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Tammela T, Zarkada G, Wallgard E, Murtomäki A, Suchting S, Wirzenius M, Waltari M, Hellström M, Schomber T, Peltonen R, Freitas C, Duarte A, Isoniemi H, Laakkonen P, Christofori G, Ylä-Herttuala S, Shibuya M, Pytowski B, Eichmann A, Betsholtz C, Alitalo K. Blocking VEGFR-3 suppresses angiogenic sprouting and vascular network formation. Nature 2008; 454:656-60. [PMID: 18594512 DOI: 10.1038/nature07083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 608] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2007] [Accepted: 05/13/2008] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Angiogenesis, the growth of new blood vessels from pre-existing vasculature, is a key process in several pathological conditions, including tumour growth and age-related macular degeneration. Vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs) stimulate angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis by activating VEGF receptor (VEGFR) tyrosine kinases in endothelial cells. VEGFR-3 (also known as FLT-4) is present in all endothelia during development, and in the adult it becomes restricted to the lymphatic endothelium. However, VEGFR-3 is upregulated in the microvasculature of tumours and wounds. Here we demonstrate that VEGFR-3 is highly expressed in angiogenic sprouts, and genetic targeting of VEGFR-3 or blocking of VEGFR-3 signalling with monoclonal antibodies results in decreased sprouting, vascular density, vessel branching and endothelial cell proliferation in mouse angiogenesis models. Stimulation of VEGFR-3 augmented VEGF-induced angiogenesis and sustained angiogenesis even in the presence of VEGFR-2 (also known as KDR or FLK-1) inhibitors, whereas antibodies against VEGFR-3 and VEGFR-2 in combination resulted in additive inhibition of angiogenesis and tumour growth. Furthermore, genetic or pharmacological disruption of the Notch signalling pathway led to widespread endothelial VEGFR-3 expression and excessive sprouting, which was inhibited by blocking VEGFR-3 signals. Our results implicate VEGFR-3 as a regulator of vascular network formation. Targeting VEGFR-3 may provide additional efficacy for anti-angiogenic therapies, especially towards vessels that are resistant to VEGF or VEGFR-2 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuomas Tammela
- Molecular/Cancer Biology Laboratory and Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Biomedicum Helsinki and the Haartman Institute University of Helsinki, PO Box 63 (Haartmaninkatu 8), 00014 Helsinki, Finland
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2
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Heckman CA, Holopainen T, Wirzenius M, Keskitalo S, Jeltsch M, Ylä-Herttuala S, Wedge SR, Jürgensmeier JM, Alitalo K. The Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor Cediranib Blocks Ligand-Induced Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor-3 Activity and Lymphangiogenesis. Cancer Res 2008; 68:4754-62. [DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-07-5809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Koopal S, Furuhjelm JH, Järviluoma A, Jäämaa S, Pyakurel P, Pussinen C, Wirzenius M, Biberfeld P, Alitalo K, Laiho M, Ojala PM. Viral oncogene-induced DNA damage response is activated in Kaposi sarcoma tumorigenesis. PLoS Pathog 2007; 3:1348-60. [PMID: 17907806 PMCID: PMC1994968 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.0030140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2007] [Accepted: 08/09/2007] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Kaposi sarcoma is a tumor consisting of Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV)–infected tumor cells that express endothelial cell (EC) markers and viral genes like v-cyclin, vFLIP, and LANA. Despite a strong link between KSHV infection and certain neoplasms, de novo virus infection of human primary cells does not readily lead to cellular transformation. We have studied the consequences of expression of v-cyclin in primary and immortalized human dermal microvascular ECs. We show that v-cyclin, which is a homolog of cellular D-type cyclins, induces replicative stress in ECs, which leads to senescence and activation of the DNA damage response. We find that antiproliferative checkpoints are activated upon KSHV infection of ECs, and in early-stage but not late-stage lesions of clinical Kaposi sarcoma specimens. These are some of the first results suggesting that DNA damage checkpoint response also functions as an anticancer barrier in virally induced cancers. Recent findings have indicated that DNA hyper-replication triggered by oncogenes can induce cellular senescence, which together with the oncogene-induced DNA damage checkpoint confers a barrier to tumorigenesis. Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV) can infect human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (ECs) in vitro, but KSHV infection does not seem to provide growth advantage to the cells, but rather leads to retarded growth. Moreover, the proliferative index has long been known to be low in KSHV-infected spindle cells in Kaposi sarcoma (KS) tumors. Our results provide an explanation for these observations by showing that activation of the DNA damage response, exerted by KSHV and a latent viral protein v-cyclin, functions as a barrier against transformation of KSHV-infected cells. Interestingly, the antiproliferative checkpoints are activated during the initial stages of KSHV infection and KS tumorigenesis. During the course of infection, the infected cells are imposed to overcome the checkpoint, and oncogenic stress elicited by the expression of v-cyclin may further contribute to the induction of genomic instability and malignant transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonja Koopal
