Metabolites are overlooked in environmental risk assessments and monitoring of pharmaceuticals: The case study of pantoprazole

The proton-pump inhibitor pantoprazole (PPZ) is one of the most consumed pharmaceuticals worldwide. Despite its high usage, reported PPZ concentrations in environmental water samples are comparatively low, which can be explained by the extensive metabolism of PPZ in the human body. Since most previous studies did not consider human PPZ metabolites it can be assumed that the current environmental exposure associated with the application of PPZ is substantially underestimated. In our study, 4'-O-demethyl-PPZ sulfide (M1) was identified as the predominant PPZ metabolite by analyzing urine of a PPZ consumer as well as the influent and effluent of a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) using liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). M1 was found to be ubiquitously present in WWTP effluents (max. concentration: 3 000 ng/L) and surface waters in Germany. On average, the surface water concentrations of M1 were approximately 30 times higher than those of the parent compound PPZ. Laboratory scale experiments demonstrated that activated carbon can considerably adsorb M1 und thus improve its removal during wastewater and drinking water treatment. Laboratory ozonation experiments showed a fast oxidation of M1, accompanied by the formation of several ozonation products. Certain ozonation products (identities confirmed via synthesized reference standards) were also detected in water samples collected after ozonation in a full-scale WWTP. Overall lower signal intensities were observed in the effluents of a sand filter and biologically active granular activated carbon filter, suggesting that the compounds were significantly removed during these post-ozonation treatment stages.

KineticNet: Deep learning a transferable kinetic energy functional for orbital-free density functional theory

Orbital-free density functional theory (OF-DFT) holds promise to compute ground state molecular properties at minimal cost. However, it has been held back by our inability to compute the kinetic energy as a functional of electron density alone. Here, we set out to learn the kinetic energy functional from ground truth provided by the more expensive Kohn-Sham density functional theory. Such learning is confronted with two key challenges: Giving the model sufficient expressivity and spatial context while limiting the memory footprint to afford computations on a GPU and creating a sufficiently broad distribution of training data to enable iterative density optimization even when starting from a poor initial guess. In response, we introduce KineticNet, an equivariant deep neural network architecture based on point convolutions adapted to the prediction of quantities on molecular quadrature grids. Important contributions include convolution filters with sufficient spatial resolution in the vicinity of nuclear cusp, an atom-centric sparse but expressive architecture that relays information across multiple bond lengths, and a new strategy to generate varied training data by finding ground state densities in the face of perturbations by a random external potential. KineticNet achieves, for the first time, chemical accuracy of the learned functionals across input densities and geometries of tiny molecules. For two-electron systems, we additionally demonstrate OF-DFT density optimization with chemical accuracy.

The fate of nitrification and urease inhibitors in simulated bank filtration

The application of nitrification and urease inhibitors (NUI) in conjunction with nitrogen (N) fertilizers improves the efficiency of N fertilizers. However, NUI are frequently found in surface waters through leaching or surface runoff. Bank filtration (BF) is considered as a low-cost water treatment system providing high quality water by efficiently removing large amounts of organic micropollutants from surface water. The fate of NUI in managed aquifer recharge systems such as BF is poorly known. The aim of this work was to investigate sorption and degradation of NUI in simulated BF under near-natural conditions. Besides, the effect of NUI on the microbial biomass of slowly growing microorganisms and the role of microbial biomass on NUI removal was investigated. Duplicate sand columns (length 1.7 m) fed with surface water were spiked with a pulse consisting of four nitrification (1,2,4-triazole, dicyanodiamide, 3,4-dimethylpyrazole and 3-methylpyrazole) and two urease inhibitors (n-butyl-thiophosphoric acid triamide and n-(2-nitrophenyl) phosphoric triamide). The average spiking concentration of each NUI was 5 μg/L. Experimental and modeled breakthrough curves of NUI indicated no retardation for any of the inhibitors. Therefore, biodegradation was identified as the main elimination pathway for all substances and was highest in zones of high microbial biomass. Removal of 1,2,4-triazole was 50% and n-butyl-thiophosphoric acid triamide proved to be highly degradable and was completely removed after a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 24 h. 50% of the mass recovery for nitrification inhibitors except for 3,4-dimethylpyrazole was observed at the effluent (4 days HRT). In addition, a mild effect of NUI on microbial biomass was noted. This study highlights that the degradation of NUI in BF depends on HRT and microbial biomass.

Combining target analysis with sum parameters-a comprehensive approach to determine sediment contamination with PFAS and further fluorinated substances

Recent studies aiming at a fluorine mass balance analysis in sediments combined the determination of extractable organic fluorine (EOF) with target analysis. They reported high fractions of unidentified organic fluorine (UOF) compounds, as the target analysis covers only a limited number of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). For this reason, in this study, a comprehensive approach was used combining target analysis with an extended PFAS spectrum, the EOF and a modified total oxidisable precursor (TOP) assay, which includes trifluoroacetic acid, to determine the PFAS contamination in sediments (n=41) and suspended solids (n=1) from water bodies in Northern Germany (Lower Saxony). PFAS are ubiquitous in the sediments (detected in 83% of the samples). Perfluorinated carboxylic acids (PFCAs) were found in 64% of the samples; perfluorinated sulfonic acids (PFSAs) were detected less frequently (21%), with the highest concentration observed for perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS). Levels of precursors and substitutes were lower. Applying the TOP assay resulted in an increase in PFCAs in 43% of the samples analysed. In most cases, target analysis and the TOP assay could not account for the EOF concentrations measured. However, as the fraction of UOF decreased significantly, the application of the TOP assay in fluorine mass balance analysis proved to be an important tool in characterising the PFAS contamination of riverine sediments.

Occurrence, Distribution, and Environmental Behavior of Persistent, Mobile, and Toxic (PMT) and Very Persistent and Very Mobile (vPvM) Substances in the Sources of German Drinking Water

Persistent, mobile, and toxic (PMT) and very persistent and very mobile (vPvM) substances have been recognized as a threat to both the aquatic environment and to drinking water resources. These substances are currently prioritized for regulatory action by the European Commission, whereby a proposal for the inclusion of hazard classes for PMT and vPvM substances has been put forward. Comprehensive monitoring data for many PMT/vPvM substances in drinking water sources are scarce. Herein, we analyze 34 PMT/vPvM substances in 46 surface water, groundwater, bank filtrate, and raw water samples taken throughout Germany. Results of the sampling campaign demonstrated that known PMT/vPvM substances such as 1H-benzotriazole, melamine, cyanuric acid, and 1,4-dioxane are responsible for substantial contamination in the sources of German drinking water. In addition, the results revealed the widespread presence of the emerging substances 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid (AMPS) and diphenylguanidine (DPG). A correlation analysis showed a pronounced co-occurrence of PMT/vPvM substances associated predominantly with consumer or professional uses and also demonstrated an inhomogeneous co-occurrence for substances associated mainly with industrial use. These data were used to test the hypothesis that most PMT/vPvM substances pass bank filtration without significant concentration reduction, which is one of the main reasons for introducing PMT/vPvM as a hazard class within Europe.

Ultra-Short-Chain PFASs in the Sources of German Drinking Water: Prevalent, Overlooked, Difficult to Remove, and Unregulated

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have been a focal point of environmental chemistry and chemical regulation in recent years, culminating in a shift from individual PFAS regulation toward a PFAS group regulatory approach in Europe. PFASs are a highly diverse group of substances, and knowledge about this group is still scarce beyond the well-studied, legacy long-chain, and short-chain perfluorocarboxylates (PFCAs) and perfluorosulfonates (PFSAs). Herein, quantitative and semiquantitative data for 43 legacy short-chain and ultra-short-chain PFASs (≤2 perfluorocarbon atoms for PFCAs, ≤3 for PFSAs and other PFASs) in 46 water samples collected from 13 different sources of German drinking water are presented. The PFASs considered include novel compounds like hexafluoroisopropanol, bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, and tris(pentafluoroethyl)trifluorophosphate. The ultra-short-chain PFASs trifluoroacetate, perfluoropropanoate, and trifluoromethanesulfonate were ubiquitous and present at the highest concentrations (98% of sum target PFAS concentrations). "PFAS total" parameters like the adsorbable organic fluorine (AOF) and total oxidizable precursor (TOP) assay were found to provide only an incomplete picture of PFAS contamination in these water samples by not capturing these highly prevalent ultra-short-chain PFASs. These ultra-short-chain PFASs represent a major challenge for drinking water production and show that regulation in the form of preventive measures is required to manage them.

