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Goodnow RA. Reality check: lipid-oligonucleotide conjugates for therapeutic applications. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2023; 18:129-134. [PMID: 36546308 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2022.2157399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Despite much progress in the field of oligonucleotide therapeutics, delivery in general remains an important aspect for innovation. Various lipids and lipophilic small molecules have long been conjugated to many oligonucleotides in hopes of creating better, drug-like substances. A few conjugates are beginning to enter clinical development as the understanding grows of how such conjugations change the pharmacology of the conjugate relative to the unmodified oligonucleotide. The delivery of different forms of oligonucleotides, such as antisense oligonucleotides and siRNA, is often a challenging, limiting aspect to this form of therapeutics. AREAS COVERED Herein, the origins of covalent attachment of lipophilic moieties to oligonucleotides are described as well as listing a few of those lipids commonly used for lipidation. The author also describes the mechanism by which lipidation may enhance delivery and/or exposure of oligonucleotides in vitro and in vivo. EXPERT OPINION The covalent attachment of lipophilic moieties is one means to enhance the delivery and exposure of oligonucleotides. Such methods may also be applicable to other oligonucleotide-based modalities as long as the lipidation does not interfere with some key interaction. Lipidation may also be useful to modulate the cell type-specific delivery within tissues. As the understanding of the effects of such covalent modification grows, more lipidated oligos are soon likely to enter clinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Goodnow
- Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts USA
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2
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Schneider P, Walters WP, Plowright AT, Sieroka N, Listgarten J, Goodnow RA, Fisher J, Jansen JM, Duca JS, Rush TS, Zentgraf M, Hill JE, Krutoholow E, Kohler M, Blaney J, Funatsu K, Luebkemann C, Schneider G. Rethinking drug design in the artificial intelligence era. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2019. [DOI: 78495111110.1038/s41573-019-0050-3' target='_blank'>'"<>78495111110.1038/s41573-019-0050-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [78495111110.1038/s41573-019-0050-3','', 'Robert A Goodnow')">Reference Citation Analysis] [78495111110.1038/s41573-019-0050-3', 2)">What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2022]
78495111110.1038/s41573-019-0050-3" />
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Casás-Selves M, Zhang AX, Dowling JE, Hallén S, Kawatkar A, Pace NJ, Denz CR, Pontz T, Garahdaghi F, Cao Q, Sabirsh A, Thakur K, O'Connell N, Hu J, Cornella-Taracido I, Weerapana E, Zinda M, Goodnow RA, Castaldi MP. Target Deconvolution Efforts on Wnt Pathway Screen Reveal Dual Modulation of Oxidative Phosphorylation and SERCA2. ChemMedChem 2017; 12:917-924. [PMID: 28371485 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201700028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Revised: 03/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Wnt signaling is critical for development, cell proliferation and differentiation, and mutations in this pathway resulting in constitutive signaling have been implicated in various cancers. A pathway screen using a Wnt-dependent reporter identified a chemical series based on a 1,2,3-thiadiazole-5-carboxamide (TDZ) core with sub-micromolar potency. Herein we report a comprehensive mechanism-of-action deconvolution study toward identifying the efficacy target(s) and biological implication of this chemical series involving bottom-up quantitative chemoproteomics, cell biology, and biochemical methods. Through observing the effects of our probes on metabolism and performing confirmatory cellular and biochemical assays, we found that this chemical series inhibits ATP synthesis by uncoupling the mitochondrial potential. Affinity chemoproteomics experiments identified sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+ -dependent ATPase (SERCA2) as a binding partner of the TDZ series, and subsequent validation studies suggest that the TDZ series can act as ionophores through SERCA2 toward Wnt pathway inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matias Casás-Selves
- Oncology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA.,Present address: Drug Discovery Program, Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, 661 University Avenue, Suite 510, Toronto, ON, M5G 0A3, Canada
| | - Andrew X Zhang
- Discovery Sciences-Chemical Biology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - James E Dowling
- Oncology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - Stefan Hallén