- Genome-Scale Biology Program and Institute of Biomedicine, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Johanna H Furuhjelm
- Genome-Scale Biology Program and Institute of Biomedicine, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Annika Järviluoma
- Genome-Scale Biology Program and Institute of Biomedicine, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Sari Jäämaa
- Molecular Cancer Biology Program, Haartman Institute, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Pawan Pyakurel
- Department of Pathology and Oncology, Karolinska Institute/Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Christel Pussinen
- Genome-Scale Biology Program and Institute of Biomedicine, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Maria Wirzenius
- Molecular Cancer Biology Program, Haartman Institute, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Peter Biberfeld
- Department of Pathology and Oncology, Karolinska Institute/Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kari Alitalo
- Molecular Cancer Biology Program, Haartman Institute, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Marikki Laiho
- Molecular Cancer Biology Program, Haartman Institute, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Päivi M Ojala
- Genome-Scale Biology Program and Institute of Biomedicine, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Finland
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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Wirzenius M, Tammela T, Uutela M, He Y, Odorisio T, Zambruno G, Nagy JA, Dvorak HF, Ylä-Herttuala S, Shibuya M, Alitalo K. Distinct vascular endothelial growth factor signals for lymphatic vessel enlargement and sprouting. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 204:1431-40. [PMID: 17535974 PMCID: PMC2118625 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20062642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Lymphatic vessel growth, or lymphangiogenesis, is regulated by vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) and -D via VEGF receptor 3 (VEGFR-3). Recent studies suggest that VEGF, which does not bind to VEGFR-3, can also induce lymphangiogenesis through unknown mechanisms. To dissect the receptor pathway that triggers VEGFR-3–independent lymphangiogenesis, we used both transgenic and adenoviral overexpression of placenta growth factor (PlGF) and VEGF-E, which are specific activators of VEGFR-1 and -2, respectively. Unlike PlGF, VEGF-E induced circumferential lymphatic vessel hyperplasia, but essentially no new vessel sprouting, when transduced into mouse skin via adenoviral vectors. This effect was not inhibited by blocking VEGF-C and -D. Postnatal lymphatic hyperplasia, without increased density of lymphatic vessels, was also detected in transgenic mice expressing VEGF-E in the skin, but not in mice expressing PlGF. Surprisingly, VEGF-E induced lymphatic hyperplasia postnatally, and it did not rescue the loss of lymphatic vessels in transgenic embryos where VEGF-C and VEGF-D were blocked. Our data suggests that VEGFR-2 signals promote lymphatic vessel enlargement, but unlike in the blood vessels, are not involved in vessel sprouting to generate new lymphatic vessels in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Wirzenius
- Molecular/Cancer Biology Laboratory and Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Haartman Institute and Helsinki University Hospital, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
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Leppänen P, Kholová I, Mähönen AJ, Airenne K, Koota S, Mansukoski H, Närväinen J, Wirzenius M, Alhonen L, Jänne J, Alitalo K, Ylä-Herttuala S. Short and long-term effects of hVEGF-A(165) in Cre-activated transgenic mice. PLoS One 2006; 1:e13. [PMID: 17183639 PMCID: PMC1762316 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2006] [Accepted: 09/02/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We have generated a transgenic mouse where hVEGF-A(165) expression has been silenced with loxP-STOP fragment, and we used this model to study the effects of hVEGF-A(165) over-expression in mice after systemic adenovirus mediated Cre-gene transfer. Unlike previous conventional transgenic models, this model leads to the expression of hVEGF-A(165) in only a low number of cells in the target tissues in adult mice. Levels of hVEGF-A(165) expression were moderate and morphological changes were found mainly in the liver, showing typical signs of active angiogenesis. Most mice were healthy without any major consequences up