Evidence for Specific Receptor-Mediated Toxicity of Pharmaceuticals in Aquatic Organisms Derived from Acute and Chronic Standard Endpoints

The toxicity of 17 active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) was investigated using standardized acute and chronic tests with Daphnia magna and 2 algae species. Chronic toxicity was generally greater for Daphnia than for algae. Compilation of additional data resulted in 100 APIs for which the acute-to-chronic ratio (ACR) was determined for Daphnia. The frequency of high ACRs (~20% with ACRs > 100) indicates that specific receptor-mediated toxicity toward D. magna is rather common among APIs. The 11 APIs with ACRs > 1000 included lipid-modifying agents, immunosuppressants, antibiotics, antineoplastics, antiobesics, antivirals, and antihistamines. There was no consistent association between ACR and chronic toxicity, ionization status, or lipophilicity. High ACRs were not exclusively associated with the presence of orthologs of the pharmacological target in Daphnia. Statins, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, and antihistamines are discussed in more detail regarding the link between targets and toxic mode of action. For acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, receptor-mediated toxicity was already apparent after acute exposure, whereas the high ACR and chronic toxicity of some antihistamines probably related to interaction with a secondary rather than the primary pharmacological target. Acute or modeled chronic toxicity estimates have often been used for prioritizing pharmaceuticals. This may be seriously misleading because chronic effects are currently not predictable for APIs with specific receptor-mediated toxicity. However, it is exactly these APIs that are the most relevant in terms of environmental risks. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:601-613. © 2021 SETAC.

Biological effect and chemical monitoring of Watch List substances in European surface waters: Steroidal estrogens and diclofenac - Effect-based methods for monitoring frameworks

Three steroidal estrogens, 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), 17β-estradiol (E2), estrone (E1), and the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), diclofenac have been included in the first Watch List of the Water Framework Directive (WFD, EU Directive 2000/60/EC, EU Implementing Decision 2015/495). This triggered the need for more EU-wide surface water monitoring data on these micropollutants, before they can be considered for inclusion in the list of priority substances regularly monitored in aquatic ecosystems. The revision of the priority substance list of the WFD offers the opportunity to incorporate more holistic bioanalytical approaches, such as effect-based monitoring, alongside single substance chemical monitoring. Effect-based methods (EBMs) are able to measure total biological activities (e.g., estrogenic activity or cyxlooxygenase [COX]-inhibition) of specific group of substances (such as estrogens and NSAIDs) in the aquatic environment at low concentrations (pg/L). This makes them potential tools for a cost-effective and ecotoxicologically comprehensive water quality assessment. In parallel, the use of such methods could build a bridge from chemical status assessments towards ecological status assessments by adressing mixture effects for relevant modes of action. Our study aimed to assess the suitability of implementing EBMs in the WFD, by conducting a large-scale sampling and analysis campaign of more than 70 surface waters across Europe. This resulted in the generation of high-quality chemical and effect-based monitoring data for the selected Watch List substances. Overall, water samples contained low estrogenicity (0.01-1.3 ng E2-Equivalent/L) and a range of COX-inhibition activity similar to previously reported levels (12-1600 ng Diclofenac-Equivalent/L). Comparison between effect-based and conventional analytical chemical methods showed that the chemical analytical approach for steroidal estrogens resulted in more (76%) non-quantifiable data, i.e., concentrations were below detection limits, compared to the EBMs (28%). These results demonstrate the excellent and sensitive screening capability of EBMs.

Microplastic analysis in drinking water based on fractionated filtration sampling and Raman microspectroscopy

Microplastics (MP) as emerging persistent pollutants were found in raw and drinking water worldwide. Since different methods were used, there is an urgent need for harmonized protocols for sampling, sample preparation, and analysis. In this study, a holistic and validated analytical workflow for MP analysis in aqueous matrices down to 5 μm is presented. For sampling of several cubic meters of water, an easily portable filter cascade unit with different pore sizes (100-20-5 μm) was developed and successfully applied for the sampling of three processed drinking waters, two tap waters and one groundwater. The size distribution and polymer types of MP were determined using a two-step semi-automated Raman microspectroscopy analysis. For quality control, comprehensive process blanks were considered at all times and a recovery test yielded an overall recovery of 81%. The average concentration of identified MP was 66 ± 76 MP/m³ ranging from 1 MP/m³ to 197 MP/m³. All found concentrations were below the limit of quantitation (LOQ) of 1880 MP/m³. The majority consisted of PE (86% ± 111%) while comparatively low numbers of PET (10% ± 25%), PP (3% ± 6%), and PA (1% ± 4%) were found. 79% of all particles were smaller than 20 μm. In summary, this study presents the application of a workflow for sampling and analysis of MP down to 5 μm with first results of no significant contamination in drinking water and groundwater.

Can determination of extractable organofluorine (EOF) be standardized? First interlaboratory comparisons of EOF and fluorine mass balance in sludge and water matrices

The high proportion of unidentified extractable organofluorine (EOF) observed globally in humans and the environment indicates widespread occurrence of unknown per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). However, efforts to standardize or assess the reproducibility of EOF methods are currently lacking. Here we present the first EOF interlaboratory comparison in water and sludge. Three participants (four organizations) analyzed unfortified and PFAS-fortified ultrapure water, two unfortified groundwater samples, unfortified wastewater treatment plant effluent and sludge, and an unfortified groundwater extract. Participants adopted common sample handling strategies and target lists for EOF mass balance but used in-house combustion ion-chromatography (CIC) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methods. EOF accuracy ranged from 85-101% and 76-109% for the 60 and 334 ng L^-1 fluorine (F) - fortified water samples, respectively, with between-laboratory variation of 9-19%, and within-laboratory variation of 3-27%. In unfortified sludge and aqueous samples, between-laboratory variation ranged from 21-37%. The contribution from sum concentrations of 16 individual PFAS (∑PFAS-16) to EOF ranged from 2.2-60% but extended analysis showed that other targets were prevalent, in particular ultra-short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids (e.g. trifluoroacetic acid) in aqueous samples and perfluoroalkyl acid-precursors (e.g. polyfluoroalkyl phosphate diesters) in sludge. The EOF-CIC method demonstrated promising accuracy, robustness and reporting limits but poor extraction efficiency was observed for some targets (e.g. trifluoroacetic acid).

Extending the knowledge about PFAS bioaccumulation factors for agricultural plants - A review

A main source of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) residues in agricultural plants is their uptake from contaminated soil. Bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) can be an important tool to derive recommendations for cultivation or handling of crops prior consumption. This review compiles >4500 soil-to-plant BAFs for 45 PFASs from 24 studies involving 27 genera of agricultural crops. Grasses (Poaceae) provided most BAFs with the highest number of values for perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid. Influencing factors on PFAS transfer like compound-specific properties (hydrophobicity, chain length, functional group, etc.), plant species, compartments, and other boundary conditions are critically discussed. Throughout the literature, BAFs were higher for vegetative plant compartments than for reproductive and storage organs. Decreasing BAFs per additional perfluorinated carbon were clearly apparent for aboveground parts (up to 1.16 in grains) but not always for roots (partly down to zero). Combining all BAFs per single perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acid (C4-C14) and sulfonic acid (C4-C10), median log BAFs decreased by -0.25(±0.029) and -0.24(±0.013) per fluorinated carbon, respectively. For the first time, the plant uptake of ultra-short-chain (≤ C3) perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) was reviewed and showed a ubiquitous occurrence of trifluoroacetic acid in plants independent from the presence of other PFAAs. Based on identified knowledge gaps, it is suggested to focus on the uptake of precursors to PFAAs, PFAAs ≤C3, and additional emerging PFASs such as GenX or fluorinated ethers in future research. Studies regarding the uptake of PFASs by sugar cane, which accounts for about one fifth of the global crop production, are completely lacking and are also recommended. Furthermore, aqueous soil leachates should be tested as an alternative to the solvent extraction of soils as a base for BAF calculations.