- Cardiovascular and Metabolic Diseases, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, Pepparedsleden 1, Mölndal, 431 83, Sweden
| | - Aarti Kawatkar
- Discovery Sciences-Chemical Biology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - Nicholas J Pace
- Department of Chemistry, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467, USA
| | - Christopher R Denz
- Oncology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - Timothy Pontz
- Oncology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - Farzin Garahdaghi
- Oncology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA.,Present address: Synageva BioPharma Corp., 33 Hayden Avenue, Lexington, MA, 02421, USA
| | - Qing Cao
- Discovery Sciences-Computational Chemistry, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA.,Present address: Ra Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 87 Cambridge Park Drive, Cambridge, MA, 02140, USA
| | - Alan Sabirsh
- Cardiovascular and Metabolic Diseases, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, Pepparedsleden 1, Mölndal, 431 83, Sweden
| | - Kumar Thakur
- Oncology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - Nichole O'Connell
- Discovery Sciences-Structure and Biophysics, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA.,Present address: Nurix, Inc., 1700 Owens Street, Suite 290, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Jun Hu
- Discovery Sciences-Structure and Biophysics, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA.,Present address: Shire, 300 Shire Way, Lexington, MA, 02421, USA
| | - Iván Cornella-Taracido
- Discovery Sciences-Chemical Biology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA.,Present address: Discovery Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | | | - Michael Zinda
- Oncology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - Robert A Goodnow
- Discovery Sciences-Chemical Biology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA.,Present address: Pharmaron, 303 Wyman Street, Room 322, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - M Paola Castaldi
- Discovery Sciences-Chemical Biology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
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Casás-Selves M, Zhang AX, Dowling JE, Hallén S, Kawatkar A, Pace NJ, Denz CR, Pontz T, Garahdaghi F, Cao Q, Sabirsh A, Thakur K, O'Connell N, Hu J, Cornella-Taracido I, Weerapana E, Zinda M, Goodnow RA, Castaldi MP. Cover Picture: Target Deconvolution Efforts on Wnt Pathway Screen Reveal Dual Modulation of Oxidative Phosphorylation and SERCA2 (ChemMedChem 12/2017). ChemMedChem 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201700341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matias Casás-Selves
- Oncology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; 35 Gatehouse Drive Waltham MA 02451 USA
- Present address: Drug Discovery Program, Ontario Institute for Cancer Research; 661 University Avenue, Suite 510 Toronto ON M5G 0A3 Canada
| | - Andrew X. Zhang
- Discovery Sciences-Chemical Biology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; 35 Gatehouse Drive Waltham MA 02451 USA
| | - James E. Dowling
- Oncology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; 35 Gatehouse Drive Waltham MA 02451 USA
| | - Stefan Hallén
- Cardiovascular and Metabolic Diseases, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; Pepparedsleden 1 Mölndal 431 83 Sweden
| | - Aarti Kawatkar
- Discovery Sciences-Chemical Biology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; 35 Gatehouse Drive Waltham MA 02451 USA
| | - Nicholas J. Pace
- Department of Chemistry; Boston College; Chestnut Hill MA 02467 USA
| | - Christopher R. Denz
- Oncology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; 35 Gatehouse Drive Waltham MA 02451 USA
| | - Timothy Pontz
- Oncology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; 35 Gatehouse Drive Waltham MA 02451 USA
| | - Farzin Garahdaghi
- Oncology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; 35 Gatehouse Drive Waltham MA 02451 USA
- Present address: Synageva BioPharma Corp.; 33 Hayden Avenue Lexington MA 02421 USA
| | - Qing Cao
- Discovery Sciences-Computational Chemistry, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; 35 Gatehouse Drive Waltham MA 02451 USA
- Present address: Ra Pharmaceuticals, Inc.; 87 Cambridge Park Drive Cambridge MA 02140 USA
| | - Alan Sabirsh
- Cardiovascular and Metabolic Diseases, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; Pepparedsleden 1 Mölndal 431 83 Sweden
| | - Kumar Thakur
- Oncology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; 35 Gatehouse Drive Waltham MA 02451 USA
| | - Nichole O'Connell
- Discovery Sciences-Structure and Biophysics, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; 35 Gatehouse Drive Waltham MA 02451 USA
- Present address: Nurix, Inc.; 1700 Owens Street, Suite 290 San Francisco CA 94158 USA
| | - Jun Hu