to 18 months after the activation of hVEGF-A(165) expression. However, one mouse with a high plasma hVEGF-A(165) level died spontaneously because of bleeding into abdominal cavity and having liver hemangioma, haemorrhagic paratubarian cystic lesions and spleen peliosis. Also, two mice developed malignant tumors (hepatocellular carcinoma and lung adenocarcinoma), which were not seen in control mice. We conclude that long-term uncontrolled hVEGF-A(165) expression in only a limited number of target cells in adult mice can be associated with pathological changes, including possible formation of malignant tumors and uncontrolled bleeding in target tissues. These findings have implications for the design of long-term clinical trials using hVEGF-A(165) gene and protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pia Leppänen
- Department of Biotechnology and Molecular Medicine, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of KuopioKuopio, Finland
| | - Ivana Kholová
- Department of Biotechnology and Molecular Medicine, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of KuopioKuopio, Finland
| | - Anssi J. Mähönen
- Department of Biotechnology and Molecular Medicine, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of KuopioKuopio, Finland
| | - Kari Airenne
- Department of Biotechnology and Molecular Medicine, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of KuopioKuopio, Finland
| | - Suvi Koota
- Department of Biotechnology and Molecular Medicine, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of KuopioKuopio, Finland
| | | | - Johanna Närväinen
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of ManchesterManchester, United Kingdom
| | - Maria Wirzenius
- Molecular/Cancer Biology Laboratory, Biomedicum, University of HelsinkiHelsinki, Finland
| | - Leena Alhonen
- Department of Biotechnology and Molecular Medicine, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of KuopioKuopio, Finland
| | - Juhani Jänne
- Department of Biotechnology and Molecular Medicine, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of KuopioKuopio, Finland
| | - Kari Alitalo
- Molecular/Cancer Biology Laboratory, Biomedicum, University of HelsinkiHelsinki, Finland
| | - Seppo Ylä-Herttuala
- Department of Biotechnology and Molecular Medicine, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of KuopioKuopio, Finland
- Department of Medicine and the Gene Therapy Unit, Kuopio University HospitalKuopio, Finland
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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Karpanen T, Wirzenius M, Mäkinen T, Veikkola T, Haisma HJ, Achen MG, Stacker SA, Pytowski B, Ylä-Herttuala S, Alitalo K. Lymphangiogenic growth factor responsiveness is modulated by postnatal lymphatic vessel maturation. Am J Pathol 2006; 169:708-18. [PMID: 16877368 PMCID: PMC1764216 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2006.051200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Lymphatic vessel plasticity and stability are of considerable importance when attempting to treat diseases associated with the lymphatic vasculature. Development of lymphatic vessels during embryogenesis is dependent on vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C but not VEGF-D. Using a recombinant adenovirus encoding a soluble form of their receptor VEGFR-3 (AdVEGFR-3-Ig), we studied lymphatic vessel dependency on VEGF-C and VEGF-D induced VEGFR-3 signaling in postnatal and adult mice. Transduction with AdVEGFR-3-Ig led to regression of lymphatic capillaries and medium-sized lymphatic vessels in mice under 2 weeks of age without affecting collecting lymphatic vessels or the blood vasculature. No effect was observed after this period. The lymphatic capillaries of neonatal mice also regressed partially in response to recombinant VEGFR-3-Ig or blocking antibodies against VEGFR-3, but not to adenovirus-encoded VEGFR-2-Ig. Despite sustained inhibitory VEGFR-3-Ig levels, lymphatic vessel regrowth was observed at 4 weeks of age. Interestingly, whereas transgenic expression of VEGF-C in the skin induced lymphatic hyperplasia even during embryogenesis, similar expression of VEGF-D resulted in lymphangiogenesis predominantly after birth. These results indicate considerable plasticity of lymphatic vessels during the early postnatal period but not thereafter, suggesting that anti-lymphangiogenic therapy can be safely applied in adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terhi Karpanen
- Molecular/Cancer Biology Laboratory, Biomedicum Helsinki, P.O.B. 63 (Haartmaninkatu 8), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
