, Bayer AG, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - M K Bayliss
- Bioanalysis and Drug Metabolism, Glaxo Wellcome, Ware, UK
| | - A B de Boer
- Division of Pharmacology, LACDR, Sylvius Laboratories, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - J H Fentem
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, Ispra, Italy
| | - J R Fry
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Nottingham Medical School, Nottingham, UK
| | | | - J B Houston
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - J Karlsson
- Elan Corporation Research Institute, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - M K Pratten
- Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Nottingham Medical School, Nottingham, UK
| | - P Prieto
- ECVAM, JRC Environment Institute, Ispra, Italy
| | - D A Smith
- Department of Drug Metabolism, Pfizer Central Research, Sandwich, UK
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Fentem JH. Book Review: The Status of Alternative Methods in Toxicology. Altern Lab Anim 1996. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299602400218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Fentem JH, Prinsen MK, Spielmann H, Walum E, Botham PA. Validation-Lessons learned from practical experience. Toxicol In Vitro 1995; 9:857-862. [PMID: 20650167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
With regard to the problems encountered and the experience gained in validation studies conducted in the past, suggestions have been made concerning criteria for the selection of the tests and laboratories to be included in a validation study, the selection and distribution of test chemicals, and procedures for the handling, analysis and interpretation of the resulting data. In particular, tests should have been developed to the extent that detailed protocols and standard operating procedures have been produced and evaluated. The laboratories should be chosen on the basis of evidence of their appropriate experience, competence and ability to comply with good laboratory practice (GLP) requirements. The choice of test chemicals depends primarily on the goals of the validation study and on the availability of reliable in vivo toxicity data of high quality. A biostatistician should be involved in the initial design of the validation study as well as in the analysis of the resulting data. The quality of the in vivo and in vitro data must be ensured, prior to determining the reproducibility and predictivity of the alternative test.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Fentem
- ECVAM, JRC (Joint Research Centre), Environment Institute, 21020 Ispra (Va, Italy
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30
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Fentem JH. Book Review: Advances in Drug Metabolism in Man. Altern Lab Anim 1995. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299502300621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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31
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Balls M, Goldberg AM, Fentem JH, Broadhead CL, Burch RL, Festing MFW, Frazier JM, Hendriksen CFM, Jennings M, van der Kamp MDO, Morton DB, Rowan AN, Russell C, Russell WMS, Spielmann H, Stephens ML, Stokes WS, Straughan DW, Yager JD, Zurlo J, van Zutphen BFM. The three Rs: the way forward: the report and recommendations of ECVAM Workshop 11. Altern Lab Anim 1995; 23:838-66. [PMID: 11660368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
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32
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Fentem JH. Book Review: Animals and Science in the Twenty-First Century: New Technologies and Challenges. Altern Lab Anim 1995. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299502300528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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33
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Fentem JH. Book Review: Methods in Molecular Biology Volume 43: In Vitro Toxicity Testing Protocols. Altern Lab Anim 1995. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299502300424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Fentem JH. Book Review: Archives of Toxicology, Supplement 17: Toxicology in Transition. Altern Lab Anim 1995. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299502300321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Fentem JH. Book Review: Introduction to Toxicology — Second Edition. Altern Lab Anim 1995. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299502300319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Fentem JH. Book Review: Principles and Methods of Toxicology — Third Edition. Altern Lab Anim 1994. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299402200512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Fentem JH, Balls M. Why, when and how in vitro tests should be accepted into regulatory toxicology. Toxicol In Vitro 1994; 8:923-4. [PMID: 20693045 DOI: 10.1016/0887-2333(94)90101-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The use of in vitro techniques in toxicological research is widespread, but, up to now, relatively little progress has been made in applying the knowledge gained in regulatory toxicity testing. In vitro tests should be accepted into regulatory toxicology for at least five reasons: scientific, humanitarian, legislative, logistical and economic. In particular, in vitro tests have the potential to provide a mechanistic basis for toxicity testing, and they may permit the use of tissues from more-appropriate target species and individuals, including humans. The relevance and reliability of the in vitro test, with regard to its use for a particular purpose and with particular types of chemicals, should have been adequately demonstrated (i.e. it should have been validated) prior to regulatory acceptance. There are several obstacles to this, including whether validation should be based on comparisons between in vitro data and animal data, and whether the in vitro tests should be expected to provide regulators with the same kinds of predictions and classification criteria that they currently obtain from animal tests. Regulatory incorporation should be a permissive process, rather than a restrictive one. Any scientifically defensible in vitro test which has been properly validated and independently recommended, should be acceptable for the specific purposes for which its use would be appropriate.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Fentem
- FRAME (Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments), 34 Stoney Street, Nottingham NG1 1NB, UK
