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Kruse LH, Sunstrum FG, Garcia D, López Pérez G, Jancsik S, Bohlmann J, Irmisch S. Improved production of the antidiabetic metabolite montbretin A in Nicotiana benthamiana: discovery, characterization, and use of Crocosmia shikimate shunt genes. Plant J 2024; 117:766-785. [PMID: 37960967 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
The plant-specialized metabolite montbretin A (MbA) is being developed as a new treatment option for type-2 diabetes, which is among the ten leading causes of premature death and disability worldwide. MbA is a complex acylated flavonoid glycoside produced in small amounts in below-ground organs of the perennial plant Montbretia (Crocosmia × crocosmiiflora). The lack of a scalable production system limits the development and potential application of MbA as a pharmaceutical or nutraceutical. Previous efforts to reconstruct montbretin biosynthesis in Nicotiana benthamiana (Nb) resulted in low yields of MbA and higher levels of montbretin B (MbB) and montbretin C (MbC). MbA, MbB, and MbC are nearly identical metabolites differing only in their acyl moieties, derived from caffeoyl-CoA, coumaroyl-CoA, and feruloyl-CoA, respectively. In contrast to MbA, MbB and MbC are not pharmaceutically active. To utilize the montbretia caffeoyl-CoA biosynthesis for improved MbA engineering in Nb, we cloned and characterized enzymes of the shikimate shunt of the general phenylpropanoid pathway, specifically hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA: shikimate hydroxycinnamoyl transferase (CcHCT), p-coumaroylshikimate 3'-hydroxylase (CcC3'H), and caffeoylshikimate esterase (CcCSE). Gene expression patterns suggest that CcCSE enables the predominant formation of MbA, relative to MbB and MbC, in montbretia. This observation is supported by results from in vitro characterization of CcCSE and reconstruction of the shikimate shunt in yeast. Using CcHCT together with montbretin biosynthetic genes in multigene constructs resulted in a 30-fold increase of MbA in Nb. This work advances our understanding of the phenylpropanoid pathway and features a critical step towards improved MbA production in bioengineered Nb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars H Kruse
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Frederick G Sunstrum
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Daniela Garcia
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Guillermo López Pérez
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Sharon Jancsik
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Joerg Bohlmann
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Forest and Conservation Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Sandra Irmisch
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Plant Sciences, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, 2333 BE, Netherlands
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Huber M, Roder T, Irmisch S, Riedel A, Gablenz S, Fricke J, Rahfeld P, Reichelt M, Paetz C, Liechti N, Hu L, Bont Z, Meng Y, Huang W, Robert CA, Gershenzon J, Erb M. A beta-glucosidase of an insect herbivore determines both toxicity and deterrence of a dandelion defense metabolite. eLife 2021; 10:68642. [PMID: 34632981 PMCID: PMC8504966 DOI: 10.7554/elife.68642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Gut enzymes can metabolize plant defense compounds and thereby affect the growth and fitness of insect herbivores. Whether these enzymes also influence feeding preference is largely unknown. We studied the metabolization of taraxinic acid β-D-glucopyranosyl ester (TA-G), a sesquiterpene lactone of the common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) that deters its major root herbivore, the common cockchafer larva (Melolontha melolontha). We have demonstrated that TA-G is rapidly deglucosylated and conjugated to glutathione in the insect gut. A broad-spectrum M. melolontha β-glucosidase, Mm_bGlc17, is sufficient and necessary for TA-G deglucosylation. Using cross-species RNA interference, we have shown that Mm_bGlc17 reduces TA-G toxicity. Furthermore, Mm_bGlc17 is required for the preference of M. melolontha larvae for TA-G-deficient plants. Thus, herbivore metabolism modulates both the toxicity and deterrence of a plant defense compound. Our work illustrates the multifaceted roles of insect digestive enzymes as mediators of plant-herbivore interactions. Plants produce certain substances to fend off attackers like plant-feeding insects. To stop these compounds from damaging their own cells, plants often attach sugar molecules to them. When an insect tries to eat the plant, the plant removes the stabilizing sugar, ‘activating’ the compounds and making them toxic or foul-tasting. Curiously, some insects remove the sugar themselves, but it is unclear what consequences this has, especially for insect behavior. Dandelions, Taraxacum officinale, make high concentrations of a sugar-containing defense compound in their roots called taraxinic acid β-D-glucopyranosyl ester, or TA-G for short. TA-G deters the larvae of the Maybug – a pest also known as the common cockchafer or the doodlebug – from eating dandelion roots. When Maybug larvae do eat TA-G, it is found in their systems without its sugar. However, it is unclear whether it is the plant or the larva that removes the sugar. A second open question is how the sugar removal process affects the behavior of the Maybug larvae. Using chemical analysis and genetic manipulation, Huber et al. investigated what happens when Maybug larvae eat TA-G. This revealed that the acidity levels in the larvae’s digestive system deactivate the proteins from the dandelion that would normally remove the sugar from TA-G. However, rather than leaving the compound intact, larvae remove the sugar from TA-G themselves. They do this using a digestive enzyme, known as a beta-glucosidase, that cuts through sugar. Removing the sugar from TA-G made the compound less toxic, allowing the larvae to grow bigger, but it also increased TA-G’s deterrent effects, making the larvae less likely to eat the roots. Any organism that eats plants, including humans, must deal with chemicals like TA-G in their food. Once inside the body, enzymes can change these chemicals, altering their effects. This happens with many medicines, too. In the future, it might be possible to design compounds that activate only in certain species, or under certain conditions. Further studies in different systems may aid the development of new methods of pest control, or new drug treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meret Huber
- Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany.,Department of Biochemistry, Max-Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Thomas Roder
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Sandra Irmisch
- Department of Biochemistry, Max-Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Alexander Riedel
- Department of Biochemistry, Max-Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Saskia Gablenz
- Department of Biochemistry, Max-Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Julia Fricke
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Peter Rahfeld
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max-Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Michael Reichelt
- Department of Biochemistry, Max-Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Paetz
- Research group Biosynthesis/NMR, Max-Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Nicole Liechti
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Lingfei Hu
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Zoe Bont
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ye Meng
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Wei Huang
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Department of Biochemistry, Max-Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Matthias Erb
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Sunstrum FG, Liu HL, Jancsik S, Madilao LL, Bohlmann J, Irmisch S. 4-Coumaroyl-CoA ligases in the biosynthesis of the anti-diabetic metabolite montbretin A. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0257478. [PMID: 34618820 PMCID: PMC8496819 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0257478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Montbretins are rare specialized metabolites found in montbretia (Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora) corms. Montbretin A (MbA) is of particular interest as a novel therapeutic for type-2 diabetes and obesity. There is no scalable production system for this complex acylated flavonol glycoside. MbA biosynthesis has been reconstructed in Nicotiana benthamiana using montbretia genes for the assembly of MbA from its various different building blocks. However, in addition to smaller amounts of MbA, the therapeutically inactive montbretin B (MbB) was the major product of this metabolic engineering effort. MbA and MbB differ in a single hydroxyl group of their acyl side chains, which are derived from caffeoyl-CoA and coumaroyl-CoA, respectively. Biosynthesis of both MbA and MbB also require coumaroyl-CoA for the formation of the myricetin core. Caffeoyl-CoA and coumaroyl-CoA are formed in the central phenylpropanoid pathway by acyl activating enzymes (AAEs) known as 4-coumaroyl-CoA ligases (4CLs). Here we investigated a small family of montbretia AAEs and 4CLs, and their possible contribution to montbretin biosynthesis. RESULTS Transcriptome analysis for gene expression patterns related to montbretin biosynthesis identified eight different montbretia AAEs belonging to four different clades. Enzyme characterization identified 4CL activity for two clade IV members, Cc4CL1 and Cc4CL2, converting different hydroxycinnamic acids into the corresponding CoA thioesters. Both enzymes preferred coumaric acid over caffeic acid as a substrate in vitro. While expression of montbretia AAEs did not enhance MbA biosynthesis in N. benthamiana, we demonstrated that both Cc4CLs can be used to activate coumaric and caffeic acid towards flavanone biosynthesis in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). CONCLUSIONS Montbretia expresses two functional 4CLs, but neither of them is specific for the formation of caffeoyl-CoA. Based on differential expression analysis and phylogeny Cc4CL1 is most likely involved in MbA biosynthesis, while Cc4CL2 may contribute to lignin biosynthesis. Both Cc4CLs can be used for flavanone production to support metabolic engineering of MbA in yeast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederick G. Sunstrum
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Hannah L. Liu
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Sharon Jancsik
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Lufiani L. Madilao
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Joerg Bohlmann
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Sandra Irmisch