Air-drying of soil samples - A crucial step in the determination of leachable concentrations of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances

Batch leaching tests at a liquid to solid ratio of 2 L/kg are a valuable tool for the assessment of low PFAS levels in soils. Data from different monitoring programs comprising samples without known local source of PFAS contamination showed that soil-sample drying at ambient temperature or at 40 °C prior to the leaching process leads to higher PFAS leachate levels compared to non-dried samples. The effect was greater for perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) than for perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSAs). In a controlled field study comparing field-fresh (frozen to -18 °C and thawed) samples with air-dried (room temperature) samples median levels after drying increased to 140%-470% for C4 to C10 PFCAs and to 130%-200% for C4, C6, and C8 PFSAs, respectively. Thus, using field-fresh samples for batch leaching tests might underestimate the leachable fraction of PFAA in the field, where drying and leaching periods alternate.

Ultrashort-chain perfluoroalkyl substance trifluoroacetate (TFA) in beer and tea - An unintended aqueous extraction

Trifluoroacetate (TFA) is an ultrashort-chain perfluoroalkyl substance, which is ubiquitously present in the aqueous environment. Due to its high mobility, it accumulates in plant material. The study presented here shows for the first time that TFA is a widely spread contaminant in beer and tea / herbal infusions. In 104beer samples from 23countries, TFA was detected up to 51 µg/L with a median concentration of 6.1 µg/L. An indicative brewing test and a correlation approach with potassium (K) indicate that the main source of TFA in beer is most likely the applied malt. It could be proven that the impact of the applied water is negligible in terms of TFA, which was supported by the analysis of numerous tap water samples from different countries. The unintended extraction of TFA was also demonstrated for tea / herbal infusions with a median concentration of 2.4 µg/L.

Trifluoroacetate in Precipitation: Deriving a Benchmark Data Set

Although precipitation is considered to be the most important diffuse source of trifluoroacetate (TFA) to the nonmarine environment, information regarding the wet deposition of TFA as well as general data on the spatial and temporal variations in TFA concentration in precipitation is scarce. This is the first study to provide a comprehensive overview of the occurrence of TFA in precipitation by a systematic and nation-wide field monitoring campaign. In total, 1187 precipitation samples, which were collected over the course of 12 consecutive months at eight locations across Germany, were analyzed. The median, the estimated average, and the precipitation-weighted average TFA concentration of all analyzed wet deposition samples were 0.210, 0.703, and 0.335 μg/L, respectively. For Germany, an annual wet deposition flux of 190 μg/m² or approximately 68 t was calculated for the sampling period from February 2018 to January 2019. The campaign revealed a pronounced seasonality of the TFA concentration and wet deposition flux of collected samples. Correlation analysis suggested an enhanced transformation of TFA precursors in the troposphere in the summertime due to higher concentrations of photochemically generated oxidants such as hydroxyl radicals, ultimately leading to an enhanced atmospheric deposition of TFA during summer.

Under the radar - Exceptionally high environmental concentrations of the high production volume chemical sulfamic acid in the urban water cycle

Elevated concentrations of sulfamate, the anion of sulfamic acid, were found in surface waters and finished drinking water in Germany with concentrations up to 580 μg/L and 140 μg/L, respectively. Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent was identified as the dominant source of sulfamate in the urban water cycle, as sulfamate concentrations correlated positively (0.77 > r < 0.99) with concentrations of the wastewater tracer carbamazepine in samples from different waterbodies. Ozonation and activated sludge experiments proved that sulfamate can be formed from chemical and biological degradation of various precursors. Molar sulfamate yields were highly compound-specific and ranged from 2% to 56%. However, the transformation of precursors to sulfamate in WWTPs and wastewater-impacted waterbodies was found to be quantitatively irrelevant, since concentrations of sulfamate in these compartments are already high, presumably due to its primary use as an acidic cleaning agent. Sulfamate concentrations in the influent and effluent of studied WWTPs ranged from 520 μg/L to 1900 μg/L and from 490 μg/L to 1600 μg/L, respectively. Laboratory batch experiments were performed to assess the recalcitrance of sulfamate for chemical oxidation. In combination with the results from sampling conducted at full-scale waterworks, it was shown that common drinking water treatment techniques, including ozonation and filtration with activated carbon, are not capable to remove sulfamate. The results of biodegradation tests and from the analysis of samples taken at four bank filtration sites indicate that sulfamate is attenuated in the sediment/water interface of aquatic systems and during aquifer passage under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Sulfamate concentrations decreased by between 62% and 99% during aquifer passage at the bank filtration sites. Considering the few data on short term ecotoxicity, about 30% of the presented sulfamate levels in ground and surface water samples did exceed the predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) of sulfamate, and thus effects of sulfamate on the aquatic ecosystem of wastewater-impacted waterbodies in Germany cannot be excluded so far. Toxicological estimations suggest that no risk to human health is expected by concentrations of sulfamate typically encountered in tap water.

Closing the gap - inclusion of ultrashort-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids in the total oxidizable precursor (TOP) assay protocol

An improved protocol of the total oxidizable precursor (TOP) assay was developed for precursors to C₂-C₁₄ perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) and C₄-C₈ and C₁₀ perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSAs). The proposed protocol was tested and validated for contaminated soil samples. The perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) present in the soil extract solutions after oxidation with persulfate were separated from the inorganic salts by vacuum-assisted drying of the digestion solution followed by solid-liquid extraction of the PFAAs with acetonitrile from the dry residue. Ion chromatography (for C₂-C₄ PFCAs) and reversed phase liquid chromatography (for all other PFASs), both coupled to tandem mass spectrometry, were used for quantification. High procedural recoveries of PFAAs between 68% and 123% with RSDs between 0.2% and 25% (n = 3) were achieved. The method was validated using selected polyfluoroalkyl phosphoric acid esters (PAPs) and bis-[2-(N-ethyl perfluorooctane-1-sulfonamido)ethyl] phosphoric acid ester (diSAmPAP) as model precursors in pure solutions and in the presence of soil matrix. The oxidation led to characteristic and reproducible PFCA patterns (in the case of PAPs) or PFOA (in the case of diSAmPAP) with total reaction yields between 92 ± 4% and 123 ± 13% (n = 3). The impact of the soil matrix on transformation yields was negligible. In a soil core from a PFAS-polluted agricultural site, precursors were concentrated in the upper 40 cm with long-chain precursors being prevalent. After oxidative digestion, the total molar PFAA-concentrations increased by factors of 1.6 to 5.0. More than 40 cm below ground precursors of TFAA, PFPrA and PFBA accounted for ∼50% of the reaction products, underlining the importance of their inclusion in mass balances based on the TOP assay.

Uptake and Effects of the Beta-Adrenergic Agonist Salbutamol in Fish: Supporting Evidence for the Fish Plasma Model

The fish plasma model (FPM) predicts the fish blood plasma concentration of a pharmaceutical from the water concentration to which the fish is exposed and compares it with the human therapeutic plasma concentration (H_ther PC) with the postulate that no adverse toxic effects occur below the H_ther PC. The present study provides several lines of evidence supporting the FPM for the beta-adrenergic agonist salbutamol, a small cationic molecule at ambient pH. Salbutamol exhibited very low acute toxicity to early and adult life stages of fish. Biomass reduction in fish early life stages was the most sensitive apical endpoint, with no-observed-effect concentrations (NOECs) in the low mg/L range after continuous exposure for up to 120 d. Given that predicted and measured environmental concentrations are at least 1000-fold lower, the risk of salbutamol in freshwater is deemed very low. Increase in heart beat rate and decrease in total triglyceride content in fish also occurred at the low mg/L range and resembled effects known from humans. This finding supports the FPM assumption of conserved targets in fish with similar functionality. Plasma concentrations measured in adult and juvenile fish exposed to water concentrations at approximately the NOECs exceeded H_ther PC and even approached plasma concentrations toxic to humans. This result confirms for salbutamol the FPM hypothesis that no adverse (i.e., population-relevant) toxic effects occur in fish below the H_ther PC. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:2509-2519. © 2019 SETAC.

