Stimulated Raman scattering microscopy in chemistry and life science - Development, innovation, perspectives

In this review, we present a summary of the basics of the Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS) phenomenon, methods of detecting the signal, and collection of the SRS images. We demonstrate the advantages of SRS imaging, and recent developments, but also the limitations, especially in image capture speeds and spatial resolution. We also compare the use of SRS microscopy in biological system studies with other techniques such as fluorescence microscopy, second-harmonic generation (SHG)-based microscopy, coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS), and spontaneous Raman, and we show the compatibility of SRS-based systems with other discussed methods. The review is also focused on indicating innovations in SRS microscopy, on the background of which we present the layout and performance of our homemade setup built from commercially available elements enabling for imaging of the molecular structure of single cells over the spectral range of 800-3600 cm^-1. Methods of image analysis are discussed, including machine learning methods for obtaining images of the distribution of selected molecules and for the detection of pathological lesions in tissues or malignant cells in the context of clinical diagnosis of a wide range of diseases with the use of SRS microscopy. Finally, perspectives for the development of SRS microscopy are proposed.

Fixed versus live endothelial cells: The effect of glutaraldehyde fixation manifested by characteristic bands on the Raman spectra of cells

This work shows an impact of glutaraldehyde (GA) fixation on endothelial cells. Raman spectroscopy imaging was used as a method to monitor biochemical content of the cells due to GA fixation since this is an approach frequently used for studying cells by means of Raman imaging. To get a deeper insight into the changes and to understand them better the measurements of live and fixed cells were performed using two lasers, i.e. 488 and 532 nm. It has been demonstrated that GA fixation affects lipids, proteins, nucleic acid and carbohydrates to small extent. The application of 488 nm laser line seems to be more efficient for live cells due to the small impact of cytochrome resonance on Raman spectra, however 532 nm line is more beneficial for fixed cells due to higher quantum efficiency of the detector, thus leading to higher intensity of Raman bands. Generally, the changes due to fixation are not pronounced but cannot be ignored and the knowledge about them can help in a proper interpretation of data collected for fixed versus live cells.

Raman imaging of heme metabolism in situ in macrophages and Kupffer cells

Herein, we provide the Raman imaging results for different stages of erythrophagocytosis of senescent red blood cells executed by isolated murine primary Kupffer cells and a murine macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7). Images were recorded with the use of 488 and 532 nm excitation lines. The use of Resonance Raman spectroscopy allowed the visualization of the heme metabolism and tracking of the systemic iron recycling process inside isolated murine Kupffer cells and RAW.264 cells. Because of the application of the different experimental assays, the erythrophagocytosis in two types of cells was presented and associated with the presence of different forms of oxidized and degradative derivatives of hemoglobin species. Moreover, we observed an increase of lipid level and later formation of lipid droplets during the erythrophagocytosis process inside RAW 264.7 macrophages and murine Kupffer cells.

Pre-resonance enhancement of exceptional intensity in Aggregation-Induced Raman Optical Activity (AIROA) spectra of lutein derivatives

Recently reported new phenomenon of Aggregation-Induced Raman Optical Activity is demonstrated here for the first time in the pre-resonance conditions for lutein diacetate and 3'-epi-lutein supramolecular self-assembles. We demonstrate that minor alterations in the lutein structure (e.g. acetylation of hydroxyl groups or different configuration at one of the chiral center) can lead to definitely different spectral profiles and optical properties due to formation of aggregates of different structure and type. Lutein forms only H-aggregates, lutein diacetate only J-aggregates, while 3'-epi-lutein can occur in both forms simultaneously. Variety of aggregates' structures is so large that not only the type of aggregation is different, but also their chirality. It is remarkable that even in the pre-resonance conditions, aggregation of lutein derivatives can lead to the intense ROA signal, and moreover, 3'-epi-lutein demonstrated the highest resonance ROA CID ratio that has ever been reported.