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Irmisch S, Jancsik S, Man Saint Yuen M, Madilao LL, Bohlmann J. Complete Biosynthesis of the Anti-Diabetic Plant Metabolite Montbretin A. Plant Physiol 2020; 184:97-109. [PMID: 32647038 PMCID: PMC7479892 DOI: 10.1104/pp.20.00522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Diabetes and obesity are affecting human health worldwide. Their occurrence is increasing with lifestyle choices, globalization of food systems, and economic development. The specialized plant metabolite montbretin A (MbA) is being developed as an antidiabetes and antiobesity treatment due to its potent and specific inhibition of the human pancreatic α-amylase. MbA is a complex acylated flavonol glycoside formed in small amounts in montbretia (Crocosmia × crocosmiiflora) corms during the early summer. The spatial and temporal patterns of MbA accumulation limit its supply for drug development and application. We are exploring MbA biosynthesis to enable metabolic engineering of this rare and valuable compound. Genes and enzymes for the first four steps of MbA biosynthesis, starting from the flavonol precursor myricetin, have recently been identified. Here, we describe the gene discovery and functional characterization of the final two enzymes of MbA biosynthesis. The UDP-glycosyltransferases, CcUGT4 and CcUGT5, catalyze consecutive reactions in the formation of the disaccharide moiety at the 4'-hydroxy position of the MbA flavonol core. CcUGT4 is a flavonol glycoside 4'-O-xylosyltransferase that acts on the second to last intermediate (MbA-XR2) in the pathway. CcUGT5 is a flavonol glycoside 1,4-rhamnosyltransferase that converts the final intermediate (MbA-R2) to complete the MbA molecule. Both enzymes belong to the UGT family d-clade and are specific for flavonol glycosides and their respective sugar donors. This study concludes the discovery of the MbA biosynthetic pathway and provides the complete set of genes to engineer MbA biosynthesis. We demonstrate successful reconstruction of MbA biosynthesis in Nicotiana benthamiana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Irmisch
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Sharon Jancsik
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Macaire Man Saint Yuen
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Lufiani L Madilao
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Joerg Bohlmann
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V6T 1Z4, British Columbia, Canada
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Irmisch S, Jancsik S, Yuen MMS, Madilao LL, Bohlmann J. Biosynthesis of the anti-diabetic metabolite montbretin A: glucosylation of the central intermediate mini-MbA. Plant J 2019; 100:879-891. [PMID: 31400245 PMCID: PMC6899944 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.14493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Type 2 diabetes (T2D) affects over 320 million people worldwide. Healthy lifestyles, improved drugs and effective nutraceuticals are different components of a response against the growing T2D epidemic. The specialized metabolite montbretin A (MbA) is being developed for treatment of T2D and obesity due to its unique pharmacological activity as a highly effective and selective inhibitor of the human pancreatic α-amylase. MbA is an acylated flavonol glycoside found in small amounts in montbretia (Crocosmia × crocosmiiflora) corms. MbA cannot be obtained in sufficient quantities for drug development from its natural source or by chemical synthesis. To overcome these limitations through metabolic engineering, we are investigating the genes and enzymes of MbA biosynthesis. We previously reported the first three steps of MbA biosynthesis from myricetin to myricetin 3-O-(6'-O-caffeoyl)-glucosyl rhamnoside (mini-MbA). Here, we describe the sequence of reactions from mini-MbA to MbA, and the discovery and characterization of the gene and enzyme responsible for the glucosylation of mini-MbA. The UDP-dependent glucosyltransferase CcUGT3 (UGT703E1) catalyzes the 1,2-glucosylation of mini-MbA to produce myricetin 3-O-(glucosyl-6'-O-caffeoyl)-glucosyl rhamnoside. Co-expression of CcUGT3 with genes for myricetin and mini-MbA biosynthesis in Nicotiana benthamiana validated its biological function and expanded the set of genes available for metabolic engineering of MbA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Irmisch
- Michael Smith LaboratoriesUniversity of British Columbia2185 East MallVancouverBCV6T 1Z4Canada
| | - Sharon Jancsik
- Michael Smith LaboratoriesUniversity of British Columbia2185 East MallVancouverBCV6T 1Z4Canada
| | - Macaire M. S. Yuen
- Michael Smith LaboratoriesUniversity of British Columbia2185 East MallVancouverBCV6T 1Z4Canada
| | - Lufiani L. Madilao
- Michael Smith LaboratoriesUniversity of British Columbia2185 East MallVancouverBCV6T 1Z4Canada
| | - Jörg Bohlmann
- Michael Smith LaboratoriesUniversity of British Columbia2185 East MallVancouverBCV6T 1Z4Canada
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Irmisch S, Ruebsam H, Jancsik S, Man Saint Yuen M, Madilao LL, Bohlmann J. Flavonol Biosynthesis Genes and Their Use in Engineering the Plant Antidiabetic Metabolite Montbretin A. Plant Physiol 2019; 180:1277-1290. [PMID: 31004005 PMCID: PMC6752896 DOI: 10.1104/pp.19.00254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/13/2019] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The plant metabolite montbretin A (MbA) and its precursor mini-MbA are potential new drugs for treating type 2 diabetes. These complex acylated flavonol glycosides only occur in small amounts in the corms of the ornamental plant montbretia (Crocosmia × crocosmiiflora). Our goal is to metabolically engineer Nicotiana benthamiana using montbretia genes to achieve increased production of mini-MbA and MbA. Two montbretia UDP-dependent glycosyltransferases (UGTs), CcUGT1 and CcUGT2, catalyze the formation of the first two pathway-specific intermediates in MbA biosynthesis, myricetin 3-O-rhamnoside and myricetin 3-O-glucosyl rhamnoside. In previous work, expression of these UGTs in N. benthamiana resulted in small amounts of kaempferol glycosides but not myricetin glycosides, suggesting that myricetin was limiting. Here, we investigated montbretia genes and enzymes of flavonol biosynthesis to enhance myricetin formation in N. benthamiana We characterized two flavanone hydroxylases, a flavonol synthase, a flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase (F3'H), and a flavonoid 3'5'-hydroxylase (F3'5'H). Montbretia flavonol synthase converted dihydromyricetin into myricetin. Unexpectedly, montbretia F3'5'H shared higher sequence relatedness with F3'Hs in the CYP75B subfamily of cytochromes P450 than with those with known F3'5'H activity. Transient expression of combinations of montbretia flavonol biosynthesis genes and a montbretia MYB transcription factor in N. benthamiana resulted in availability of myricetin for MbA biosynthesis. Transient coexpression of montbretia flavonol biosynthesis genes combined with CcUGT1 and CcUGT2 in N. benthamiana resulted in 2 mg g-1 fresh weight of the MbA pathway-specific compound myricetin 3-O-glucosyl rhamnoside. Additional expression of the montbretia acyltransferase CcAT1 led to detectable levels of mini-MbA in N. benthamiana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Irmisch
