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Antonelli A, Smith RJ, Perrigo AL, Crottini A, Hackel J, Testo W, Farooq H, Torres Jiménez MF, Andela N, Andermann T, Andriamanohera AM, Andriambololonera S, Bachman SP, Bacon CD, Baker WJ, Belluardo F, Birkinshaw C, Borrell JS, Cable S, Canales NA, Carrillo JD, Clegg R, Clubbe C, Cooke RSC, Damasco G, Dhanda S, Edler D, Faurby S, de Lima Ferreira P, Fisher BL, Forest F, Gardiner LM, Goodman SM, Grace OM, Guedes TB, Henniges MC, Hill R, Lehmann CER, Lowry PP, Marline L, Matos-Maraví P, Moat J, Neves B, Nogueira MGC, Onstein RE, Papadopulos AST, Perez-Escobar OA, Phelps LN, Phillipson PB, Pironon S, Przelomska NAS, Rabarimanarivo M, Rabehevitra D, Raharimampionona J, Rajaonah MT, Rajaonary F, Rajaovelona LR, Rakotoarinivo M, Rakotoarisoa AA, Rakotoarisoa SE, Rakotomalala HN, Rakotonasolo F, Ralaiveloarisoa BA, Ramirez-Herranz M, Randriamamonjy JEN, Randriamboavonjy T, Randrianasolo V, Rasolohery A, Ratsifandrihamanana AN, Ravololomanana N, Razafiniary V, Razanajatovo H, Razanatsoa E, Rivers M, Sayol F, Silvestro D, Vorontsova MS, Walker K, Walker BE, Wilkin P, Williams J, Ziegler T, Zizka A, Ralimanana H. Madagascar’s extraordinary biodiversity: Evolution, distribution, and use. Science 2022; 378:eabf0869. [DOI: 10.1126/science.abf0869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Madagascar’s biota is hyperdiverse and includes exceptional levels of endemicity. We review the current state of knowledge on Madagascar’s past and current terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity by compiling and presenting comprehensive data on species diversity, endemism, and rates of species description and human uses, in addition to presenting an updated and simplified map of vegetation types. We report a substantial increase of records and species new to science in recent years; however, the diversity and evolution of many groups remain practically unknown (e.g., fungi and most invertebrates). Digitization efforts are increasing the resolution of species richness patterns and we highlight the crucial role of field- and collections-based research for advancing biodiversity knowledge and identifying gaps in our understanding, particularly as species richness corresponds closely to collection effort. Phylogenetic diversity patterns mirror that of species richness and endemism in most of the analyzed groups. We highlight humid forests as centers of diversity and endemism because of their role as refugia and centers of recent and rapid radiations. However, the distinct endemism of other areas, such as the grassland-woodland mosaic of the Central Highlands and the spiny forest of the southwest, is also biologically important despite lower species richness. The documented uses of Malagasy biodiversity are manifold, with much potential for the uncovering of new useful traits for food, medicine, and climate mitigation. The data presented here showcase Madagascar as a unique “living laboratory” for our understanding of evolution and the complex interactions between people and nature. The gathering and analysis of biodiversity data must continue and accelerate if we are to fully understand and safeguard this unique subset of Earth’s biodiversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Antonelli
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Rhian J. Smith
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Allison L. Perrigo
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Angelica Crottini
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Jan Hackel
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | - Weston Testo
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Harith Farooq
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Lúrio University, Pemba, Cabo Delgado Province, Mozambique
| | - Maria F. Torres Jiménez
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Institute of Biosciences, Life Sciences Centre, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Niels Andela
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK
| | - Tobias Andermann
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Organismal Biology, SciLifeLab, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | - Christine D. Bacon
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - Francesco Belluardo
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Chris Birkinshaw
- Missouri Botanical Garden, Madagascar Program, Antananarivo, Madagascar
- Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | | | - Stuart Cable
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | - Nataly A. Canales
- Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Juan D. Carrillo
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
- CR2P, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Rosie Clegg
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- Department of Geography, University of Exeter, Exeter, Devon, UK
| | - Colin Clubbe
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | - Robert S. C. Cooke
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, UK
| | - Gabriel Damasco
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Departamento de Botânica e Zoologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
| | - Sonia Dhanda
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | - Daniel Edler
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Integrated Science Lab, Department of Physics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Søren Faurby
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Paola de Lima Ferreira
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Biology Centre CAS, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Brian L. Fisher
- California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Félix Forest
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | - Lauren M. Gardiner
- Cambridge University Herbarium, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Steven M. Goodman
- Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois, USA
- Association Vahatra, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | | | - Thaís B. Guedes
- Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Unicamp, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marie C. Henniges
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Rowena Hill
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Caroline E. R. Lehmann
- Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Porter P. Lowry
- Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, et Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Lovanomenjanahary Marline
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
- Association Vahatra, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Pável Matos-Maraví
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Biology Centre CAS, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Justin Moat
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | - Beatriz Neves
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Museu Nacional, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Matheus G. C. Nogueira
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Museu Nacional, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Renske E. Onstein
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333CR Leiden, the Netherlands
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | | | - Leanne N. Phelps
- Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Peter B. Phillipson
- Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, et Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Samuel Pironon
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), Cambridge, UK
| | - Natalia A. S. Przelomska
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Washington, DC, USA
| | | | - David Rabehevitra
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | | | - Mamy Tiana Rajaonah
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Fano Rajaonary
- Missouri Botanical Garden, Madagascar Program, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Landy R. Rajaovelona
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Mijoro Rakotoarinivo
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, University of Antananarivo, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Amédée A. Rakotoarisoa
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Solofo E. Rakotoarisoa
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Herizo N. Rakotomalala
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Franck Rakotonasolo
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | | | - Myriam Ramirez-Herranz
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Instituto de Ecología y Biodiversidad, University of La Serena, La Serena, Chile
- Programa de Doctorado en Biología y Ecología Aplicada, Universidad Católica del Norte, Universidad de La Serena, La Serena, Chile
| | | | | | - Vonona Randrianasolo
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | | | | | | | - Velosoa Razafiniary
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Henintsoa Razanajatovo
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Estelle Razanatsoa
- Plant Conservation Unit, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Malin Rivers
- Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | - Ferran Sayol
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Centre for Biodiversity and Environment Research, Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, UK
| | - Daniele Silvestro
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | | | - Kim Walker
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, UK
| | | | - Paul Wilkin
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | | | - Thomas Ziegler
- Cologne Zoo, Cologne, Germany
- Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Alexander Zizka
- Department of Biology, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Hélène Ralimanana
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
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2
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Ralimanana H, Perrigo AL, Smith RJ, Borrell JS, Faurby S, Rajaonah MT, Randriamboavonjy T, Vorontsova MS, Cooke RSC, Phelps LN, Sayol F, Andela N, Andermann T, Andriamanohera AM, Andriambololonera S, Bachman SP, Bacon CD, Baker WJ, Belluardo F, Birkinshaw C, Cable S, Canales NA, Carrillo JD, Clegg R, Clubbe C, Crottini A, Damasco G, Dhanda S, Edler D, Farooq H, de Lima Ferreira P, Fisher BL, Forest F, Gardiner LM, Goodman SM, Grace OM, Guedes TB, Hackel J, Henniges MC, Hill R, Lehmann CER, Lowry PP, Marline L, Matos-Maraví P, Moat J, Neves B, Nogueira MGC, Onstein RE, Papadopulos AST, Perez-Escobar OA, Phillipson PB, Pironon S, Przelomska NAS, Rabarimanarivo M, Rabehevitra D, Raharimampionona J, Rajaonary F, Rajaovelona LR, Rakotoarinivo M, Rakotoarisoa AA, Rakotoarisoa SE, Rakotomalala HN, Rakotonasolo F, Ralaiveloarisoa BA, Ramirez-Herranz M, Randriamamonjy JEN, Randrianasolo V, Rasolohery A, Ratsifandrihamanana AN, Ravololomanana N, Razafiniary V, Razanajatovo H, Razanatsoa E, Rivers M, Silvestro D, Testo W, Torres Jiménez MF, Walker K, Walker BE, Wilkin P, Williams J, Ziegler T, Zizka A, Antonelli A. Madagascar’s extraordinary biodiversity: Threats and opportunities. Science 2022; 378:eadf1466. [DOI: 10.1126/science.adf1466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Madagascar’s unique biota is heavily affected by human activity and is under intense threat. Here, we review the current state of knowledge on the conservation status of Madagascar’s terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity by presenting data and analyses on documented and predicted species-level conservation statuses, the most prevalent and relevant threats, ex situ collections and programs, and the coverage and comprehensiveness of protected areas. The existing terrestrial protected area network in Madagascar covers 10.4% of its land area and includes at least part of the range of the majority of described native species of vertebrates with known distributions (97.1% of freshwater fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals combined) and plants (67.7%). The overall figures are higher for threatened species (97.7% of threatened vertebrates and 79.6% of threatened plants occurring within at least one protected area). International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List assessments and Bayesian neural network analyses for plants identify overexploitation of biological resources and unsustainable agriculture as the most prominent threats to biodiversity. We highlight five opportunities for action at multiple levels to ensure that conservation and ecological restoration objectives, programs, and activities take account of complex underlying and interacting factors and produce tangible benefits for the biodiversity and people of Madagascar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hélène Ralimanana