Unsaturated lipid bodies as a hallmark of inflammation studied by Raman 2D and 3D microscopy

Endothelial HMEC-1 cells incubated with pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α for 6 and 24 hours were studied as a model of inflammation using Raman imaging. Striking changes in distribution, composition and concentration of cellular lipids were observed after exposure to TNF-α compared to the control. In particular, 3D Raman imaging revealed a significant increase in the amount of lipid entities formed under inflammation. Lipid bodies were randomly distributed in the cytoplasm and two types of droplets were assembled: more saturated one, in spectral characteristics resembling phosphatidylcholine and saturated cholesteryl esters, observed also in the control, and highly unsaturated one, containing also cholesterols, being a hallmark of inflamed cells. The statistical analysis showed that the number of lipid bodies was significantly dependent on the exposure time to TNF-α. Overall, observed formation of unsaturated lipid droplets can be directly correlated with the increase in production of prostacyclins - endogenous inflammation mediators.

Label-free spectroscopic characterization of live liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs) isolated from the murine liver

Imaging with the use of Raman spectroscopy enables the characterization and distinction of live cells that were freshly isolated from murine livers.

FT-IR imaging for quantitative determination of liver fat content in non-alcoholic fatty liver

In this work we apply FT-IR imaging of large areas of liver tissue cross-section samples (∼5 cm × 5 cm) for quantitative assessment of steatosis in murine model of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver (NAFLD). We quantified the area of liver tissue occupied by lipid droplets (LDs) by FT-IR imaging and Oil Red O (ORO) staining for comparison. Two alternative FT-IR based approaches are presented. The first, straightforward method, was based on average spectra from tissues and provided values of the fat content by using a PLS regression model and the reference method. The second one – the chemometric-based method – enabled us to determine the values of the fat content, independently of the reference method by means of k-means cluster (KMC) analysis. In summary, FT-IR images of large size liver sections may prove to be useful for quantifying liver steatosis without the need of tissue staining.

A new insight into the interaction of cisplatin with DNA: ROA spectroscopic studies on the therapeutic effect of the drug

Raman optical activity (ROA) spectroscopy has been applied for the first time to study the interaction of cisplatin with DNA. The knowledge about the structure of DNA-metal ion cross-links and hence the mechanism of the drug action is fundamental for the development of new antitumor drugs. At the same time, there is an urgent need to search for new methods for monitoring of this effect at the therapeutic dose of a drug. We have demonstrated that ROA spectroscopy is a sensitive technique with the capability to follow the structural alteration of the whole DNA molecule upon drug binding via a direct observation of transformation undergoing within chiral sugar moieties. A ROA profile delivers clear evidence of a partial transition from the B-DNA to the A-form due to the formation of cisplatin-DNA cross-links.

Identification of a biochemical marker for endothelial dysfunction using Raman spectroscopy

In the present work, we propose the spectroscopic approach to identify biochemical alterations in endothelial dysfunction. The method is based on the quantification of the ratio of phenylalanine (Phe) to tyrosine (Tyr) contents in the endothelium. The synthesis of Tyr from Phe requires the presence of tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) as a cofactor of phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH). Limitation of BH4 availability in the endothelium is a hallmark endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) dysfunction that may also lead to PAH dysfunction and a fall in Tyr contents. Using Raman spectra, the ratio of marker bands of Tyr to Phe was calculated and the pathological state of the endothelium was detected. We provide evidence that Phe/Tyr ratio analysis by Raman spectroscopy discriminate endothelial dysfunction in ApoE/LDLR(-/-) mice as compared to control mice.

Simultaneous intracellular redox potential and pH measurements in live cells using SERS nanosensors

Intracellular redox potential is a highly regulated cellular characteristic and is critically involved in maintaining cellular health and function. The dysregulation of redox potential can result in the initiation and progression of numerous diseases. Redox potential is determined by the balance of oxidants and reductants in the cell and also by pH. For this reason a technique for quantitative measurement of intracellular redox potential and pH is highly desirable. In this paper we demonstrate how surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) nanosensors can be used for multiplexed measurement of both pH and redox potential in live single cells.