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Henriette Ruebsam
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Sharon Jancsik
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Macaire Man Saint Yuen
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Lufiani L Madilao
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Joerg Bohlmann
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
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McCormick AC, Irmisch S, Boeckler GA, Gershenzon J, Köllner TG, Unsicker SB. Herbivore-induced volatile emission from old-growth black poplar trees under field conditions. Sci Rep 2019; 9:7714. [PMID: 31118456 PMCID: PMC6531464 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-43931-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Herbivory is well known to trigger increased emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from plants, but we know little about the responses of mature trees. We measured the volatiles emitted by leaves of old-growth black poplar (Populus nigra) trees after experimental damage by gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) caterpillars in a floodplain forest, and studied the effect of herbivory on the transcript abundance of two genes involved in the biosynthesis of VOCs, and the accumulation of defence phytohormones. Herbivory significantly increased volatile emission from the experimentally damaged foliage, but not from adjacent undamaged leaves in the damaged branches (i.e., no systemic response). Methylbutyraldoximes, 4,8-dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene (DMNT), (Z)-3-hexenol and (E)-β-ocimene, amongst other compounds, were found to be important in distinguishing the blend of herbivore-damaged vs. undamaged leaves. Herbivory also increased expression of PnTPS3 (described here for the first time) and PnCYP79D6-v4 genes at the damaged sites, these genes encode for an (E)-β-ocimene synthase and a P450 enzyme involved in aldoxime formation, respectively, demonstrating de novo biosynthesis of the volatiles produced. Herbivore-damaged leaves had significantly higher levels of jasmonic acid and its conjugate (-)-jasmonic acid-isoleucine. This study shows that mature trees in the field have a robust response to herbivory, producing induced volatiles at the damaged sites even after previous natural herbivory and under changing environmental conditions, however, further studies are needed to establish whether the observed absence of systemic responses is typical of mature poplar trees or if specific conditions are required for their induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Clavijo McCormick
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Biochemistry, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Massey University, College of Sciences, Tennent Drive, 4410, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Sandra Irmisch
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Biochemistry, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, V6T 1Z4, BC, Canada
| | - G Andreas Boeckler
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Biochemistry, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Biochemistry, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Tobias G Köllner
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Biochemistry, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Sybille B Unsicker
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Biochemistry, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany.
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Günther J, Irmisch S, Lackus ND, Reichelt M, Gershenzon J, Köllner TG. The nitrilase PtNIT1 catabolizes herbivore-induced nitriles in Populus trichocarpa. BMC Plant Biol 2018; 18:251. [PMID: 30348089 PMCID: PMC6196558 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-018-1478-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/10/2018] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nitrilases are nitrile-converting enzymes commonly found within the plant kingdom that play diverse roles in nitrile detoxification, nitrogen recycling, and phytohormone biosynthesis. Although nitrilases are present in all higher plants, little is known about their function in trees. Upon herbivory, poplars produce considerable amounts of toxic nitriles such as benzyl cyanide, 2-methylbutyronitrile, and 3-methylbutyronitrile. In addition, as byproduct of the ethylene biosynthetic pathway upregulated in many plant species after herbivory, toxic β-cyanoalanine may accumulate in damaged poplar leaves. In this work, we studied the nitrilase gene family in Populus trichocarpa and investigated the potential role of the nitrilase PtNIT1 in the catabolism of herbivore-induced nitriles. RESULTS A BLAST analysis revealed three putative nitrilase genes (PtNIT1, PtNIT2, PtNIT3) in the genome of P. trichocarpa. While PtNIT1 was expressed in poplar leaves and showed increased transcript accumulation after leaf herbivory, PtNIT2 and PtNIT3 appeared not to be expressed in undamaged or herbivore-damaged leaves. Recombinant PtNIT1 produced in Escherichia coli accepted biogenic nitriles such as β-cyanoalanine, benzyl cyanide, and indole-3-acetonitrile as substrates in vitro and converted them into the corresponding acids. In addition to this nitrilase activity, PtNIT1 showed nitrile hydratase activity towards β-cyanoalanine, resulting in the formation of the amino acid asparagine. The kinetic parameters of PtNIT1 suggest that the enzyme utilizes β-cyanoalanine and benzyl cyanide as substrates in vivo. Indeed, β-cyanoalanine and benzyl cyanide were found to accumulate in herbivore-damaged poplar leaves. The upregulation of ethylene biosynthesis genes after leaf herbivory indicates that herbivore-induced β-cyanoalanine accumulation is likely caused by ethylene formation. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest a role for PtNIT1 in the catabolism of herbivore-induced β-cyanoalanine and benzyl cyanide in poplar leaves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Günther
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Sandra Irmisch
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
- Present Address: Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Nathalie D. Lackus
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Michael Reichelt
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Tobias G. Köllner
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
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Irmisch S, Jo S, Roach CR, Jancsik S, Man Saint Yuen M, Madilao LL, O'Neil-Johnson M, Williams R, Withers SG, Bohlmann J. Discovery of UDP-Glycosyltransferases and BAHD-Acyltransferases Involved in the Biosynthesis of the Antidiabetic Plant Metabolite Montbretin A. Plant Cell 2018; 30:1864-1886. [PMID: 29967287 PMCID: PMC6139687 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.18.00406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Revised: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Plant specialized metabolism serves as a rich resource of biologically active molecules for drug discovery. The acylated flavonol glycoside montbretin A (MbA) and its precursor myricetin 3-O-(6'-O-caffeoyl)-glucosyl rhamnoside (mini-MbA) are potent inhibitors of human pancreatic α-amylase and are being developed as drug candidates to treat type-2 diabetes. MbA occurs in corms of the ornamental plant montbretia (Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora), but a system for large-scale MbA production is currently unavailable. Biosynthesis of MbA from the flavonol myricetin and MbA accumulation occur during early stages of corm development. We established myricetin 3-O-rhamnoside (MR), myricetin 3-O-glucosyl rhamnoside (MRG), and mini-MbA as the first three intermediates of MbA biosynthesis. Contrasting the transcriptomes of young and old corms revealed differentially expressed UDP-sugar-dependent glycosyltransferases (UGTs) and BAHD-acyltransferases (BAHD-ATs). UGT77B2 and UGT709G2 catalyze the consecutive glycosylation of myricetin to produce MR and of MR to give MRG, respectively. In addition, two BAHD-ATs, CcAT1 and CcAT2, catalyze the acylation of MRG to complete the formation of mini-MbA. Transcript profiles of UGT77B2, UGT709G2, CcAT1, and CcAT2 during corm development matched the metabolite profile of MbA accumulation. Expression of these enzymes in wild tobacco (Nicotiana benthamiana) resulted in the formation of a surrogate mini-MbA, validating the potential for metabolic engineering of mini-MbA in a heterologous plant system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Irmisch
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Seohyun Jo
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Christopher R Roach
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Sharon Jancsik
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Macaire Man Saint Yuen
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Lufiani L Madilao
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | | | | | - Stephen G Withers
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Joerg Bohlmann
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
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10
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Luck K, Jirschitzka J, Irmisch S, Huber M, Gershenzon J, Köllner TG. CYP79D enzymes contribute to jasmonic acid-induced formation of aldoximes and other nitrogenous volatiles in two Erythroxylum species. BMC Plant Biol 2016; 16:215. [PMID: 27716065 PMCID: PMC5050915 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-016-0910-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2016] [Accepted: 09/27/2016] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Amino acid-derived aldoximes and nitriles play important roles in plant defence. They are well-known as precursors for constitutive defence compounds such as cyanogenic glucosides and glucosinolates, but are also released as volatiles after insect feeding. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYP) of the CYP79 family catalyze the formation of aldoximes from the corresponding amino acids. However, the majority of CYP79s characterized so far are involved in cyanogenic glucoside or glucosinolate biosynthesis and only a few have been reported to be responsible for nitrogenous volatile production. RESULTS In this study we analysed and compared the jasmonic acid-induced volatile blends of two Erythroxylum species, the cultivated South American crop species E. coca and the African wild species E. fischeri. Both species produced different nitrogenous compounds including aliphatic aldoximes and an aromatic nitrile. Four isolated CYP79 genes (two from each species) were heterologously expressed in yeast and biochemically characterized. CYP79D62 from E. coca and CYP79D61 and CYP79D60 from E. fischeri showed broad substrate specificity in vitro and converted L-phenylalanine, L-isoleucine, L-leucine, L-tryptophan, and L-tyrosine into the respective aldoximes. In contrast, recombinant CYP79D63 from E. coca exclusively accepted L-tryptophan as substrate. Quantitative real-time PCR revealed that CYP79D60, CYP79D61, and CYP79D62 were significantly upregulated in jasmonic acid-treated Erythroxylum leaves. CONCLUSIONS The kinetic parameters of the enzymes expressed in vitro coupled with the expression patterns of the corresponding genes and the accumulation and emission of (E/Z)-phenylacetaldoxime, (E/Z)-indole-3-acetaldoxime, (E/Z)-3-methylbutyraldoxime, and (E/Z)-2-methylbutyraldoxime in jasmonic acid-treated leaves suggest that CYP79D60, CYP79D61, and CYP79D62 accept L-phenylalanine, L-leucine, L-isoleucine, and L-tryptophan as substrates in vivo and contribute to the production of volatile and semi-volatile nitrogenous defence compounds in E. coca and E. fischeri.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Luck
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Jan Jirschitzka
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
- Present address: Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology IME, Forckenbeckstrasse 6, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Sandra Irmisch
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
- Present address: Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Meret Huber
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Tobias G. Köllner
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
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Richter A, Schaff C, Zhang Z, Lipka AE, Tian F, Köllner TG, Schnee C, Preiß S, Irmisch S, Jander G, Boland W, Gershenzon J, Buckler ES, Degenhardt J. Characterization of Biosynthetic Pathways for the Production of the Volatile Homoterpenes DMNT and TMTT in Zea mays. Plant Cell 2016; 28:2651-2665. [PMID: 27662898 PMCID: PMC5134970 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.15.00919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2015] [Revised: 08/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Plant volatiles not only have multiple defense functions against herbivores, fungi, and bacteria, but also have been implicated in signaling within the plant and toward other organisms. Elucidating the function of individual plant volatiles will require more knowledge of their biosynthesis and regulation in response to external stimuli. By exploiting the variation of herbivore-induced volatiles among 26 maize (Zea mays) inbred lines, we conducted a nested association mapping and genome-wide association study (GWAS) to identify a set of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for investigating the pathways of volatile terpene production. The most significant identified QTL affects the emission of (E)-nerolidol, linalool, and the two homoterpenes (E)-3,8-dimethyl-1,4,7-nonatriene (DMNT) and (E,E)-4,8,12-trimethyltrideca-1,3,7,11-tetraene (TMTT). GWAS associated a single nucleotide polymorphism in the promoter of the gene encoding the terpene synthase TPS2 with this QTL Biochemical characterization of TPS2 verified that this plastid-localized enzyme forms linalool, (E)-nerolidol, and (E,E)-geranyllinalool. The subsequent conversion of (E)-nerolidol into DMNT maps to a P450 monooxygenase, CYP92C5, which is capable of converting nerolidol into DMNT by oxidative degradation. A QTL influencing TMTT accumulation corresponds to a similar monooxygenase, CYP92C6, which is specific for the conversion of (E,E)-geranyllinalool to TMTT The DMNT biosynthetic pathway and both monooxygenases are distinct from those previously characterized for DMNT and TMTT synthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana, suggesting independent evolution of these enzymatic activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annett Richter
- Institute for Pharmacy, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, D-06120 Halle, Germany
| | - Claudia Schaff
- Institute for Pharmacy, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, D-06120 Halle, Germany
| | - Zhiwu Zhang
- Institute for Genomic Diversity, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853
| | - Alexander E Lipka
- Institute for Genomic Diversity, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853
| | - Feng Tian
- Institute for Genomic Diversity, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853
| | - Tobias G Köllner
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | | | - Susanne Preiß
- Institute for Pharmacy, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, D-06120 Halle, Germany
| | - Sandra Irmisch
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Georg Jander
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, New York 14853
| | - Willhelm Boland
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | | | - Edward S Buckler
- Institute for Genomic Diversity, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Ithaca, New York 14853
| | - Jörg Degenhardt
- Institute for Pharmacy, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, D-06120 Halle, Germany