- Discovery Sciences-Structure and Biophysics, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; 35 Gatehouse Drive Waltham MA 02451 USA
- Present address: Shire; 300 Shire Way Lexington MA 02421 USA
| | - Iván Cornella-Taracido
- Discovery Sciences-Chemical Biology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; 35 Gatehouse Drive Waltham MA 02451 USA
- Present address: Discovery Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories; 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston MA 02115 USA
| | | | - Michael Zinda
- Oncology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; 35 Gatehouse Drive Waltham MA 02451 USA
| | - Robert A. Goodnow
- Discovery Sciences-Chemical Biology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; 35 Gatehouse Drive Waltham MA 02451 USA
- Present address: Pharmaron; 303 Wyman Street, Room 322 Waltham MA 02451 USA
| | - M. Paola Castaldi
- Discovery Sciences-Chemical Biology, Innovative Medicines and Early Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca; 35 Gatehouse Drive Waltham MA 02451 USA
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Goodnow RA, Davie CP. DNA-Encoded Library Technology: A Brief Guide to Its Evolution and Impact on Drug Discovery. Annual Reports in Medicinal Chemistry 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.armc.2017.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Gillespie P, Pietranico-Cole S, Myers M, Bilotta JA, Conde-Knape K, Fotouhi N, Goodnow RA, Guertin KR, Hamilton MM, Haynes NE, Liu B, Qi L, Ren Y, Scott NR, So SS, Spence C, Taub R, Thakkar K, Tilley JW, Zwingelstein C. Discovery of camphor-derived pyrazolones as 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2014; 24:2707-11. [PMID: 24815509 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2014.04.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Revised: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Starting from screening hit, (4S,7R)-1,7,8,8-tetramethyl-2-phenyl-1,2,4,5,6,7-hexahydro-4,7-methano-indazol-3-one (7), we optimized the potency and pharmacokinetic properties. This led to the identification of compounds with good in vivo activity in a mouse pharmacodynamic model of inhibition of 11βHSD1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Gillespie
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States.
| | - Sherrie Pietranico-Cole
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Michael Myers
- Metabolic and Vascular Diseases, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Joseph A Bilotta
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Karin Conde-Knape
- Metabolic and Vascular Diseases, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Nader Fotouhi
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Robert A Goodnow
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Kevin R Guertin
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Matthew M Hamilton
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Nancy-Ellen Haynes
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Baolian Liu
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Lida Qi
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Yonglin Ren
- Metabolic and Vascular Diseases, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Nathan R Scott
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Sung-Sau So
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Cheryl Spence
- Metabolic and Vascular Diseases, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Rebecca Taub
- Metabolic and Vascular Diseases, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Kshitij Thakkar
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Jefferson W Tilley
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
| | - Catherine Zwingelstein
- Metabolic and Vascular Diseases, Pharmaceutical Research and Early Drug Development, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ 07110, United States
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Qiao Q, Dominique R, Sidduri A, Lou J, Goodnow RA. Efficient Synthesis of Aryl Methyl Sulfide Derivatives Using (Methylthio)trimethylsilane as Methylthiolation Reagent. SYNTHETIC COMMUN 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/00397910903531664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Jeges G, Nagy T, Meszaros T, Kovacs J, Dorman G, Kowalczyk A, Goodnow RA. Practical synthesis of 5-aryl-3-alkylsulfonyl-phenol and 5-aryl-3-arylsulfonyl-phenol libraries. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 11:327-34. [PMID: 19206513 DOI: 10.1021/cc800172h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A straightforward and cost-effective synthesis of 5-aryl-3-alkylsulfonyl-phenols by a sequential scaffold derivatization strategy has been developed. The procedure is suitable for parallel synthesis of small libraries around the biphenyl privileged core having an unusual 1,3,5-substitution pattern. The synthesis is exemplified by a pilot library of 30 compounds.