Nuclear accumulation of anthracyclines in the endothelium studied by bimodal imaging: fluorescence and Raman microscopy

Anthracycline antibiotics display genotoxic activity towards cancer cells but their clinical utility is limited by their cardiac and vascular toxicity. The aim of this study was to develop a Raman-based methodology to study the nuclear accumulation of anthracyclines in the endothelium. For this purpose bimodal confocal Raman and fluorescence imaging was used to monitor cellular composition changes as a result of anthracycline exposure on endothelial cells (EA.hy926), and nuclear drug accumulation, respectively. Simultaneously effects of anthracyclines on endothelium viability were investigated by caspases-3 and -7 and MTT assays. We demonstrated that nuclear accumulation of DOX and EDOX was similar; however, EDNR accumulated in endothelial nuclei at concentrations 10 times higher than DNR. In turn, epimers of DOX or DNR were both consistently less toxic on the endothelium as compared to their congeners as evidenced by MTT and caspase assays. In summary, bimodal Raman and fluorescence-based nucleus profiling proves to be a valuable tool to study structure-activity relationship of nuclear accumulation and toxicity of anthracyclines in endothelium.

Characterisation of Atherogenic Effects of Low Carbohydrate, High Protein Diet (LCHP) in ApoE/LDLR-/- Mice

INTRODUCTION

Low Carbohydrate High Protein diet represents a popular strategy to achieve weight loss.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to characterize effects of low carbohydrate, high protein diet (LCHP) on atherosclerotic plaque development in brachiocephalic artery (BCA) in apoE/LDLR-/- mice and to elucidate mechanisms of proatherogenic effects of LCHP diet.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Atherosclerosis plaques in brachiocephalic artery (BCA) as well as in aortic roots, lipoprotein profile, inflammation biomarkers, expression of SREBP-1 in the liver as well as mortality were analyzed in Control diet (AIN-93G) or LCHP (Low Carbohydrate High Protein) diet fed mice.

RESULTS

Area of atherosclerotic plaques in aortic roots or BCA from LCHP diet fed mice was substantially increased as compared to mice fed control diet and was characterized by increased lipids and cholesterol contents (ORO staining, FT-IR analysis), increased macrophage infiltration (MOMA-2) and activity of MMPs (zymography). Pro-atherogenic phenotype of LCHP fed apoE/LDLR-/- mice was associated with increased plasma total cholesterol concentration, and in LDL and VLDL fractions, increased TG contents in VLDL, and a modest increase in plasma urea. LCHP diet increased SCD-1 index, activated SREBP-1 transcription factor in the liver and triggered acute phase response as evidence by an increased plasma concentration of haptoglobin, CRP or AGP. Finally, in long-term experiment survival of apoE/LDLR-/- mice fed LCHP diet was substantially reduced as compared to their counterparts fed control diet suggesting overall detrimental effects of LCHP diet on health.

CONCLUSIONS

The pro-atherogenic effect of LCHP diet in apoE/LDLR-/- mice is associated with profound increase in LDL and VLDL cholesterol, VLDL triglicerides, liver SREBP-1 upregulation, and systemic inflammation.

Raman microimaging of murine lungs: insight into the vitamin A content

The composition of mice lung tissue was investigated using Raman confocal microscopy at 532 nm excitation wavelength supported with different experimental staining techniques as well as DFT calculations.

Biochemical changes of the endothelium in the murine model of NO-deficient hypertension

Alterations in the α-helix and β-sheet content and the lipid-to-protein ratio are the most striking features of hypertension development in the vascular endothelium.

Raman spectroscopic studies of vitamin A content in the liver: a biomarker of healthy liver

Confocal Raman microspectroscopy was used in this study to identify hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) from healthy mice and mice with untreated and treated liver steatosis.

The role of N-acetyltransferase 2 polymorphism in the etiopathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) consists of ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD), which are complex genetic disorders resulting from the interplay between several genetic and environmental risk factors. The arylamine N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2) enzyme detoxifies a wide spectrum of naturally occurring xenobiotics including carcinogens and drugs. Acetylation catalyzed by NAT2 is an important process in metabolic activation of arylamines to electrophilic intermediates that initiate carcinogenesis. The aim of our study was to determine whether there is any association between the susceptibility to inflammatory bowel disease among the variations of NAT2 genotypes.