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Uutela M, Wirzenius M, Paavonen K, Rajantie I, He Y, Karpanen T, Lohela M, Wiig H, Salven P, Pajusola K, Eriksson U, Alitalo K. PDGF-D induces macrophage recruitment, increased interstitial pressure, and blood vessel maturation during angiogenesis. Blood 2004; 104:3198-204. [PMID: 15271796 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2004-04-1485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Platelet-derived growth factor-D (PDGF-D) is a recently characterized member of the PDGF family with unknown in vivo functions. We investigated the effects of PDGF-D in transgenic mice by expressing it in basal epidermal cells and then analyzed skin histology, interstitial fluid pressure, and wound healing. When compared with control mice, PDGF-D transgenic mice displayed increased numbers of macrophages and elevated interstitial fluid pressure in the dermis. Wound healing in the transgenic mice was characterized by increased cell density and enhanced recruitment of macrophages. Macrophage recruitment was also the characteristic response when PDGF-D was expressed in skeletal muscle or ear by an adeno-associated virus vector. Combined expression of PDGF-D with vascular endothelial growth factor-E (VEGF-E) led to increased pericyte/smooth muscle cell coating of the VEGF-E-induced vessels and inhibition of the vascular leakiness that accompanies VEGF-E-induced angiogenesis. These results show that full-length PDGF-D is activated in tissues and is capable of increasing interstitial fluid pressure and macrophage recruitment and the maturation of blood vessels in angiogenic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marko Uutela
- Molecular/Cancer Biology Laboratory, Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Helsinki University, Finland
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Paavonen K, Ekman N, Wirzenius M, Rajantie I, Poutanen M, Alitalo K. Bmx tyrosine kinase transgene induces skin hyperplasia, inflammatory angiogenesis, and accelerated wound healing. Mol Biol Cell 2004; 15:4226-33. [PMID: 15229285 PMCID: PMC515354 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e04-03-0241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The Bmx gene, a member of the Tec family of nonreceptor protein tyrosine kinases, is expressed in arterial endothelium and in certain hematopoietic and epithelial cells. Previous in vitro studies have implicated Bmx signaling in cell migration and survival and suggested that it contributes to the progression of prostate carcinomas. However, the function of Bmx in normal tissues in vivo is unknown. We show here that Bmx expression is induced in skin keratinocytes during wound healing. To analyze the role of Bmx in epidermal keratinocytes in vivo, we generated transgenic mice overexpressing Bmx in the skin. We show that Bmx overexpression accelerates keratinocyte proliferation and wound reepithelialization. Bmx expression also induces chronic inflammation and angiogenesis in the skin, and gene expression profiling suggests that this occurs via cytokine-mediated recruitment of inflammatory cells. Our studies provide the first data on Bmx function in vivo and form the basis of evaluation of its role in epithelial neoplasia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karri Paavonen
- Molecular/Cancer Biology Laboratory and Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Haartman Institute and Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki FIN-00014, Finland
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Dixelius J, Makinen T, Wirzenius M, Karkkainen MJ, Wernstedt C, Alitalo K, Claesson-Welsh L. Ligand-induced vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-3 (VEGFR-3) heterodimerization with VEGFR-2 in primary lymphatic endothelial cells regulates tyrosine phosphorylation sites. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:40973-9. [PMID: 12881528 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m304499200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs) regulate the development and growth of the blood and lymphatic vascular systems. Of the three VEGF receptors (VEGFR), VEGFR-1 and -2 are expressed on blood vessels; VEGFR-2 is found also on lymphatic vessels. VEGFR-3 is expressed mainly on lymphatic vessels but it is also up-regulated in tumor angiogenesis. Although VEGFR-3 is essential for proper lymphatic development, its signal transduction mechanisms are still incompletely understood. Trans-phosphorylation of activated, dimerized receptor tyrosine kinases is known to be critical for the regulation of kinase activity and for receptor interaction with signal transduction molecules. In this study, we have identified five tyrosyl phosphorylation sites in the VEGFR-3 carboxyl-terminal tail. These sites were used both in VEGFR-3 overexpressed in 293 cells and when the endogenous VEGFR-3 was activated in lymphatic endothelial cells. Interestingly, VEGF-C stimulation of lymphatic endothelial cells also induced the formation of VEGFR-3/VEGFR-2 heterodimers, in which VEGFR-3 was phosphorylated only at three of the five sites while the two most carboxyl-terminal tyrosine residues appeared not to be accessible for the VEGFR-2 kinase. Our data suggest that the carboxyl-terminal tail of VEGFR-3 provides important regulatory tyrosine phosphorylation sites with potential signal transduction capacity and that these sites are differentially used in ligand-induced homo- and heterodimeric receptor complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Dixelius
- Department of Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Dag Hammarskjölds väg 20, S-751 85 Uppsala, Sweden
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