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Goodnow RA, Hicks A, Sidduri A, Kowalczyk A, Dominique R, Qiao Q, Lou JP, Gillespie P, Fotouhi N, Tilley J, Cohen N, Choudhry S, Cavallo G, Tannu SA, Ventre JD, Lavelle D, Tare NS, Oh H, Lamb M, Kurylko G, Hamid R, Wright MB, Pamidimukkala A, Egan T, Gubler U, Hoffman AF, Wei X, Li YL, O’Neil J, Marcano R, Pozzani K, Molinaro T, Santiago J, Singer L, Hargaden M, Moore D, Catala AR, Chao LCF, Hermann G, Venkat R, Mancebo H, Renzetti LM. Discovery of Novel and Potent Leukotriene B4 Receptor Antagonists. Part 1. J Med Chem 2010; 53:3502-16. [DOI: 10.1021/jm1001919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Qi Qiao
- Departments of Discovery Chemistry
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Gesine Hermann
- ChemOvation Ltd., Graylands, Langhurst Wood Road, Horsham, West Sussex RH12 4QD, U.K
| | - Radhika Venkat
- Multispan Inc, 26219 Eden Landing Road, Hayward, California 94545
| | - Helena Mancebo
- Multispan Inc, 26219 Eden Landing Road, Hayward, California 94545
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Goodnow RA, Turner CJ. Binding of the Neurotoxin DIIODO-Philanthotoxin343 (I2-PhTX-343) to Lipid Vesicles. J Liposome Res 2008. [DOI: 10.3109/08982109309147448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Goodnow
- Discovery Chemistry, Roche Research Center, Nutley, NJ 07110-1199, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Kang Le
- a Roche Research Center , Hoffmann‐La Roche Inc. , Nutley, New Jersey, USA
| | - Robert A. Goodnow
- a Roche Research Center , Hoffmann‐La Roche Inc. , Nutley, New Jersey, USA
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Fotouhi N, Gillespie P, Goodnow RA, So SS, Han Y, Babiss LE. Application and Utilization of Chemoinformatics Tools in Lead Generation and Optimization. Comb Chem High Throughput Screen 2006; 9:95-102. [PMID: 16475967 DOI: 10.2174/138620706775541855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The process of Drug Discovery is a complex and high risk endeavor that requires focused attention on experimental hypotheses, the application of diverse sets of technologies and data to facilitate high quality decision-making. All is aimed at enhancing the quality of the chemical development candidate(s) through clinical evaluation and into the market. In support of the lead generation and optimization phases of this endeavor, high throughput technologies such as combinatorial/high throughput synthesis and high throughput and ultra-high throughput screening, have allowed the rapid analysis and generation of large number of compounds and data. Today, for every analog synthesized 100 or more data points can be collected and captured in various centralized databases. The analysis of thousands of compounds can very quickly become a daunting task. In this article we present the process we have developed for both analyzing and prioritizing large sets of data starting from diversity and focused uHTS in support of lead generation and secondary screens supporting lead optimization. We will describe how we use informatics and computational chemistry to focus our efforts on asking relevant questions about the desired attributes of a specific library, and subsequently in guiding the generation of more information-rich sets of analogs in support of both processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Fotouhi
- Hoffmann-La Roche, Inc., 340 Kingsland St., Nutley, NJ 07110-1199, USA
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Abstract
The generation of novel structures amenable to rapid and efficient lead optimization comprises an emerging strategy for success in modern drug discovery. Small molecule libraries of sufficient size and diversity to increase the chances of discovery of novel structures make the high throughput synthesis approach the method of choice for lead generation. Despite an industry trend for smaller, more focused libraries, the need to generate novel lead structures makes larger libraries a necessary strategy. For libraries of a several thousand or more members, solid phase synthesis approaches are the most suitable. While the technology and chemistry necessary for small molecule library synthesis continue to advance, success in lead generation requires rigorous consideration in the library design process to ensure the synthesis of molecules possessing the proper characteristics for subsequent lead optimization. Without proper selection of library templates and building blocks, solid phase synthesis methods often generate molecules which are too heavy, too lipophilic and too complex to be useful for lead optimization. The appropriate filtering of virtual library designs with multiple computational tools allows the generation of information-rich libraries within a drug-like molecular property space. An understanding of the hit-to-lead process provides a practical guide to molecular design characteristics. Examples of leads generated from library approaches also provide a benchmarking of successes as well as aspects for continued development of library design practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Goodnow
- Roche Research Center, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc. Nutley, New Jersey, USA
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Abstract
The current drug discovery processes in many pharmaceutical companies require large and growing collections of high quality lead structures for use in high throughput screening assays. Collections of small molecules with diverse structures and "drug-like" properties have, in the past, been acquired by several means: by archive of previous internal lead optimization efforts, by purchase from compound vendors, and by union of separate collections following company mergers. More recently, many drug discovery companies have established dedicated efforts to effect synthesis by internal and/or outsourcing efforts of targeted compound libraries for new lead generation. Although high throughput/combinatorial chemistry is an important component in the process of new lead generation, the selection of library designs for synthesis and the subsequent design of library members has evolved to a new level of challenge and importance. The potential benefits of screening multiple small molecule compound library designs against multiple biological targets offers substantial opportunity to discover new lead structures. Subsequent optimization of such compounds is often accelerated because of the structure-activity relationship (SAR) information encoded in these lead generation libraries. Lead optimization is often facilitated due to the ready applicability of high-throughput chemistry (HTC) methods for follow-up synthesis. Some of the strategies, trends, and critical issues central to the success of lead generation processes are discussed below.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Goodnow
- New Leads Chemistry Initiative, Roche Research Center, Nutley, New Jersey 07110-1199, USA.