Occurrence and potential environmental risk of surfactants and their transformation products discharged by wastewater treatment plants

Seven-day composite effluent samples from a German monitoring campaign including 33 conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) were analyzed for linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (LAS) and alkyl ethoxysulfates (AES) and were screened by wide-scope suspect screening for 1564 surfactants and their transformation products (TPs) by UHPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS. Corresponding seven-day composite influent samples of selected WWTPs showed high influent concentrations as well as very high removal rates for LAS and AES. However, average total LAS and AES effluent concentrations were still 14.4 μg/L and 0.57 μg/L, respectively. The LAS-byproducts di-alkyl tetralin sulfonates (DATSs), the TPs sulfophenyl alkyl carboxylic acids (SPACs) and sulfo-tetralin alkyl carboxylic acids (STACs) reached maximum effluent concentrations of 19 μg/L, 17 μg/L and 5.3 μg/L, respectively. In many cases the sum of the concentration of all LAS-related byproducts and TPs surpassed the concentration of the precursors. High concentrations of up to 7.4 μg/L were found for 41 polyethylenoglycol homologs. Quantified surfactants and their TPs and by-products together accounted for concentrations up to 82 μg/L in WWTP effluents. To determine the risk of individual surfactants and their mixtures, single homologs were grouped by a "weighted carbon number approach" to derive normalized Predicted No-Effect Concentrations (PNEC), based on experimental ecotoxicity data from existing risk assessments, complemented by suitable Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships (QSAR) predictions. Predicted Environmental Concentrations (PEC) were derived by dividing effluent concentrations of surfactants by local dilution factors. Risks for all analyzed surfactants were below the commonly accepted PEC/PNEC ratio of 1 for single compounds, while contributions to mixture toxicity effects from background levels of LAS and DATS cannot be excluded. Maximum LAS concentrations exceeded half of its PNEC, which may trigger country-wide screening to investigate potential environmental risks.

Approach for analytical characterization and toxicological assessment of ozonation products in drinking water on the example of acesulfame

The monitoring and control of drinking water quality is generally important as it significantly contributes to the health of the population. In this context, particular attention has to be paid to the use of treatment techniques during drinking water treatment. It is known that the formation of reaction products (transformation products) has to be taken into account when oxidizing agents such as ozone are used. Different transformation products are classified as critical to health and require analytical examination. The risk assessment for previously unknown transformation products can be difficult as far as not all transformation products are present as single substances or the individual substances are not present in a sufficient high concentration or cannot be isolated from the original solution. The aim of this work is to show exemplarily the identification and quantification of ozonation products (OPs) after ozonation and their toxicological characterization, using the artificial sweetener acesulfame. It was shown that OPs can be fully characterized using ion chromatography in combination with different detection systems. A major OP could be recovered as a pure substance by crystallization and direct genotoxicological testing was possible without previous enrichment processes. Acesulfame samples of different concentrations in ultrapure and in drinking water after ozonation were tested in several genotoxicity tests. These tests revealed genotoxic effects of acesulfame after ozonation in ultrapure water in several genotoxicological test systems (micronucleus test, umu test, Ames-fluctuation-test and comet assay). In contrast, the crystallized ozonation product OP168 did not show any positive effects. Therefore, it seems likely that the observed effect was caused by the second major product OP170. However, a sufficiently large amount of analytically pure substance OP170 could not be obtained. It was also shown that the rate of the OP170 formation in drinking water is significantly lower than in ultrapure water and that ozonation in drinking water did not induce genotoxic effects.

Analysis of endocrine activity in drinking water, surface water and treated wastewater from six countries

The aquatic environment can contain numerous micropollutants and there are concerns about endocrine activity in environmental waters and the potential impacts on human and ecosystem health. In this study a complementary chemical analysis and in vitro bioassay approach was applied to evaluate endocrine activity in treated wastewater, surface water and drinking water samples from six countries (Germany, Australia, France, South Africa, the Netherlands and Spain). The bioassay test battery included assays indicative of seven endocrine pathways, while 58 different chemicals, including pesticides, pharmaceuticals and industrial compounds, were analysed by targeted chemical analysis. Endocrine activity was below the limit of quantification for most water samples, with only two of six treated wastewater samples and two of six surface water samples exhibiting estrogenic, glucocorticoid, progestagenic and/or anti-mineralocorticoid activity above the limit of quantification. Based on available effect-based trigger values (EBT) for estrogenic and glucocorticoid activity, some of the wastewater and surface water samples were found to exceed the EBT, suggesting these environmental waters may pose a potential risk to ecosystem health. In contrast, the lack of bioassay activity and low detected chemical concentrations in the drinking water samples do not suggest a risk to human endocrine health, with all samples below the relevant EBTs.

Comparison of in vitro and in vivo bioassays to measure thyroid hormone disrupting activity in water extracts

Environmental chemicals can induce thyroid disruption through a number of mechanisms including altered thyroid hormone biosynthesis and transport, as well as activation and inhibition of the thyroid receptor. In the current study six in vitro bioassays indicative of different mechanisms of thyroid disruption and one whole animal in vivo assay were applied to 9 model compounds and 4 different water samples (treated wastewater, surface water, drinking water and ultra-pure lab water; both unspiked and spiked with model compounds) to determine their ability to detect thyroid active compounds. Most assays correctly identified and quantified the model compounds as agonists or antagonists, with the reporter gene assays being the most sensitive. However, the reporter gene assays did not detect significant thyroid activity in any of the water samples, suggesting that activation or inhibition of the thyroid hormone receptor is not a relevant mode of action for thyroid endocrine disruptors in water. The thyroperoxidase (TPO) inhibition assay and transthyretin (TTR) displacement assay (FITC) detected activity in the surface water and treated wastewater samples, but more work is required to assess if this activity is a true measure of thyroid activity or matrix interference. The whole animal Xenopus Embryonic Thyroid Assay (XETA) detected some activity in the unspiked surface water and treated wastewater extracts, but not in unspiked drinking water, and appears to be a suitable assay to detect thyroid activity in environmental waters.

Impact of the NSAID diclofenac on survival, development, behaviour and health of embryonic and juvenile stages of brown trout, Salmo trutta f. fario

The NSAID diclofenac is controversially discussed with respect to its environmental relevance. Since further information is need to assess whether diclofenac should be included as substance of priority in the EU water framework directive, we investigated the impact of this analgesic on the embryonic development of brown trout (Salmo trutta f. fario) from fertilized egg until the end of sac-fry stage and studied effects in juvenile fish six months post hatch. Embryos were exposed to five test concentrations (0.1, 0.5, 1, 10, 100μg/L) over 127days at 7°C. None of the treatments affected mortality, hatching, development or heart rate. Six months old juveniles exposed to five concentrations (0.1, 1, 10, 100, 200μg/L) over 25days at 7°C, however, showed increased mortality, reaching significance at 100μg/L. Furthermore, a significantly higher proportion of juvenile animals bore injuries at concentrations higher 10μg/L. Neither the levels of the stress protein Hsp70, nor the amount of lipid peroxides was affected by any of the treatments. Histological analyses of gill, liver and kidney revealed visible tissue reactions in fish from all experimental groups. Histological responses in livers of diclofenac-exposed fish outstripped the status of laboratory control fish, particularly when exposed to the two highest concentrations. Chemical analyses of fish muscle tissue revealed concentration-dependent uptake of DCF into the animal, but no relevant bioconcentration. Our study supports earlier findings indicating a lower sensitivity of trout early life stages compared to older individuals, suggesting that studies for risk assessment of diclofenac should predominantly focus on later life stages. Furthermore, fish mortality was found to increase with rising diclofenac concentrations, and the lowest observed effect concentration of 10μg/L on the organismic level emphasises the classification of diclofenac as a micropollutant that requires close attention.