METHODS

This study was carried out in 80 patients with IBD. The control group consisted of 100 healthy volunteers. The most common mutations found in the Caucasian population are at the positions 481T, 803G, 590A and 857A on the NAT2 gene. This was determined using the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism method with DNA extracted from peripheral blood.

RESULTS

Risk of IBD development was 3.86 for the carriers of the NAT2*5/NAT2*7 genotype and 2.53 for the carriers with NAT2*6/NAT2*7, but it was not statistically significant. A statistically significant correlation between the NAT2*7 allele prevalence and the risk for developing IBD was found (OR = 5.8; P = 0.005).

CONCLUSIONS

Higher prevalence of the NAT2*7 allele in patients with IBD and the obtained OR values could suggest that this mutation has the effect of increasing IBD development. Future studies are needed to confirm our assumptions on larger group of patients.

Raman analysis of caraway (Carum carvi L.) single fruits. Evaluation of essential oil content and its composition

FT-Raman spectroscopy was applied for in situ analysis of single and intact fruits obtained from a diverse caraway (Carum carvi L.) collection. The Raman spectra showed characteristic bands that could be assigned to lignin, unsaturated fatty acids, and polysaccharides. Additionally, the essential oil composition was determined by gas chromatography (GC), which showed a great variation in carvone and limonene content among accessions obtained from European botanical gardens as well as advanced breeding materials. GC data and information obtained from Raman measurements were correlated and allowed development of calibration models for essential oil yield and carvone and limonene content (R(2) = 74%, 81%, and 75%, respectively). The congruence between results obtained by both techniques indicates FT-Raman spectroscopy to be a valuable screening tool for quality control and selection of fruits with desired essential oil composition, which can be performed without fruit destruction.

Genetic polymorphisms of CYP2D6 oxidation in patients with inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) consists of ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, both of which are associated with increased colorectal cancer risk. The relationship between genetically determined polymorphic metabolism of exogenous substances by oxidation catalyzed by CYP2D6 isoenzyme and susceptibility to cancer has aroused great interest. We determined whether there was an association between susceptibility to inflammatory bowel disease and particularly to CYP2D6 genotypes. The study was carried out in 39 patients with IBD. The control group consisted of 129 healthy volunteers. The CYP2D6 genotypes were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method with DNA extracted from peripheral blood. Among 39 patients with inflammatory bowel disease, extensive metabolizer (EM) genotype constituted 97.4%. One patient (2.6%) was poor metabolizer with CYP2D6*4/CYP2D6*4 genotype. Results obtained in the inflammatory bowel disease group did not differ significantly from those of the control group. Although the odds ratio for EM metabolizers was about 3.8-fold greater in the group of patients with inflammatory bowel disease, this association was not statistically significant. This data also showed no overall statistically significant association between alleles and incidence risk of inflammatory bowel disease [odds ratio (OR) of 1.36 for CYP2D6*1 allele, 0.83 for CYP2D6*3 allele, and 0.74 for CYP2D6*4 allele]. The present results suggest that EM genotype may be the risk factor of inflammatory bowel disease. Future studies are needed to confirm our assumptions on larger group of patients.

Association of pesticide exposure, vaccination response, and interleukin-1 gene polymorphisms

We performed a cross-sectional study involving workers from four European countries in which exposure to pesticides and immune parameters were evaluated over a short period of time. The total study population consisted of 238 workers occupationally exposed to pesticides and 198 nonoccupationally exposed workers. The study showed that pesticide exposure at levels encountered by workers under different conditions in Europe did not affect the ability of the immune system to respond to vaccination. We could, however, identify individuals within the group of pesticide exposed workers who were genetically characterized by the 2.2 IL-1α polymorphism and who showed a lower antibody response, pointing out the importance of the understanding of genetic variability and the interaction between genetic and environmental factors in the identification of high-risk individuals, which may eventually lead to preventive measures.