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Qiao Q, So SS, Goodnow RA. Stereochemical control factors in the Hantzsch thiazole synthesis: a Hammett substitution correlation analysis. Org Lett 2001; 3:3655-8. [PMID: 11700105 DOI: 10.1021/ol010175t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
[reaction--see text] It is possible to correlate the distribution of stereochemical products produced during a Hantzsch thiazole synthesis according to the Hammett free-energy equation. This analysis confirms the presumed control of the rate of epimerization during thiazole formation due to stabilization of a cationic transition state intermediate during dehydration of the thiazoline ring system. In the chemical system under study, the stereochemical outcome of the reaction also appears to occur according to a kinetically controlled protonation of a thiazoline tautomer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q Qiao
- Roche Research Center, Nutley, New Jersey, 07110-1199, USA
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Cheung AWH, Sidduri A, Garofalo LM, Goodnow RA. An unusual solvent effect on the regiochemical outcome (N-9 versus N-7) of guanine glycosylation using Robins' reagent (2-N-acetyl-6-O-diphenylcarbamoylguanine). Tetrahedron Lett 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4039(00)00423-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Goodnow RA, Richou AR, Tam S. Synthesis of thymine, cytosine, adenine, and guanine containing N-Fmoc protected amino acids: Building blocks for construction of novel oligonucleotide backbone analogs. Tetrahedron Lett 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4039(97)00610-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Goodnow RA, Bukownik R, Nakanishi K, Usherwood PN, Eldefrawi AT, Anis NA, Eldefrawi ME. Synthesis and binding of [125I2]philanthotoxin-343, [125I2]philanthotoxin-343-lysine, and [125I2]philanthotoxin-343-arginine to rat brain membranes. J Med Chem 1991; 34:2389-94. [PMID: 1652018 DOI: 10.1021/jm00112a012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
125I2-iodinated philanthotoxin-343 (PhTX-343), [125I2]PhTX-343-arginine, and [125I2]PhTX-343-lysine were synthesized and evaluated as probes for glutamate receptors in rat brain synaptic membranes. It was found that these probes were not specific for the glutamate receptors but may be useful for investigating the polyamine binding site. Filtration assays with Whatman GF/B fiber glass filters were unsuitable because the iodinated PhTX-343 analogues exhibited high nonspecific binding to the filters, thus hindering detection of specific binding to membranes. When binding was measured by a centrifugal assay, [125I2]PhTX-343-lysine bound with low affinity (KD = 11.4 +/- 2 microM) to a large number of sites (37.2 +/- 9.1 nmol/mg of protein). The binding of [125I2]PhTX-343-lysine was sensitive only to the polyamines spermine and spermidine, which displaced [125I2]PhTX-343-lysine with Ki values of (3.77 +/- 1.4) x 10(-5) M and (7.51 +/- 0.77) x 10(-5) M, respectively. The binding was insensitive to glutamate receptor agonists and antagonists. Binding results with [125I2]PhTX-343-arginine were similar to those of [125I2]-PhTX-343-lysine. Considering the high number of toxin binding sites (10000-fold more than glutamate) in these membranes and the insensitivity of the binding to almost all drugs that bind to glutamate receptors, it is evident that most of the binding observed is not to glutamate receptors. On the other hand, PhTX analogues with photoaffinity labels may be useful in the isolation/purification of various glutamate and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors; they could also be useful in structural studies of receptors and their binding sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Goodnow
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027
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Goodnow RA, Nakanishi K, Sudan HL, Usherwood PN. Inactivation of a quisqualate-sensitive glutamate receptor by photosensitive analogues of philanthotoxin. Neurosci Lett 1991; 125:62-4. [PMID: 1649985 DOI: 10.1016/0304-3940(91)90131-c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Three photosensitive, synthetic analogues of delta-philanthotoxin (PhTX-433) have been tested on the locust, excitatory nerve-muscle system. At 10(-9) M they inhibit reversibly the postjunctional currents (EPSCs) recorded from muscle fibres during motor nerve stimulation, mainly by non-competitively antagonizing postjunctional quisqualate-sensitive glutamate receptors (Quis-R), probably through open channel block. This use-dependent antagonism is characteristic of the philanthotoxins. When the preparation was irradiated with 270 nm U.V. during toxin application and nerve stimulation the EPSCs were inhibited irreversibly. Irradiation of the preparation alone or in the presence of philanthotoxins (e.g. PhTX-433) which are not photosensitive did not lead to irreversible inhibition of the EPSC. It is concluded that the three photosensitive toxins bind covalently to Quis-R in its open channel conformation during U.V. irradiation, thereby irreversibly blocking the channel gated by this receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Goodnow