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Allison L. Perrigo
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Rhian J. Smith
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | | | - Søren Faurby
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Mamy Tiana Rajaonah
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | | | | | - Robert S. C. Cooke
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, UK
| | - Leanne N. Phelps
- School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Ferran Sayol
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Centre for Biodiversity and Environment Research, Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, UK
| | - Niels Andela
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK
| | - Tobias Andermann
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Organismal Biology, SciLifeLab, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | - Christine D. Bacon
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - Francesco Belluardo
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Chris Birkinshaw
- Missouri Botanical Garden, Madagascar Program, Antananarivo, Madagascar
- Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Stuart Cable
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | - Nataly A. Canales
- Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Juan D. Carrillo
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
- CR2P, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Rosie Clegg
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- Department of Geography, University of Exeter, Exeter, Devon, UK
| | - Colin Clubbe
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | - Angelica Crottini
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Gabriel Damasco
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Departamento de Botânica e Zoologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
| | - Sonia Dhanda
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | - Daniel Edler
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Integrated Science Lab, Department of Physics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Harith Farooq
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Lúrio University, Pemba, Cabo Delgado Province, Mozambique
| | - Paola de Lima Ferreira
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Biology Centre CAS, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | | | - Félix Forest
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | - Lauren M. Gardiner
- Cambridge University Herbarium, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Steven M. Goodman
- Association Vahatra, Antananarivo, Madagascar
- Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | - Thaís B. Guedes
- Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Unicamp, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jan Hackel
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | - Marie C. Henniges
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Rowena Hill
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Caroline E. R. Lehmann
- School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Porter P. Lowry
- Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, et Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Lovanomenjanahary Marline
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Association Vahatra, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Pável Matos-Maraví
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Biology Centre CAS, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Justin Moat
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | - Beatriz Neves
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Museu Nacional, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Matheus G. C. Nogueira
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Museu Nacional, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Renske E. Onstein
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, Netherlands
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | | | - Peter B. Phillipson
- Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, et Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Samuel Pironon
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), Cambridge, UK
| | - Natalia A. S. Przelomska
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Washington, DC, USA
| | | | - David Rabehevitra
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | | | - Fano Rajaonary
- Missouri Botanical Garden, Madagascar Program, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Landy R. Rajaovelona
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Mijoro Rakotoarinivo
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, University of Antananarivo, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Amédée A. Rakotoarisoa
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Solofo E. Rakotoarisoa
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Herizo N. Rakotomalala
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Franck Rakotonasolo
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | | | - Myriam Ramirez-Herranz
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Instituto de Ecología y Biodiversidad, University of La Serena, La Serena, Chile