Small, mobile, persistent: Trifluoroacetate in the water cycle - Overlooked sources, pathways, and consequences for drinking water supply

Elevated concentrations of trifluoroacetate (TFA) of more than 100 μg/L in a major German river led to the occurrence of more than 20 μg/L TFA in bank filtration based tap waters. Several spatially resolved monitoring programs were conducted and discharges from an industrial company were identified as the point source of TFA contamination. Treatment options for TFA removal were investigated at full-scale waterworks and in laboratory batch tests. Commonly applied techniques like ozonation or granulated activated carbon filtration are inappropriate for TFA removal, whereas TFA was partly removed by ion exchange and completely retained by reverse osmosis. Further investigations identified wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) as additional TFA dischargers into the aquatic environment. TFA was neither removed by biological wastewater treatment, nor by a retention soil filter used for the treatment of combined sewer overflows. WWTP influents can even bear a TFA formation potential, when appropriate CF₃-containing precursors are present. Biological degradation and ozonation batch experiments with chemicals of different classes (flurtamone, fluopyram, tembotrione, flufenacet, fluoxetine, sitagliptine and 4:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate) proved that there are yet overlooked sources and pathways of TFA, which need to be addressed in the future.

Does wastewater treatment plant upgrading with activated carbon result in an improvement of fish health?

In the present study, the efficiency of a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) upgraded with a powdered activated carbon unit for the reduction of micropollutants and the related advantages for fish health have been analyzed by means of different biomarkers, i.e. histopathological investigations, analyses of glycogen content and stress proteins, as well as by chemical analyses in different matrices. Comparative analyses were conducted prior and subsequent to the installation of the additional purification unit. Chemical analyses revealed a significant reduction of several pharmaceuticals, including diclofenac, carbamazepine and metoprolol, in samples of effluent and surface water downstream of the WWTP after its upgrade. In addition, diminished concentrations of diclofenac and PFOS were detected in tissues of analyzed fish. Histopathological investigations of fish liver, gills, and kidney revealed improved tissue integrity in fish after improved wastewater treatment. In parallel, biochemical measurements of glycogen revealed increased energy resources in fish liver and, furthermore, hsp70 levels in livers of exposed rainbow trout and in kidneys of exposed brown trout were lower after than before the WWTP upgrade. In summary, additional treatment with powdered activated carbon led to a reduction of potentially hazardous chemicals in the effluent and the adjacent river and, consequently, to an improvement of fish health in the receiving water course.

Two novel real time cell-based assays quantify beta-blocker and NSAID specific effects in effluents of municipal wastewater treatment plants

Pharmaceuticals, such as beta-blockers, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) as well as their metabolites are introduced into the water cycle via municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents in all industrialized countries. As the amino acid sequences of the biological target molecules of these pharmaceuticals - the beta-1 adrenergic receptor for beta-blockers and the cyclooxygenase for NSAIDs - are phylogenetically conserved among vertebrates it is reasonable that wildlife vertebrates including fish physiologically respond in a similar way to them as documented in humans. Consequently, beta-blockers and NSAIDs both exhibit their effects according to their mode of action on one hand, but on the other hand that may lead to unwanted side effects in non-target species. To determine whether residuals of beta-1 adrenergic receptor antagonists and cyclooxygenase inhibitors may pose a risk to aquatic organisms, one has to know the extent to which such organisms respond to the total of active compounds, their metabolites and transformation products with the same modes of action. To cope with this demand, two cell-based assays were developed, by which the total beta-blocker and cyclooxygenase inhibitory activity can be assessed in a given wastewater or surface water extract in real time. The measured activity is quantified as metoprolol equivalents (MetEQ) of the lead substance metoprolol in the beta-blocker assay, and diclofenac equivalents (DicEQ) in the NSAID assay. Even though MetEQs and DicEQs were found to surpass the concentration of the respective lead substances (metoprolol, diclofenac), as determined by chemical analysis by a factor of two to three, this difference was shown to be reasonably explained by the presence and action of additional active compounds with the same mode of action in the test samples. Thus, both in vitro assays were proven to integrate effectively over beta-blocker and NSAID activities in WWTP effluents in a very sensitive and extremely rapid manner.

Biodegradation of the artificial sweetener acesulfame in biological wastewater treatment and sandfilters

A considerable removal of the artificial sweetener acesulfame (ACE) was observed during activated sludge processes at 13 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) as well as in a full-scale sand filter of a water works. A long-term sampling campaign over a period of almost two years revealed that ACE removal in WWTPs can be highly variable over time. Nitrifying/denitrifying sequencing batch reactors (SBR) as well as aerobic batch experiments with activated sludge and filter sand from a water works confirmed that both activated sludge as well as filter sand can efficiently remove ACE and that the removal can be attributed to biologically mediated degradation processes. The lab results strongly indicated that varying ACE removal in WWTPs is not associated with nitrification processes. Neither an enhancement of the nitrification rate nor the availability of ammonium or the inhibition of ammonium monooxygenase by N-allylthiourea (ATU) affected the degradation. Moreover, ACE was found to be also degradable by activated sludge under denitrifying conditions, while being persistent in the absence of both dissolved oxygen and nitrate. Using ion chromatography coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry, sulfamic acid (SA) was identified as the predominant transformation product (TP). Quantitative analysis of ACE and SA revealed a closed mass balance during the entire test period and confirmed that ACE was quantitatively transformed to SA. Measurements of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) revealed an almost complete removal of the carbon originating from ACE, thereby further confirming that SA is the only relevant final TP in the assumed degradation pathway of ACE. A first analysis of SA in three municipal WWTP revealed similar concentrations in influents and effluents with maximum concentrations of up to 2.3 mg/L. The high concentrations of SA in wastewater are in accordance with the extensive use of SA in acid cleaners, while the degradation of ACE in WWTPs adds only a very small portion of the total load of SA discharged into surface waters. No removal of SA was observed by the biological treatment applied at these WWTPs. Moreover, SA was also stable in the aerobic batch experiments conducted with the filter sand from a water works. Hence, SA might be a more appropriate wastewater tracer than ACE due to its chemical and microbiological persistence, the negligible sorbing affinity (high negative charge density) and its elevated concentrations in WWTP effluents.

Health effects of metoprolol in epibenthic and endobenthic invertebrates-A basis to validate future in vitro biotests for effect-based biomonitoring

The aim of this study was to determine the effect data for metoprolol as a model substance for beta-blockers in aquatic invertebrates. The results will be used as a basis for the validation of future mode of action-based in vitro test systems targeting this class of pharmaceuticals. Effects of metoprolol were investigated in two autochthonous species with high relevance in stream ecology: the amphipod Gammarus fossarum and the oligochaete Lumbriculus variegatus. Mortality in G. fossarum was not observed in acute toxicity testing (48 h), and a significant increase of mortality at 45 mg/L was found when amphipods were exposed chronically (40 days). The most sensitive population-relevant endpoints were the juvenile-adult ratio and number of egg-bearing females with NOEC/LOEC-values of 5/15 mg/L. No proteotoxic effects were identified in G. fossarum. The sediment toxicity test with L. variegatus according to the OECD Guideline 225 with an exposure time of 28 days resulted in EC₁₀-values of 92.5 and 126.1 mg/kg_dw for the endpoints reproduction and biomass, respectively. In L. variegatus the response kinetics of Hsp70 showed no significant difference between the treatments. A tendency for rising lipid peroxide concentrations was found between 0.03 and 10 mg/kg_dw, which were significant between the treatments, but not to the control.