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Beran F, Rahfeld P, Luck K, Nagel R, Vogel H, Wielsch N, Irmisch S, Ramasamy S, Gershenzon J, Heckel DG, Köllner TG. Novel family of terpene synthases evolved from trans-isoprenyl diphosphate synthases in a flea beetle. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:2922-7. [PMID: 26936952 PMCID: PMC4801258 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1523468113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Sesquiterpenes play important roles in insect communication, for example as pheromones. However, no sesquiterpene synthases, the enzymes involved in construction of the basic carbon skeleton, have been identified in insects to date. We investigated the biosynthesis of the sesquiterpene (6R,7S)-himachala-9,11-diene in the crucifer flea beetle Phyllotreta striolata, a compound previously identified as a male-produced aggregation pheromone in several Phyllotreta species. A (6R,7S)-himachala-9,11-diene-producing sesquiterpene synthase activity was detected in crude beetle protein extracts, but only when (Z,E)-farnesyl diphosphate [(Z,E)-FPP] was offered as a substrate. No sequences resembling sesquiterpene synthases from plants, fungi, or bacteria were found in the P. striolata transcriptome, but we identified nine divergent putative trans-isoprenyl diphosphate synthase (trans-IDS) transcripts. Four of these putative trans-IDSs exhibited terpene synthase (TPS) activity when heterologously expressed. Recombinant PsTPS1 converted (Z,E)-FPP to (6R,7S)-himachala-9,11-diene and other sesquiterpenes observed in beetle extracts. RNAi-mediated knockdown of PsTPS1 mRNA in P. striolata males led to reduced emission of aggregation pheromone, confirming a significant role of PsTPS1 in pheromone biosynthesis. Two expressed enzymes showed genuine IDS activity, with PsIDS1 synthesizing (E,E)-FPP, whereas PsIDS3 produced neryl diphosphate, (Z,Z)-FPP, and (Z,E)-FPP. In a phylogenetic analysis, the PsTPS enzymes and PsIDS3 were clearly separated from a clade of known coleopteran trans-IDS enzymes including PsIDS1 and PsIDS2. However, the exon-intron structures of IDS and TPS genes in P. striolata are conserved, suggesting that this TPS gene family evolved from trans-IDS ancestors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Beran
- Research Group Sequestration and Detoxification in Insects, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany;
| | - Peter Rahfeld
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Katrin Luck
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Raimund Nagel
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Heiko Vogel
- Department of Entomology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Natalie Wielsch
- Department of Mass Spectrometry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Sandra Irmisch
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | | | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - David G Heckel
- Department of Entomology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Tobias G Köllner
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
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Irmisch S, Müller AT, Schmidt L, Günther J, Gershenzon J, Köllner TG. One amino acid makes the difference: the formation of ent-kaurene and 16α-hydroxy-ent-kaurane by diterpene synthases in poplar. BMC Plant Biol 2015; 15:262. [PMID: 26511849 PMCID: PMC4625925 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-015-0647-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/19/2015] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Labdane-related diterpenoids form the largest group among the diterpenes. They fulfill important functions in primary metabolism as essential plant growth hormones and are known to function in secondary metabolism as, for example, phytoalexins. The biosynthesis of labdane-related diterpenes is mediated by the action of class II and class I diterpene synthases. Although terpene synthases have been well investigated in poplar, little is known about diterpene formation in this woody perennial plant species. RESULTS The recently sequenced genome of Populus trichocarpa possesses two putative copalyl diphosphate synthase genes (CPS, class II) and two putative kaurene synthase genes (KS, class I), which most likely arose through a genome duplication and a recent tandem gene duplication, respectively. We showed that the CPS-like gene PtTPS17 encodes an ent-copalyl diphosphate synthase (ent-CPS), while the protein encoded by the putative CPS gene PtTPS18 showed no enzymatic activity. The putative kaurene synthases PtTPS19 and PtTPS20 both accepted ent-copalyl diphosphate (ent-CPP) as substrate. However, despite their high sequence similarity, they produced different diterpene products. While PtTPS19 formed exclusively ent-kaurene, PtTPS20 generated mainly the diterpene alcohol, 16α-hydroxy-ent-kaurane. Using homology-based structure modeling and site-directed mutagenesis, we demonstrated that one amino acid residue determines the different product specificity of PtTPS19 and PtTPS20. A reciprocal exchange of methionine 607 and threonine 607 in the active sites of PtTPS19 and PtTPS20, respectively, led to a complete interconversion of the enzyme product profiles. Gene expression analysis revealed that the diterpene synthase genes characterized showed organ-specific expression with the highest abundance of PtTPS17 and PtTPS20 transcripts in poplar roots. CONCLUSIONS The poplar diterpene synthases PtTPS17, PtTPS19, and PtTPS20 contribute to the production of ent-kaurene and 16α-hydroxy-ent-kaurane in poplar. While ent-kaurene most likely serves as the universal precursor for gibberellins, the function of 16α-hydroxy-ent-kaurane in poplar is not known yet. However, the high expression levels of PtTPS20 and PtTPS17 in poplar roots may indicate an important function of 16α-hydroxy-ent-kaurane in secondary metabolism in this plant organ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Irmisch
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745, Jena, Germany.
| | - Andrea T Müller
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745, Jena, Germany.
| | - Lydia Schmidt
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745, Jena, Germany.
| | - Jan Günther
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745, Jena, Germany.
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745, Jena, Germany.
| | - Tobias G Köllner
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745, Jena, Germany.