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Fentem JH. The APC Report on Regulatory Toxicity Testing. Altern Lab Anim 1994. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299402200408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Julia H. Fentem
- FRAME, Eastgate House, 34 Stoney Street, Nottingham NG1 1NB, UK
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Fentem JH. Book Review: Principles of Environmental Toxicology. Altern Lab Anim 1993. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299302100231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Fentem JH. Book Review: In Vitro Methods in Toxicology. Altern Lab Anim 1993. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299302100227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Fry JR, Fentem JH, Salim A, Tang SP, Garle MJ, Whiting DA. Structural requirements for the direct and cytochrome P450-dependent reaction of cyclic alpha,beta-unsaturated carbonyl compounds with glutathione: a study with coumarin and related compounds. J Pharm Pharmacol 1993; 45:166-70. [PMID: 8097772 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1993.tb05526.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The interaction of glutathione (GSH) with coumarin, or one of a series of compounds related to coumarin, was assessed in the absence and presence of liver microsomes (direct reaction and indirect reaction, respectively) to determine the structural requirements for direct and mono-oxygenase-mediated reaction of cyclic alpha,beta-unsaturated carbonyls with GSH. Acrolein was used as a positive control for the direct reaction, and produced complete or nearly complete depletion of GSH under all assay conditions. 5,6-Dihydro-2H-pyran-2-one and 2-cyclohexen-1-one also produced substantial depletion of GSH in the direct reaction, which was not increased by the addition of liver microsomes. Coumarin, 2H-pyran-2-one and precocene I (a substituted pyran lacking the 2-one structure) were not substrates for the direct reaction but did cause depletion of GSH when incubated in the presence of rat or human liver microsomes. These depletions were dependent on a functioning mono-oxygenase system as judged by the effects of omission of cofactors, addition of competitive or inactivating inhibitors of cytochrome P450, and induction. Dihydrocoumarin, delta-valerolactone, cyclohexanone and 4H-pyran-4-one were not substrates for either the direct or indirect reaction. These findings are rationalized on the basis of a direct nucleophilic attack of GSH on the alpha,beta-centre of the alpha,beta-unsaturated carbonyl compounds, which is hindered by benzenoid resonance in coumarin and 2H-pyran-2-one, for which enzyme-mediated reaction with GSH, probably via a 3,4-epoxide, is the favoured mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Fry
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Nottingham, UK
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Abstract
1. Investigations of coumarin metabolism and hepatotoxicity have been reviewed. 2. Species differences in coumarin hepatotoxicity appear to be metabolism-mediated. 3. The rat, in which it is markedly hepatotoxic, primarily metabolises coumarin via 3-hydroxylation and cleavage of the heterocyclic ring. 4. Coumarin is less toxic in the baboon, gerbil and certain strains of mice, which resemble man in their extensive formation of the 7-hydroxy metabolite. 5. Liver toxicity in patients receiving relatively high daily doses of coumarin is very rare. 6. Recent studies indicate that coumarin 3,4-epoxide is the metabolic intermediate responsible for hepatotoxicity in the rat.
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Fentem JH. Book Review: in vitro Methods of Toxicology. Altern Lab Anim 1993. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299302100122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Fentem JH. Book Review: In Vitro Toxicity Testing: Applications to Safety Evaluation. Altern Lab Anim 1992. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299202000417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Fentem JH. Book Review: Principles of Biochemical Toxicology — Second Edition. Altern Lab Anim 1992. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299202000415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Fentem JH. Book Review: Tissue-Specific Toxicity: Biochemical Mechanisms. Altern Lab Anim 1992. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299202000413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Fentem JH. Book Review: Principles and Methods of Toxicology — Second Edition. Altern Lab Anim 1992. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299202000320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Fentem JH. Book Review: Principles of Clinical Toxicology — Second Edition. Altern Lab Anim 1992. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299202000322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Abstract
1. o-Hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde was the major metabolite of coumarin (1 mM) in rat, gerbil and human liver microsomes. 2. Treatment of rats with phenobarbitone (PB) or beta-naphthoflavone increased the o-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde formed. 3-Hydroxycoumarin was the other main metabolite produced by rat liver microsomes. 3. Liver microsomal metabolism of coumarin in gerbil was extensive with 3-, 5-, 6-, 7- and 8-hydroxycoumarins, and 3,7- and 6,7-dihydroxycoumarins produced, in addition to o-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde. The profile of the hydroxy metabolites was altered by in vivo treatment of gerbils with cytochrome P-450 inducers, but there was no increase of coumarin metabolism. 4. Coumarin was metabolized by human liver microsomes to o-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde, 7-hydroxycoumarin, 3-hydroxycoumarin, and trace amounts of 5-, 6- and 8-hydroxycoumarins. 5. At low substrate concentrations (0-10 microM) hepatic microsomal metabolism of coumarin in gerbil resembled that in man, with 7-hydroxycoumarin being a major metabolite. However, the production of o-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde was greater in gerbil than human liver microsomes. 6. At higher substrate concentrations (1 mM) metabolism of coumarin by liver microsomes from PB-treated gerbils most closely resembled that by human liver microsomes. 7. The gerbil would appear to be a more appropriate animal model than rat for studies to assess the toxicological hazard of coumarin for man.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Fentem
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, UK
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