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, NY
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Goodnow RA, Katz G, Haines DC, Terrill JB. Subacute inhalation toxicity study of an ice-nucleation-active Pseudomonas syringae administered as a respirable aerosol to rats. Toxicol Lett 1990; 54:157-67. [PMID: 2260113 DOI: 10.1016/0378-4274(90)90179-p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The inhalation toxicity of a commercial sample of an ice-nucleation-active Pseudomonas syringae (strain 31a) was evaluated by repetitively exposing rats to about 700 mg/m3 of an aerosol consisting of a suspension of 0.0008, 0.4 or 0.8 g/l of bacteria in water for 2 h per day, 5 days per week for 13-14 exposures. No mortality, moribundity or biologically significant differences in clinical signs, body weight, food consumption or clinical pathology were observed. Animals tested at 500 times (0.4 g/l) and 1000 times (0.8 g/l) the recommended ice-nucleation concentration (0.0008 g/l) exhibited concentration-dependent increased lung weights. Several animals exhibited enlarged tracheobronchial lymph nodes. The pulmonary responses observed are considered compatible with a mild irritant reaction. There was no evidence of bacterial infection. Animals tested at a concentration typical for the discharge mouth of a snow gun (0.0008 g/l) demonstrated no significant biological effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Goodnow
- Genencor International, Inc., Rochester, NY 14650-3605
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Goodnow RA, Harrison MD, Morris JD, Sweeting KB, Laduca RJ. Fate of Ice Nucleation-Active
Pseudomonas syringae
Strains in Alpine Soils and Waters and in Synthetic Snow Samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 1990; 56:2223-7. [PMID: 16348241 PMCID: PMC184587 DOI: 10.1128/aem.56.7.2223-2227.1990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The stability of the ice nucleation activity (INA) and viability of INA
Pseudomonas syringae
31a, used as an ice nucleator in the manufacture of synthetic snow, was determined in snow. The viability of
P. syringae
1-2b, a rifampin-resistant mutant selected from strain 31a to improve recovery from test samples, was determined in laboratory tests of three alpine soil and water samples from three different sources. Snow samples were exposed to environmental conditions or held in darkness at −20°C. Samples of soil and water were maintained in darkness at 0, 7.5, or 15°C. Parent strain 31a INA decreased significantly (>99.0%) in snow exposed to sunlight and freeze-thaw, while the INA of the cell population in snow held in darkness at −20°C remained essentially unchanged. No viable strain 31a was detected in snow exposed to the environment after 7 days, while the viability of strain 31a in snow held in darkness at −20°C decreased to <3% of the original inoculation at the test conclusion. Mutant strain 1-2b viability was undetectable or had decreased significantly 19 days postinoculation in soil samples held at 0 or 15°C. In contrast, 1-2b viability remained detectable at low levels for the duration of the test in soils held at 7.5°C. The 1-2b population demonstrated a significantly longer half-life in peatlike soil than in the loam soils tested. The rate of decrease in 1-2b viability was essentially the same in the three alpine water samples tested with respect to water temperature and sample location.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Goodnow
- Genencor International, 1870 Winton Road, South, Rochester, New York 14618; Department of Plant Pathology and Weed Science, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523 ; and Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, New York 14650
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Jayappa HG, Goodnow RA, Geary SJ. Role of Escherichia coli type 1 pilus in colonization of porcine ileum and its protective nature as a vaccine antigen in controlling colibacillosis. Infect Immun 1985; 48:350-4. [PMID: 2577729 PMCID: PMC261312 DOI: 10.1128/iai.48.2.350-354.1985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
This study was designed to evaluate the role of Escherichia coli type 1 pili in adherence of the organism to porcine small intestines and the efficacy of pili as a vaccine antigen in controlling neonatal colibacillosis. Our results demonstrated that an E. coli phase cloned to express type 1 pili readily attached to the small intestines of colostrum-deprived newborn pigs. Immunofluorescent staining of intestine sections revealed the presence of E. coli expressing type 1 pili only on the brush border, suggesting involvement of type 1 pili in the colonization process. Administration of anti-type 1 serum to newborn pigs prior to challenge reduced the level of gut-associated E. coli sixfold compared with controls. Purified type 1 pilus vaccine induced significant protection against colibacillosis in newborn pigs following challenge with E. coli expressing type 1 pili. Pigs born to vaccinated gilts scoured less and gained more weight than pigs born to control gilts. Our results demonstrate that type 1 pili are a virulence factor, as well as an effective vaccine antigen.