Determination of lycopene and beta-carotene content in tomato fruits and related products: Comparison of FT-Raman, ATR-IR, and NIR spectroscopy

Tomatoes and various products derived from thermally processed tomatoes are major sources of lycopene, but apart from this micronutrient, other carotenoids such as beta-carotene also are present in the fruit. They occur in tomato fruits and various tomato products in amounts of 2.62-629.00 (lycopene) and 0.23-2.83 mg/100 g (beta-carotene). Standard methods for determining the carotenoid content require the extraction of the analyte as well as other cleanup steps. In this work, FT-Raman, ATR-IR, and NIR spectroscopy are applied in order to establish new, fast, and nondestructive calibration methods for quantification of lycopene and beta-carotene content in tomato fruits and related products. The best prediction quality was achieved using a model based on IR spectroscopy (R2 = 0.98 and 0.97, SECV = 33.20 and 0.16 for lycopene and beta-carotene, respectively). In spite of the fact that Raman spectra of tomato products show characteristic key bands of the investigated carotenoids, this method gives slightly lower reliability (R2 = 0.91 and 0.89, SECV = 74.34 and 0.34 for lycopene and beta-carotene, respectively). NIR spectroscopy, which has been used for quantification purposes in the agricultural sector for several decades, in this study shows the worse prediction quality (R2 = 0.85 and 0.80, SECV = 91.19 and 0.41 for lycopene and beta-carotene, respectively).

Potential of NIR-FT-Raman spectroscopy in natural carotenoid analysis

This paper demonstrates the special advantages of FT-Raman spectroscopy for in situ studies of several carotenoids that occur ubiquitously in the plant kingdom. Spectra obtained from various tissues of a range of plant species indicate that the wavenumber location of C=C stretching vibrations is mainly influenced both by the length as well as by the terminal substituents of the polyene chain of carotenoids and by their interaction with other plant constituents. The obtained results show also the usefulness of Raman spectroscopy in the investigation of cis-trans isomerization of carotenoids during processing. Additionally, 2-D Raman mappings present a unique possibility to evaluate the individual distribution of carotenoids in the intact plant tissue; in this context different 7-, 8-, and 9-double bond conjugated carotenoids can be analyzed independently in the same sample. Furthermore, the use of Raman spectroscopy for in situ detection of unstable substances such as epoxycarotenoids is discussed.

Single seed Raman measurements allow taxonomical discrimination of Apiaceae accessions collected in gene banks

NIR-FT-Raman spectroscopy was applied for a nondestructive analysis of single seeds (fruit mericarps) of 36 accessions belonging to various species of the Apiaceae family. Main seed components such as fatty acids, polysaccharides, proteins, and lignin were identified based on the obtained Raman spectra. Variation at the species and genus level was related to differences observed between spectra. The application of cluster analysis discriminated among most of the species evaluated and grouped them according to their taxonomical classification. The spectroscopically analyzed seeds germinated and developed into normal seedlings to demonstrate the additional advantage that Raman spectroscopy is nondestructive and can be applied to living seed without harm. These results indicate that Raman spectroscopy is a valuable tool for the rational evaluation and management of genetic resources in ex situ seed collections by providing useful information for taxonomical validation of the accessions.

Vibrational spectroscopic studies to acquire a quality control method of Eucalyptus essential oils

This article presents a novel and original approach to analyze in situ the main components of Eucalyptus oil by means of Raman spectroscopy. The obtained two-dimensional Raman maps demonstrate a unique possibility to study the essential oil distribution in the intact plant tissue. Additionally, Fourier Transform (FT)-Raman and attenuated total reflection (ATR)-IR spectra of essential oils isolated from several Eucalyptus species by hydrodistillation are presented. Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations were performed in order to interpret the spectra of the essential oils of the Eucalyptus species. It is shown that the main components of the essential oils can be recognized by both vibrational spectroscopic techniques using the spectral information of the pure terpenoids. Spectroscopic analysis is based on the key bands of the individual volatile substances and therefore allows one to discriminate different essential oil profiles of several Eucalyptus species. It has been found that the presented spectroscopic data correlate very well with those obtained by gas chromatography (GC) analysis. All these investigations are helpful tools to generate a fast and easy method to control the quality of the essential oils with vibrational spectroscopic techniques in combination with DFT calculations.