Analysis of the sensitivity of in vitro bioassays for androgenic, progestagenic, glucocorticoid, thyroid and estrogenic activity: Suitability for drinking and environmental waters

The presence of endocrine disrupting chemicals in the aquatic environment poses a risk for ecosystem health. Consequently there is a need for sensitive tools, such as in vitro bioassays, to monitor endocrine activity in environmental waters. The aim of the current study was to assess whether current in vitro bioassays are suitable to detect endocrine activity in a range of water types. The reviewed assays included androgenic (n=11), progestagenic (n=6), glucocorticoid (n=5), thyroid (n=5) and estrogenic (n=8) activity in both agonist and antagonist mode. Existing in vitro bioassay data were re-evaluated to determine assay sensitivity, with the calculated method detection limit compared with measured hormonal activity in treated wastewater, surface water and drinking water to quantify whether the studied assays were sufficiently sensitive for environmental samples. With typical sample enrichment, current in vitro bioassays are sufficiently sensitive to detect androgenic activity in treated wastewater and surface water, with anti-androgenic activity able to be detected in most environmental waters. Similarly, with sufficient enrichment, the studied mammalian assays are able to detect estrogenic activity even in drinking water samples. Fewer studies have focused on progestagenic and glucocorticoid activity, but some of the reviewed bioassays are suitable for detecting activity in treated wastewater and surface water. Even less is known about (anti)thyroid activity, but the available data suggests that the more sensitive reviewed bioassays are still unlikely to detect this type of activity in environmental waters. The findings of this review can help provide guidance on in vitro bioassay selection and required sample enrichment for optimised detection of endocrine activity in environmental waters.

Reduction of dioxin-like toxicity in effluents by additional wastewater treatment and related effects in fish

Efficiency of advanced wastewater treatment technologies to reduce micropollutants which mediate dioxin-like toxicity was investigated. Technologies compared included ozonation, powdered activated carbon and granular activated carbon. In addition to chemical analyses in samples of effluents, surface waters, sediments, and fish, (1) dioxin-like potentials were measured in paired samples of effluents, surface waters, and sediments by use of an in vitro biotest (reporter gene assay) and (2) dioxin-like effects were investigated in exposed fish by use of in vivo activity of the mixed-function, monooxygenase enzyme, ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) in liver. All advanced technologies studied, based on degradation or adsorption, significantly reduced dioxin-like potentials in samples and resulted in lesser EROD activity in livers of fish. Results of in vitro and in vivo biological responses were not clearly related to quantification of targeted analytes by use of instrumental analyses.

Occurrence and fate of nitrification and urease inhibitors in the aquatic environment

Nitrification and urease inhibitors (NUIs) decelerate the bacterial oxidation of nitrogen species by suppressing the activity of soil microorganisms. Thus, nitrogen losses can be limited and the efficiency of nitrogen fertilizers can be increased. After application NUI transfers to surface water may occur through leaching or surface run-off. In order to assess the occurrence of nitrification and urease inhibitors in the aquatic environment a multi-analyte high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method was developed. 1H-1,2,4-Triazole and dicyandiamide (DCD) were detected for the first time in German surface waters. Only at a few sites 1H-1,2,4-triazole has been episodically detected with concentrations up to the μg L(-1)-range. DCD was ubiquitously present in German surface waters. An industrial site was identified as the point source of DCD being responsible for exceptionally high DCD concentrations of up to 7.2 mg L(-1) in close proximity to the point of discharge. Both compounds were also detected in at least one wastewater treatment plant effluent, but their concentrations in surface waters did not correlate with those of typical markers for domestic wastewater. Other NUIs were not detected in any of the samples. Laboratory-scale batch tests proved that 1H-1,2,4-triazole and DCD are not readily biodegradable, are not prone to hydrolysis and do not tend to adsorb onto soil particles. Ozonation and activated carbon filtration proved to be ineffective for their removal.

Fish embryo tests with Danio rerio as a tool to evaluate surface water and sediment quality in rivers influenced by wastewater treatment plants using different treatment technologies

In order to evaluate surface water and the sediment quality of rivers connected to wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) with different treatment technologies, fish embryo tests (FET) with Danio rerio were conducted using native water and sediment samples collected upstream and downstream of four WWTPs in Southern Germany. Two of these WWTPs are connected to the Schussen River, a tributary of Lake Constance, and use a sand filter with final water purification by flocculation. The two others are located on the rivers Schmiecha and Eyach in the area of the Swabian Alb and were equipped with a powdered activated carbon stage 20 years ago, which was originally aimed at reducing the release of stains from the textile industry. Several endpoints of embryo toxicity including mortality, malformations, reduced hatching rate, and heart rate were investigated at defined time points of embryonic development. Higher embryotoxic potentials were found in water and sediments collected downstream of the WWTPs equipped with sand filtration than in the sample obtained downstream of both WWTPs upgraded with a powdered activated carbon stage.

Emerging nitrogenous disinfection byproducts: Transformation of the antidiabetic drug metformin during chlorine disinfection of water

As an environmental contaminant of anthropogenic origin metformin is present in the high ng/L- up to the low μg/L-range in most surface waters. Residues of metformin may lead to the formation of disinfection by-products during chlorine disinfection, when these waters are used for drinking water production. Investigations on the underlying chemical processes occurring during treatment of metformin with sodium hypochlorite in aqueous medium led to the discovery of two hitherto unknown transformation products. Both substances were isolated and characterized by HPLC-DAD, GC-MS, HPLC-ESI-TOF, (1)H-NMR and single-crystal X-ray structure determination. The immediate major chlorination product is a cyclic dehydro-1,2,4-triazole-derivate of intense yellow color (Y; C4H6ClN5). It is a solid chlorimine of limited stability. Rapid formation was observed between 10 °C and 30 °C, as well as between pH 3 and pH 11, in both ultrapure and tap water, even at trace quantities of reactants (ng/L-range for metformin, mg/L-range for free chlorine). While Y is degraded within a few hours to days in the presence of light, elevated temperature, organic solvents and matrix constituents within tap water, a secondary degradation product was discovered, which is stable and colorless (C; C4H6ClN3). This chloroorganic nitrile has a low photolysis rate in ambient day light, while being resistant to heat and not readily degraded in the presence of organic solvents or in the tap water matrix. In addition, the formation of ammonia, dimethylamine and N,N-dimethylguanidine was verified by cation exchange chromatography.

Selection of organic process and source indicator substances for the anthropogenically influenced water cycle

An increasing number of organic micropollutants (OMP) is detected in anthropogenically influenced water cycles. Source control and effective natural and technical barriers are essential to maintain a high quality of drinking water resources under these circumstances. Based on the literature and our own research this study proposes a limited number of OMP that can serve as indicator substances for the major sources of OMP, such as wastewater treatment plants, agriculture and surface runoff. Furthermore functional indicators are proposed that allow assessment of the proper function of natural and technical barriers in the aquatic environment, namely conventional municipal wastewater treatment, advanced treatment (ozonation, activated carbon), bank filtration and soil aquifer treatment as well as self-purification in surface water. These indicator substances include the artificial sweetener acesulfame, the anti-inflammatory drug ibuprofen, the anticonvulsant carbamazepine, the corrosion inhibitor benzotriazole and the herbicide mecoprop among others. The chemical indicator substances are intended to support comparisons between watersheds and technical and natural processes independent of specific water cycles and to reduce efforts and costs of chemical analyses without losing essential information.

Biological plausibility as a tool to associate analytical data for micropollutants and effect potentials in wastewater, surface water, and sediments with effects in fishes

Discharge of substances like pesticides, pharmaceuticals, flame retardants, and chelating agents in surface waters has increased over the last decades due to the rising numbers of chemicals used by humans and because many WWTPs do not eliminate these substances entirely. The study, results of which are presented here, focused on associations of (1) concentrations of micropollutants in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents, surface waters, sediments, and tissues of fishes; (2) results of laboratory biotests indicating potentials for effects in these samples and (3) effects either in feral chub (Leuciscus cephalus) from two German rivers (Schussen, Argen) or in brown trout (Salmo trutta f. fario) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) exposed in bypass systems to streamwater of these rivers or in cages directly in the rivers. The Schussen and Argen Rivers flow into Lake Constance. The Schussen River is polluted by a great number of chemicals, while the Argen River is less influenced by micropollutants. Pesticides, chelating agents, flame retardants, pharmaceuticals, heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were detected in effluents of a WWTP discharging to the Schussen as well as in surface water, and/or fishes from downstream of the WWTP. Results obtained by biotests conducted in the laboratory (genotoxicity, dioxin-like toxicity, and embryotoxicity) were linked to effects in feral fish collected in the vicinity of the WWTP or in fishes exposed in cages or at the bypass systems downstream of the WWTP. Dioxin-like effect potentials detected by reporter gene assays were associated with activation of CYP1A1 enzymes in fishes which are inducible by dioxin-like chemicals. Abundances of several PCBs in tissues of fishes from cages and bypass systems were not associated with these effects but other factors can influence EROD activity. Genotoxic potentials obtained by in vitro tests were associated with the presence of micronuclei in erythrocytes of chub from the river. Chemicals potentially responsible for effects on DNA were identified. Embryotoxic effects on zebrafish (Danio rerio), investigated in the laboratory, were associated with embryotoxic effects in trout exposed in streamwater bypass systems at the two rivers. In general, responses at all levels of organization were more pronounced in samples from the Schussen than in those from the Argen. These results are consistent with the magnitudes of chemical pollution in these two streams. Plausibility chains to establish causality between exposures and effects and to predict effects in biota in the river from studies in the laboratory are discussed.