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Goodnow RA, Causey SC, Geary SJ, Wren WS. Comparison of an infective avirulent and canine virulent Bordetella bronchiseptica. Am J Vet Res 1983; 44:207-11. [PMID: 6830009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Two Bordetella bronchiseptica isolates, S-55 and D-2, were evaluated in dogs for inducement of (i) infection, (ii) clinical bordetellosis, and (iii) histopathologic changes on tracheal and bronchiole tissues. Further, each isolate was characterized for variance in (i) toxicity for mice and (ii) intracellular proteins. Both S-55 and D-2 were detectable in test dog groups during the 26-day test period, although 545 times more D-2 was recovered than was S-55. In dogs inoculated with D-2, clinical infectious tracheobronchitis appeared in 4 days and continued for 22 days. Bordetellosis was not observed in dogs given S-55 or in noninoculated dogs. Tracheal and bronchiole tissues from dogs inoculated with the S-55 and D-2 isolates were microscopically examined for lesions. Dogs inoculated with S-55 did not have tracheal or bronchiole lesions. Lesions were not observed in noninoculated dogs. Dogs inoculated with D-2 had marked lesions in the tracheal and bronchiole tissues. The D-2 whole cells were an average 4.8 times as lethal as S-55 whole cells in mice (given intraperitoneal inoculation), whereas cell-free culture supernatants from S-55 and D-2 isolates were nontoxic. Cell-free sonicated extracts of S-55 and D-2 proved toxic to mice (intraperitoneal inoculation), but after the extracts were heated at 56 C for 30 minutes, both were nontoxic. Intracellular proteins of approximately 116,000 and 44,000 daltons were found in higher concentration in D-2 cells than in S-55 cells.
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Kontor EJ, Wegrzyn RJ, Goodnow RA. Canine infectious tracheobronchitis: effects of an intranasal live canine parainfluenza-Bordetella bronchiseptica vaccine on viral shedding and clinical tracheobronchitis (kennel cough). Am J Vet Res 1981; 42:1694-8. [PMID: 6275747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
A modified-live intranasal (IN) canine parainfluenza (CPI)-virus Bordetella bronchiseptica vaccine was evaluated in dogs for efficacy against laboratory-induced canine infectious tracheobronchitis. The comparative efficacies of IN and parenteral administrations of the CPI virus fraction were also evaluated. The frequency and duration of clinical tracheobronchitis, blood serum agglutination titer, humoral antibody response, and duration of CPI virus and B bronchiseptica shedding were measured. Group A dogs were vaccinated subcutaneously or IM with an experimental CPI vaccine and challenge exposed with CPI virus. Group B dogs were vaccinated IN with avirulent CPI virus-B bronchiseptica live antigens and challenge exposed with virulent CPI virus and virulent B bronchiseptica. The IN vaccination (group B) significantly reduced (P less than or equal to 0.001) the occurrence of clinical tracheobronchitis by 96%. The combined challenge exposure of virulent CPI and virulent B bronchiseptica produced a synergistic enhancement of the clinical signs of kennel cough. The percentage of days after challenge exposure that virus shedding was detected for controls equaled 70% as compared with 50% and only 1% for parenterally and IN vaccinated dogs, respectively. Isolation of virulent B bronchiseptica microorganisms was reduced 89% in dogs vaccinated IN compared to controls. The geometric mean humoral antibody titers to CPI virus after 2 parenteral vaccinations and 1 IN vaccination were 1:43 and 1:34, respectively.