On the way to a quality control of the essential oil of fennel by means of Raman spectroscopy

Essential oils are one of the most valuable natural products. The price of special essential oils that can be purchased on the market strongly depends on the quality of the product. The quality, which depends on the quantitative and qualitative variation of different monoterpenes, varies with respect of the origin and the harvesting period. This contribution reports on a Raman spectroscopic study on the essential oil occurring in fennel. Cross-sections of fennel seed were investigated by use of Raman spectroscopy and Raman mapping to localize the essential oil and to analyze its chemical composition directly in the plant. Furthermore the practicability of a home-built mobile transportable Raman spectrometer to perform on-site measurements was successfully tested.

Chemotaxonomy of aromatic plants of the genus Origanum via vibrational spectroscopy

Fourier transformed-Raman (FT-Raman) and attenuated total reflection-infrared (ATR-IR) spectra of essential oils obtained from marjoram and oregano plants by hydrodistillation are presented. It is shown that the main components of the essential oils can be ascertained through both of these complementary techniques, using spectral information from the pure terpenoids. Spectroscopic analysis is based on the characteristic key bands of the individual volatile substances and therefore, in principle, these techniques allow us to discriminate between different essential oil profiles from individual oil plants of the same species (chemotypes). The combination of vibrational spectroscopy and hierarchical cluster analysis provides a fast, easy and reliable method for chemotaxonomy characterisation. The spectroscopic data presented here correlate very well with those found by gas chromatography (GC) analysis.

Quality control ofHarpagophytum procumbensand its related phytopharmaceutical products by means of NIR-FT-Raman spectroscopy

NIR-FT-Raman spectroscopy was used for identification and quantification of harpagoside in secondary roots of Harpagophytum procumbens as well as in related phytopharmaceutical products, e.g., ethanolic extracts and tablets. Applied Raman mappings reveal the spatial distribution of this valuable iridoid glycoside within the different samples. The same technique can be used for quality control purposes beginning from the plant to its final products. Based on the obtained spectral data and reference HPLC values of harpagoside, a reliable multivariate calibration model was developed.

[Models of feeding for healthy children]

The subject of this study was to present dietary guidelines for healthy children recommended by the National Research Institute of Mother and Child. For infants breastfeeding is optimal. All infants should be exclusively breastfed until 6 months of age. Complementary food should be introduced in the 7th month of life according to infants' feeding schedule. Modified cow's milk formulas and complementary food are recommended in non-breastfed infants' nutrition. In all medical institutions infants' feeding should comply with these recommendations. The basis of rational nutrition of young children is high quality and safe food with reference to its nutritional value. Adequate choice of food products, variety of diet and meal frequency is the basis of proper nutrition and proper nutritional habits. Regular eating of 3-4 meals per day, avoiding products rich in fat, sugar, salt, cholesterol, as well as increasing physical activity, are recommended in dietary guidelines for school children. The recommended models should be much more effectively implemented in paediatricians' practice and should be the basis for postgraduate training for doctors, nurses and midwives as well.

Psychosocial intervention in the process of empowering families with children living with HIV/AIDS-a descriptive study

The notion of 'family empowerment' is of crucial importance in any kind of psychosocial intervention directed to families with children living with HIV/AIDS. The goal is to restore self-efficacy and self-esteem, encourage positive coping and help family members make their own choices. Two settings for psychosocial intervention are described: an outpatient clinic within a larger medical institution and a therapeutic camp for families with children. Different psychotherapeutic and counselling strategies and approaches are briefly presented. Preliminary results based on work with families with children infected and/or affected by HIV/AIDS are described. The conclusion is that interventions that involve different settings seem to be most effective, especially for the most vulnerable families. The important issue is also collaboration between different service providers and NGOs.