Removal of micropollutants, facultative pathogenic and antibiotic resistant bacteria in a full-scale retention soil filter receiving combined sewer overflow

Combined sewer systems collect surface runoff as well as wastewater of industrial and domestic origin. During periods of heavy rainfall the capacity of the sewer system is exceeded and the overflow is discharged into receiving waters without any treatment. Consequently, combined sewer overflow (CSO) is considered as a major source of water pollution. This study investigates the effectiveness of a retention soil filter (RSF) for the removal of micropollutants as well as facultative pathogenic and antibiotic resistant bacteria from CSO. The removal of organic group parameters like total organic carbon was excellent and the removal efficiency for micropollutants of the RSF and the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), which treats wastewater of the same origin during dry and normal weather conditions, was comparable. Compounds of high environmental concern like estrogens or certain pharmaceuticals, e.g. diclofenac, were completely eliminated or removed to a high degree during RSF passage. RSF treatment also reduced the number of E. coli, enterococci and staphylococci by 2.7, 2.2 and 2.4 log-units (median values), respectively. Obviously, some Staphylococcus species can better adapt to the conditions of the RSF than others as a shift of the abundance of the different species was observed when comparing the diversity of staphylococci obtained from the RSF influent and effluent. RSF treatment also decreased the absolute number of antibiotic resistant bacteria. The percentage of antibiotic resistant E. coli and staphylococci isolates also decreased during passage of the RSF, whereas the percentage of resistant enterococci did not change. For E. coli ampicillin and for enterococci and staphylococci erythromycin determined the antibiotic resistance level. The results demonstrate that RSFs can be considered as an adequate treatment option for CSO. The performance for the removal of micropollutants is comparable with a medium sized WWTP with conventional activated sludge treatment. The number of facultative pathogenic and antibiotic resistant bacteria was considerably decreased during RSF passage. However, as RSF effluents still contained antibiotic resistance genes and traces of micropollutants; receiving waters may still be at risk from negative environmental impacts.

Are in vitro methods for the detection of endocrine potentials in the aquatic environment predictive for in vivo effects? Outcomes of the Projects SchussenAktiv and SchussenAktivplus in the Lake Constance Area, Germany

Many studies about endocrine pollution in the aquatic environment reveal changes in the reproduction system of biota. We analysed endocrine activities in two rivers in Southern Germany using three approaches: (1) chemical analyses, (2) in vitro bioassays, and (3) in vivo investigations in fish and snails. Chemical analyses were based on gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. For in vitro analyses of endocrine potentials in water, sediment, and waste water samples, we used the E-screen assay (human breast cancer cells MCF-7) and reporter gene assays (human cell line HeLa-9903 and MDA-kb2). In addition, we performed reproduction tests with the freshwater mudsnail Potamopyrgus antipodarum to analyse water and sediment samples. We exposed juvenile brown trout (Salmo trutta f. fario) to water downstream of a wastewater outfall (Schussen River) or to water from a reference site (Argen River) to investigate the vitellogenin production. Furthermore, two feral fish species, chub (Leuciscus cephalus) and spirlin (Alburnoides bipunctatus), were caught in both rivers to determine their gonadal maturity and the gonadosomatic index. Chemical analyses provided only little information about endocrine active substances, whereas the in vitro assays revealed endocrine potentials in most of the samples. In addition to endocrine potentials, we also observed toxic potentials (E-screen/reproduction test) in waste water samples, which could interfere with and camouflage endocrine effects. The results of our in vivo tests were mostly in line with the results of the in vitro assays and revealed a consistent reproduction-disrupting (reproduction tests) and an occasional endocrine action (vitellogenin levels) in both investigated rivers, with more pronounced effects for the Schussen river (e.g. a lower gonadosomatic index). We were able to show that biological in vitro assays for endocrine potentials in natural stream water reasonably reflect reproduction and endocrine disruption observed in snails and field-exposed fish, respectively.

Transformation of the artificial sweetener acesulfame by UV light

The transformation of the artificial sweetener acesulfame by direct photolysis was investigated at various pH values, in different water types and at various concentration levels. Main photodegradation products of acesulfame were elucidated and analyzed both in laboratory experiments and in a full-scale waterworks using UV treatment for disinfection purposes. The degradation of acesulfame was found to be independent of the pH (range 5-11) and followed pseudo first order kinetics in a concentration range between 1 μg∙L(-1) and 10 mg∙L(-1). Calculated rate constants were in the range between 5.4·10(-3)s(-1) and 7.4·10(-3)s(-1). The main photodegradation products of acesulfame were separated by ion exchange chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography and were identified as hydroxylated acesulfame and iso-acesulfame by high resolution mass spectrometry and fragmentation experiments. In the case of iso-acesulfame an intramolecular rearrangement is assumed as the transformation product has a higher polarity and different product ions after MS fragmentation compared to acesulfame. Minor transformation products were identified as amidosulfonic acid and sulfate by comparison with analytical standards. The transformation pathway was found to be transferable to drinking water production as the identified transformation products were also detected to a similar extent in fortified tap water. In a Swiss full-scale waterworks acesulfame concentrations were reduced by approximately 30% and one of the main UV transformation products could be qualitatively detected.

Abstract P4-19-04: Biobank management and tracking web-based system for a breast cancer oriented biobank v2.0: Preliminary analysis

The quality of biospecimens and associated data accuracy in a Biobank must be collected and consistent according to standardized methods in order to achieve international harmonization and coordination among biobanking networks.

Sharing successful strategies between the Baylor College of Medicine (BCM) Breast and Cancer Centers and Breast Center Buenos Aires (BCBA) was the fundamental stone for the creation of an Argentinean Breast Cancer oriented Biobank with a shared data management system. We have designed, developed and implemented a computer system to easily manage sensible associated data. This innovative system, allows the data entry in a visual, intuitive, friendly and orderly way, integrating all the information for further analysis and easy use of samples for translational research.

Objective: Develop and improve (v2.0) a bilingual web-based tool for biospecimen management, inventory, clinical and breast cancer data registration according with international standards of data security quality assurance and ISBER Best Practices for Biorepositories.

Methods: System Characteristics:

Multi-tier architecture, relying on a SQL server 2008 R2 data base. Operating System: Windows Server Series. Programmer Language .net 4.0 C#.. The system operates with Internet Explorer as flat client or similar.

Bilingual English/Spanish system, fully configurable by modules, HIPPA compliant sensible data confidentiality, with de-identification of samples through 2D bar codes.

Results : System Capabilities and Improvements v2.0:

• Security Module: Allows to manage predetermined profiles (Clinical Research Coordinator Clinical staff as Phlebotomist, Pathologist, PA, MDs, PhDs, Researchers), audit controls implemented through permits according to the profile.

• Master Tables: allows to insert/add/change data associated into master tables, providing system user independence.

• General Registration Module: Online statistics allows to see immediately the number of consented individuals, types of samples and their classification.

• Sample Management: Assigns unequivocally identification of each sample in a 2D bar code for freezer lab labels(LabExpert®). Has online statistical information on the number of samples and tubes used, for an easy supply management. Automatically assigns the location of samples per product type in the freezer. Allows to know the occupancy rate online.