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Bey RF, Shade FJ, Goodnow RA, Johnson RC. Intranasal vaccination of dogs with liver avirulent Bordetella bronchiseptica: correlation of serum agglutination titer and the formation of secretory IgA with protection against experimentally induced infectious tracheobronchitis. Am J Vet Res 1981; 42:1130-2. [PMID: 7271029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Dogs inoculated intranasally with a live avirulent Bordetella bronchiseptica vaccine were monitored for the development of resistance to experimentally induced infectious tracheobronchitis (canine cough). Dogs were challenge exposed with a virulent strains of B bronchiseptica at various times after they were vaccinated. Clinical protection was detectable as early as 48 hours. At postvaccination days 4, 5, and 14, 56%, 83%, and 95% protection was observed. Humoral immunoglobulin (Ig) titers ranged from 1:8.6 on day 0 to 1:147 on postvaccination day 21. In the monitoring of B bronchiseptica-specific secretory IgA by indirect immunofluorescence, titers appeared as early as day 4 after vaccination. The IgA titers ranged from 1:16 on day 4 to 1: 1,024 on day 21. The appearance of IgA titers correlated with the development of resistance to clinical infection.
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Goodnow RA, Shade FJ. Control of canine bordetellosis. Mod Vet Pract 1980; 61:597-8. [PMID: 7432339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Shade FJ, Goodnow RA. Intranasal immunization of dogs against Bordetella bronchiseptica-induced tracheobronchitis (kennel cough) with modified live-Bordetella bronchiseptica vaccine. Am J Vet Res 1979; 40:1241-3. [PMID: 525927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Goodnow RA, Shade FJ, Switzer WP. Efficacy of Bordetella bronchiseptica bacterin in controlling enzootic atrophic rhinitis in swine. Am J Vet Res 1979; 40:58-60. [PMID: 453686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The efficacy of a Bordetella bronchiseptica bacterin was evaluated in 2 commercial swine herds affected with mild and severe enzootic atrophic rhinitis (AR). In the 1st herd study, (mild AR), the degree of clinical AR, nasal turbinate evaluation, blood serum titer to B bronchiseptica antigen, and adjusted days from birth to 100 kg were determined for individual pigs. Bacterin inoculation reduced the incidence and severity of gross turbinate atrophy 57% and reduced clinical AR over 93%. Inoculated swine had an average blood serum-agglutinating titer greater than 1:2,793 and noninoculated (control) swine had an average titer of 1:112. Increased serum titer significantly (P less than 0.05) correlated with decreased degree of nasal turbinate atrophy. Inoculated and control pigs reached 100 kg in an average of 171 and 178 days after birth, respectively. In the 2nd study (severe enzootic AR), inoculated and control pigs were individually evaluated for clinical AR and total average daily weight gain. Inoculation reduced clinical AR over 90%. The total average daily gain for the inoculated and control pits was 435.84 g and 340.50 g, respectively. Inoculated pigs and control pigs reached 100-kg market weight in 184 and 238 days, respectively.
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Goodnow RA, Lehr CD, McLennan J. Effect of immunization with a Bordetella bronchiseptica bacterin on weight gain in weaning pigs. Vet Med Small Anim Clin 1978; 73:1187-8. [PMID: 252361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Abstract
A potency assay for Bordetella bronchiseptica bacterins has been developed using mice. The immunogenicities of three bacterins, B, C, and D, were evaluated for ability to prevent death in mice as compared with a reference standard bacterin (RSB-A). Bacterins RSB-A, B, and C were evaluated for ability to prevent death in mice as compared with a reference standard bacterin (RSB-A). Bacterins RSB-A, B, and C were evaluated in swine for efficacy against nasal turbinate atrophy. Swine immunized with RSB-A demonstrated 25% gross nasal turbinate atrophy (GNTA), whereas nonimmunized swine had 85% GNTA. Swine vaccinated with bacterins B and C demonstrated 0 and 100% GNTA, respectively, whereas the nonimmunized groups had 64 and 75% GNTA, respectively. RSB-A and bacterins B, C, and D provided average mouse survivals of 94, 88, 49, and 32%, respectively when the mice were given 1/10,000 of a recommended swine-immunizing dose, whereas an average of 88% of the unvaccinated mice died.
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Goodnow RA. Control of atrophic rhinitis with a Bordetella bronchiseptica bacterin. Vet Med Small Anim Clin 1977; 72:1210-2. [PMID: 587561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Abstract
A survey for surfactant degradation among aerobic bacteria has been undertaken. Tests have been made in peptone medium where such a degradation, if it occurs, will be gratuitous. Tallow-alkyl-sulfate, alkyl-ethoxylate-sulfate, and linear-alkyl-benzene-sulfonate were used. Forty-five strains of 34 species in 19 genera degrade one or more of these detergent compounds. With some species, the surfactant inhibits degradation without inhibiting growth, whereas with one species slight degradation took place even at a toxic concentration of surfactant.
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