- Programa de Doctorado en Biología y Ecología Aplicada, Universidad Católica del Norte, Universidad de La Serena, La Serena, Chile
| | | | - Vonona Randrianasolo
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | | | | | | | - Velosoa Razafiniary
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Henintsoa Razanajatovo
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Estelle Razanatsoa
- Plant Conservation Unit, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Malin Rivers
- Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | - Daniele Silvestro
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Weston Testo
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Maria F. Torres Jiménez
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Institute of Biosciences, Life Sciences Centre, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Kim Walker
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, UK
| | | | - Paul Wilkin
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | | | - Thomas Ziegler
- Cologne Zoo, Cologne, Germany
- Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Alexander Zizka
- Department of Biology, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Alexandre Antonelli
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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3
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Phelps LN, Andela N, Gravey M, Davis DS, Kull CA, Douglass K, Lehmann CER. Madagascar's fire regimes challenge global assumptions about landscape degradation. Glob Chang Biol 2022; 28:6944-6960. [PMID: 35582991 PMCID: PMC9790435 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.16206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Narratives of landscape degradation are often linked to unsustainable fire use by local communities. Madagascar is a case in point: the island is considered globally exceptional, with its remarkable endemic biodiversity viewed as threatened by unsustainable anthropogenic fire. Yet, fire regimes on Madagascar have not been empirically characterised or globally contextualised. Here, we contribute a comparative approach to determining relationships between regional fire regimes and global patterns and trends, applied to Madagascar using MODIS remote sensing data (2003-2019). Rather than a global exception, we show that Madagascar's fire regimes are similar to 88% of tropical burned area with shared climate and vegetation characteristics, and can be considered a microcosm of most tropical fire regimes. From 2003-2019, landscape-scale fire declined across tropical grassy biomes (17%-44% excluding Madagascar), and on Madagascar at a relatively fast rate (36%-46%). Thus, high tree loss anomalies on the island (1.25-4.77× the tropical average) were not explained by any general expansion of landscape-scale fire in grassy biomes. Rather, tree loss anomalies centred in forests, and could not be explained by landscape-scale fire escaping from savannas into forests. Unexpectedly, the highest tree loss anomalies on Madagascar (4.77×) occurred in environments without landscape-scale fire, where the role of small-scale fires (<21 h [0.21 km2 ]) is unknown. While landscape-scale fire declined across tropical grassy biomes, trends in tropical forests reflected important differences among regions, indicating a need to better understand regional variation in the anthropogenic drivers of forest loss and fire risk. Our new understanding of Madagascar's fire regimes offers two lessons with global implications: first, landscape-scale fire is declining across tropical grassy biomes and does not explain high tree loss anomalies on Madagascar. Second, landscape-scale fire is not uniformly associated with tropical forest loss, indicating a need for socio-ecological context in framing new narratives of fire and ecosystem degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leanne N. Phelps
- School of GeoSciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUK
- Tropical Diversity, Royal Botanic Garden EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Niels Andela
- School of Earth and Environmental SciencesCardiff UniversityCardiffUK
| | - Mathieu Gravey
- Institute of Earth Surface DynamicsUniversity of LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
| | - Dylan S. Davis
- Department of AnthropologyThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Christian A. Kull
- Institute of Geography and SustainabilityUniversity of LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
| | - Kristina Douglass
- Department of AnthropologyThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPennsylvaniaUSA
- Institutes of Energy and the EnvironmentThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Caroline E. R. Lehmann
- School of GeoSciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUK
- Tropical Diversity, Royal Botanic Garden EdinburghEdinburghUK
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4
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Morrison KD, Hammer E, Boles O, Madella M, Whitehouse N, Gaillard MJ, Bates J, Vander Linden M, Merlo S, Yao A, Popova L, Hill AC, Antolin F, Bauer A, Biagetti S, Bishop RR, Buckland P, Cruz P, Dreslerová D, Dusseldorp G, Ellis E, Filipovic D, Foster T, Hannaford MJ, Harrison SP, Hazarika M, Herold H, Hilpert J, Kaplan JO, Kay A, Klein Goldewijk K, Kolář J, Kyazike E, Laabs J, Lancelotti C, Lane P, Lawrence D, Lewis K, Lombardo U, Lucarini G, Arroyo-Kalin M, Marchant R, Mayle F, McClatchie M, McLeester M, Mooney S, Moskal-del Hoyo M, Navarrete V, Ndiema E, Góes Neves E, Nowak M, Out WA, Petrie C, Phelps LN, Pinke Z, Rostain S, Russell T, Sluyter A, Styring AK, Tamanaha E, Thomas E, Veerasamy S, Welton L, Zanon M. Mapping past human land use using archaeological data: A new classification for global land use synthesis and data harmonization. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0246662. [PMID: 33852578 PMCID: PMC8046197 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In the 12,000 years preceding the Industrial Revolution, human activities led to significant changes in land cover, plant and animal distributions, surface hydrology, and biochemical cycles. Earth system models suggest that this anthropogenic land cover change influenced regional and global climate. However, the representation of past land use in earth system models is currently oversimplified. As a result, there are large uncertainties in the current understanding of the past and current state of the earth system. In order to improve representation of the variety and scale of impacts that past land use had on the earth system, a global effort is underway to aggregate and synthesize archaeological and historical evidence of land use systems. Here we present a simple, hierarchical classification of land use systems designed to be used with archaeological and historical data at a global scale and a schema of codes that identify land use practices common to a range of systems, both implemented in a geospatial database. The classification scheme and database resulted from an extensive process of consultation with researchers worldwide. Our scheme is designed to deliver consistent, empirically robust data for the improvement of land use models, while simultaneously allowing for a comparative, detailed mapping of land use relevant to the needs of historical scholars. To illustrate the benefits of the classification scheme and methods for mapping historical land use, we apply it to Mesopotamia and Arabia at 6 kya (c. 4000 BCE). The scheme will be used to describe land use by the Past Global Changes (PAGES) LandCover6k working group, an international project comprised of archaeologists, historians, geographers, paleoecologists, and modelers. Beyond this, the scheme has a wide utility for creating a common language between research and policy communities, linking archaeologists with climate modelers, biodiversity conservation workers and initiatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen D. Morrison
- Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Emily Hammer
- Department of Near East Languages and Civilizations and the Price Lab for the Digital Humanities, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Oliver Boles
- Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Marco Madella
- ICREA–CaSEs–Department of Humanities, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
- School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, The University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Nicola Whitehouse
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Plymouth University, Plymouth, United Kingdom
- Department of Archaeology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Marie-Jose Gaillard
- Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Linnaeus University, Växjö, Sweden
| | - Jennifer Bates
- Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Marc Vander Linden
- Institute for the Modelling of Socio-Environmental Transitions, Bournemouth University, Bournemouth, United Kingdom
| | - Stefania Merlo
- School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, The University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Alice Yao
- Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Laura Popova
- Barrett Honors College, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Austin Chad Hill
- Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Ferran Antolin
- Integrative Prehistory and Archaeological Science (IPNA/IPAS), University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Andrew Bauer
- Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Stefano Biagetti
- Department d’Humanitats, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
- School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
| | - Rosie R. Bishop
- Museum of Archaeology, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway
| | - Phillip Buckland
- Department of Historical, Philosophical and religious Studies, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Pablo Cruz
- UE CISOR CONICET UNJu, Argentine National Science Council (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Dagmar Dreslerová
- Institute of Archaeology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Academy of Sciences Prague, Czech Republic
| | | | - Erle Ellis
- Palaeo-Research Institute, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Department of Geography and Environmental Systems, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | - Thomas Foster
- College of Arts & Sciences, Anthropology, University of Tulsa, Tusla, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | | | - Sandy P. Harrison
- School of Archaeology, Geography and Environmental Science, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
| | - Manjil Hazarika
- Department of Archaeology, Cotton University, Guwahati, India
| | - Hajnalka Herold
- Department of Archaeology, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Johanna Hilpert
- Institute for Prehistoric Archaeology, Universitat zu Koln, Cologne, Germany
| | - Jed O. Kaplan
- Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Andrea Kay
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Kees Klein Goldewijk
- Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Kolář
- Institute of Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
- Institute of Archaeology and Museology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Elizabeth Kyazike
- Department of History and Political Science, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Julian Laabs
- Institute for Archaeolgical Scienes, Bern University, Bern, Switzerland
- Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, Bern University, Bern, Switzerland
- Institute of Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology, Kiel University, Keil, Germany
| | - Carla Lancelotti
- ICREA–Department of Humanities, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Paul Lane
- Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, Witwatersrand, South Africa
| | - Dan Lawrence
- Department of Archaeology, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom
| | - Krista Lewis
- Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Little Rock, Arkansas, United States of America
| | | | - Giulio Lucarini
- Institute of Heritage Science, National Research Council of Italy, Montelibretti, Rome, Italy
- Department of Asian, African and Mediterranean Studies, University of Naples L’Orientale, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Rob Marchant
- York Institute for Tropical Ecosystems, Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Francis Mayle
- Department of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
| | | | - Madeleine McLeester
- Department of Anthropology, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, United States of America
| | - Scott Mooney
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | | | - Vanessa Navarrete
- Department of Prehistory, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Emmanuel Ndiema
- Department of Earth Sciences, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Eduardo Góes Neves
- Laboratório de Arqueologia dos Trópicos, Museu de Arqueologia e Etnologia, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marek Nowak
- Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Welmoed A. Out
- Department of Archaeological Science and Conservation, Moesgaard Museum, Højbjerg, Denmark
| | - Cameron Petrie
- ICREA–Department of Humanities, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
- McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Leanne N. Phelps
- Tropical diversity, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Zsolt Pinke
- Department of Physical Geography, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Stéphen Rostain
- Centre national de la recherche scientifique, Nanterre, France
| | - Thembi Russell
- School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, The University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Andrew Sluyter
- Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Amy K. Styring
- School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Eduardo Tamanaha
- Instituto de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Mamirauá, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Evert Thomas
- The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, Lima, Peru
| | - Selvakumar Veerasamy
- Department of Maritime History and Marine Archaeology, Tamil University, Tanjore, India
| | - Lynn Welton
- School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, Witwatersrand, South Africa
| | - Marco Zanon
- Institute of Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology, Kiel, Germany
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5
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Phelps LN, Kaplan JO. Land use for animal production in global change studies: Defining and characterizing a framework. Glob Chang Biol 2017; 23:4457-4471. [PMID: 28434200 PMCID: PMC5655935 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.13732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 03/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Land use for animal production influences the earth system in a variety of ways, including local-scale modification to biodiversity, soils, and nutrient cycling; regional changes in albedo and hydrology; and global-scale changes in greenhouse gas and aerosol concentrations. Pasture is furthermore the single most extensive form of land cover, currently comprising about 22-26% of the earth's ice-free land surface. Despite the importance and variable expressions of animal production, distinctions among different systems are effectively absent from studies of land use and land cover change. This deficiency is improving; however, livestock production system classifications are rarely applied in this context, and the most popular global land cover inventories still present only a single, usually poorly defined category of "pasture" or "rangeland" with no characterization of land use. There is a marked lack of bottom-up, evidence-based methodology, creating a pressing need to incorporate cross-disciplinary evidence of past and present animal production systems into global change studies. Here, we present a framework, modified from existing livestock production systems, that is rooted in sociocultural, socioeconomic, and ecological contexts. The framework defines and characterizes the range of land usage pertaining to animal production, and is suitable for application in land use inventories and scenarios, land cover modeling, and studies on sustainable land use in the past, present, and future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leanne N. Phelps
- Institute of Earth Surface DynamicsUniversity of LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
| | - Jed O. Kaplan
- Institute of Earth Surface DynamicsUniversity of LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
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Steenbergen JF, Kimball HS, Low DA, Schapiro HC, Phelps LN. Serological grouping of virulent and avirulent strains of the lobster pathogen Aerococcus viridans. J Gen Microbiol 1977; 99:425-30. [PMID: 874455 DOI: 10.1099/00221287-99-2-425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Virulent strains of Aerococcus viridans (formerly Gaffkya homari) are the aetiologic agents of gaffkemia, a septicaemic disease of the American lobster (Homarus americanus). The virulent and avirulent forms of this bacterium, previously thought to be taxonomically indistinguishable, have been differentiated by serological studies. Antisera were produced in rabbits using autoclaved bacteria as antigens. Reactions were measured by agglutination tests using microtitre techniques and an antigenic scheme was determined. Specific antisera were prepared by absorption and used to determine antigens of strains of A. viridans and other Gram-positive cocci. In general, only virulent strains of A. viridans have antigen b. Both virulent and avirulent strains possess other antigens also detected in strains of the genus Staphylococcus.
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7
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