• Breast Cancer Module: A comprehensive data base in an attractive visual environment of eight screens: Clinical data, Biopsy, Definitive Surgery, Systemic Treatment, Radiation Treatment, Cancer Events, follow up and Summary screen. Includes path reports and sample collection forms attached in each corresponding biopsy or surgery screen for easy view and data entry quality assurance.

Conclusion: This Biobank Management System was designed in a friendly and intuitive data entry environment by a multidisciplinary team including breast surgeons, pathologists, oncologists, statisticians, system engineers and programmers from BCM and BCBA. It could be adapted to be used in full or in separate modules by Breast Centers and Breast Cancer Oriented Biobanks.

Citation Information: Cancer Res 2013;73(24 Suppl): Abstract nr P4-19-04.

Abstract P4-19-03: Breast cancer oriented biobank and associated biobank management system: Preliminary analysis on 9043 samples from 274 individuals

Four years ago, after our Baylor College of Medicine (BCM) Breast and Cancer Centers experience, we decided to initiate a related translational research Project at the Breast Center Buenos Aires (BCBA) in Argentina. This included the development of a breast cancer-oriented Management System for clinical and lab data attached to a biorepository of tumor and normal breast tissue with matched blood specimens. We strictly followed ISBER Best Practices for Biorepositories, and shared the same protocols and strategies with BCM to facilitate international collaborative breast cancer research, being extremely aware of international standards.

Objectives: Creation of a breast cancer-oriented blood, breast tissue and tumor biobank for translational research purposes. Creation of a Biobank Management and Tracking System, with a breast cancer database for associated epidemiological, pathological, clinical, and follow-up data of each patient.

Methods: From April 2011 to June 2013 we processed blood and tissue samples from BCBA. Blood is collected at several time points during the breast cancer disease process: pre-surgical, pre-systemic treatment, and, if applicable, in the metastatic setting. Blood products are stored as whole blood, plasma, buffy coat, red blood cell pellet, serum and clot at -80°C or in GenPlates®. Fresh tissue and tumor samples were collected during surgical or core biopsy proceedings and stored fresh at -80°C in 1 ml cryovials and as FFPE (formalin-fixed paraffin embedded) tissue. Upon enrollment, participants completed an extensive epidemiological and risk factor questionnaire, which is supplemented by medical record abstraction for relevant pathological and clinical data, and re-contacted once a year for follow-up.

Preparation and adaptation processes were compliant with the Population Sciences Biorepository and Smith Breast Center Tumor Bank at BCM: 1) IRB-approved informed consent documents 2) Epidemiological and risk factor questionnaires (Core/Breast module); 3) Blood and tissue collection and processing protocols.

A web-based data management and tracking system was specifically designed for the BCBA biobank.

Results:

To date, we have collected 9043 samples, from 274 individuals, in 293 sample collections. Of 5449 frozen samples, 5054 (92.7%) are blood and 395 (7.3%) are tissue. We also collected 3264 blood samples in GenPlate® wells from 68 patients on 17 plates, and extracted DNA from them into Gentegra® tubes, all stored at room temperature.

230 FFPE breast cancer tissue biopsies from 20 surgical specimens, given by the pathologist after diagnosis, stored in cassettes at room temperature in our lab, were also included in the system starting from January 2013.

All of them have been classified by the physician into three categories: Healthy Control 15.3% (n = 42), Benign 55.1% (n = 151) and Cancer 29.6% (n = 81). We collected epidemiological, and cancer data from all of them in our system.

Conclusion: It took nearly 4 years from inception to realization for this biobank; however, the potential benefit to translation breast cancer research is large. The overall value of this biobank will depend on the number of individuals/samples accrued, the follow-up attained and data accuracy.

Citation Information: Cancer Res 2013;73(24 Suppl): Abstract nr P4-19-03.

Abstract P2-16-02: A web-based data management system for a multicenter international breast cancer oriented blood, tissue, and data biobank

The quality of biospecimens and associated data must be consistent and collected according to standardized methods in order to achieve international harmonization and coordination among biobanking networks.

Sharing successful strategies between the Baylor College of Medicine (BCM) Cancer Center and Breast Center Buenos Aires (BCBA) is the driving force for the creation of an Argentinean Breast Cancer oriented Biobank with a shared data management system.

Objective: To create a bilingual web-based tool for biospecimen management, inventory, clinical and breast cancer data registration according to international standards of data security quality assurance (ISO 27001).

Methods/System Characteristics: The system permits users to enter and retrieve data concerning the collection, storage, quality assurance and distribution of biospecimens, and provides clinical and other patient data for samples while maintaining strict patient confidentiality.

It has a multi-tier architecture, developed using Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) software design principles in .net 4.0, and uses a SQL server database backbone. The system allows multidimensional data analysis trough On Line Analytical Processes (OLAP) and operates with standard web clients, such as Internet Explorer.

User Profiles/Access Levels: Clinical staff (e.g., clinical research coordinator, phlebotomist, pathologist, PA, MD) conduct participant and consent registration and preregistration, epidemiological questionnaire data entry, barcode label generation, form printing, and clinical and pathological cancer data entry.Biospecimen resource staff (e.g., lab technicians) track and store data about biospecimen collection, inventory, tracking and distribution, generate sample barcode labels, and maintain sample allocation and freezer maps for the system.Scientists have the ability to search for biospecimens and associated data for their own translational research projects.

Breast Cancer Database: Detailed clinical, pathological, treatment and follow-up breast cancer information are captured for each patient, including TNM, biopsy and definitive surgery of primary tumor and events, systemic and radiation treatment, recurrences and metastasis, follow-up. A summary screen provides a snapshot of these data to the viewer. Pathology reports and sample collection forms are attached in each corresponding biopsy or surgery screen for easy viewing and quality assurance.

Conclusion: This Biobank Management System was designed by a multidisciplinary team to improve and streamline the workflow for each member of the biobank by: allowing preregistration capabilities before consenting individuals or collecting samples, automatic generation of clinical and sample ID labels, and real-time statistics with certified secure sensible information confidentiality. This system's value is its wide range of uses, from the day-to-day management of a multicenter biobank to the storage of detailed clinical cancer-related data in a user-friendly and intuitive data entry environment.

Citation Information: Cancer Res 2012;72(24 Suppl):Abstract nr P2-16-02.

Occurrence and fate of the antidiabetic drug metformin and its metabolite guanylurea in the environment and during drinking water treatment

Metformin, an antidiabetic drug with one of the highest consumption rates of all pharmaceuticals worldwide, is biologically degraded to guanylurea in wastewater treatment plants. Due to high metformin influent concentrations of up to 100 μg/L and its high but incomplete degradation both compounds are released in considerable amounts of up to several tens of μg/L into recipient rivers. This is the first systematic study on their environmental fate and the effectiveness of treatment techniques applied in waterworks to remove metformin and guanylurea from surface water influenced raw waters. The concentrations in surface waters depend strongly on the respective wastewater burden of rivers and creeks and are typically in the range of about 1 μg/L for metformin and several μg/L for guanylurea but can reach elevated average concentrations of more than 3 and 20 μg/L, respectively. Treatment techniques applied in waterworks were investigated by an extended monitoring program in three facilities and accompanied by laboratory-scale batch tests. Flocculation and activated carbon filtration proved to be ineffective for removal of metformin and guanylurea. During ozonation and chlorination experiments with waterworks-relevant ozone and chlorine doses they were partly transformed to yet unknown compounds. The effectiveness of the treatment steps under investigation can be ordered chlorination > ozonation > activated carbon filtration > flocculation. However, most effective for removal of both compounds at the three full-scale waterworks studied proved to be an underground passage (riverbank filtration or artificial groundwater recharge). A biological degradation is most likely as sorption can be neglected. This is based on laboratory batch tests conducted with three different soil materials according to OECD guideline 106. Since such treatment steps were implemented in all three drinking water treatment plants, even traces of metformin and its metabolite guanylurea could not be detected at the end of the treatment trains. Both can only be expected in finished drinking water if surface influenced raw water is used by direct abstraction without underground passage.