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14
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Irmisch S, Zeltner P, Handrick V, Gershenzon J, Köllner TG. The maize cytochrome P450 CYP79A61 produces phenylacetaldoxime and indole-3-acetaldoxime in heterologous systems and might contribute to plant defense and auxin formation. BMC Plant Biol 2015; 15:128. [PMID: 26017568 PMCID: PMC4446944 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-015-0526-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 05/18/2015] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plants produce a group of aldoxime metabolites that are well known as volatiles and as intermediates in cyanogenic glycoside and glucosinolate biosynthesis in particular plant families. Recently it has been demonstrated that aldoximes can also accumulate as part of direct plant defense in poplar. Cytochrome P450 enzymes of the CYP79 family were shown to be responsible for the formation of aldoximes from their amino acid precursors. RESULTS Here we describe the identification and characterization of maize CYP79A61 which was heterologously expressed in yeast and Nicotiana benthamiana and shown to catalyze the formation of (E/Z)-phenylacetaldoxime and (E/Z)-indole-3-acetaldoxime from L-phenylalanine and L-tryptophan, respectively. Simulated herbivory on maize leaves resulted in an increased CYP79A61 transcript accumulation and in elevated levels of L-phenylalanine and (E/Z)-phenylacetaldoxime. Although L-tryptophan levels were also increased after the treatment, (E/Z)-indole-3-acetaldoxime could not be detected in the damaged leaves. However, simulated herbivory caused a significant increase in auxin concentration. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that CYP79A61 might contribute to the formation of (E/Z)-phenylacetaldoxime in maize. Since aldoximes have been described as toxic compounds for insect herbivores and pathogens, the increased accumulation of (E/Z)-phenylacetaldoxime after simulated herbivory indicates that this compound plays a role in plant defense. In addition, it is conceivable that (E/Z)-indole-3-acetaldoxime produced by recombinant CYP79A61 could be further converted into the plant hormone indole-3-acetic acid after herbivore feeding in maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Irmisch
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany.
| | - Philipp Zeltner
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany.
| | - Vinzenz Handrick
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany.
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany.
| | - Tobias G Köllner
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany.
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15
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Irmisch S, Clavijo McCormick A, Günther J, Schmidt A, Boeckler GA, Gershenzon J, Unsicker SB, Köllner TG. Herbivore-induced poplar cytochrome P450 enzymes of the CYP71 family convert aldoximes to nitriles which repel a generalist caterpillar. Plant J 2014; 80:1095-107. [PMID: 25335755 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2014] [Revised: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Numerous plant species emit volatile nitriles upon herbivory, but the biosynthesis as well as the relevance of these nitrogenous compounds in plant-insect interactions remains unknown. Populus trichocarpa has been shown to produce a complex blend of nitrogenous volatiles, including aldoximes and nitriles, after herbivore attack. The aldoximes were previously reported to be derived from amino acids by the action of cytochrome P450 enzymes of the CYP79 family. Here we show that nitriles are derived from aldoximes by another type of P450 enzyme in P. trichocarpa. First, feeding of deuterium-labeled phenylacetaldoxime to poplar leaves resulted in incorporation of the label into benzyl cyanide, demonstrating that poplar volatile nitriles are derived from aldoximes. Then two P450 enzymes, CYP71B40v3 and CYP71B41v2, were characterized that produce aliphatic and aromatic nitriles from their respective aldoxime precursors. Both possess typical P450 sequence motifs but do not require added NADPH or cytochrome P450 reductase for catalysis. Since both enzymes are expressed after feeding by gypsy moth caterpillars, they are likely to be involved in herbivore-induced volatile nitrile emission in P. trichocarpa. Olfactometer experiments showed that these volatile nitriles have a strong repellent activity against gypsy moth caterpillars, suggesting they play a role in induced direct defense against poplar herbivores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Irmisch
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
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16
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Irmisch S, Jiang Y, Chen F, Gershenzon J, Köllner TG. Terpene synthases and their contribution to herbivore-induced volatile emission in western balsam poplar (Populus trichocarpa). BMC Plant Biol 2014; 14:270. [PMID: 25303804 PMCID: PMC4197230 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-014-0270-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND As a response to caterpillar feeding, poplar releases a complex mixture of volatiles which comprises several classes of compounds. Poplar volatiles have been reported to function as signals in plant-insect interactions and intra- and inter-plant communication. Although the volatile blend is dominated by mono- and sesquiterpenes, there is much to be learned about their formation in poplar. RESULTS Here we report the terpene synthase (TPS) gene family of western balsam poplar (Populus trichocarpa) consisting of 38 members. Eleven TPS genes (PtTPS5-15) could be isolated from gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar)-damaged P. trichocarpa leaves and heterologous expression in Escherichia coli revealed TPS activity for ten of the encoded enzymes. Analysis of TPS transcript abundance in herbivore-damaged leaves and undamaged control leaves showed that seven of the genes, PtTPS6, PtTPS7, PtTPS9, PtTPS10, PtTPS12, PtTPS13 and PtTPS15, were significantly upregulated after herbivory. Gypsy moth-feeding on individual leaves of P. trichocarpa trees resulted in induced volatile emission from damaged leaves, but not from undamaged adjacent leaves. Moreover, the concentration of jasmonic acid and its isoleucine conjugates as well as PtTPS6 gene expression were exclusively increased in the damaged leaves, suggesting that no systemic induction occurred within the tree. CONCLUSIONS Our data indicate that the formation of herbivore-induced volatile terpenes in P. trichocarpa is mainly regulated by transcript accumulation of multiple TPS genes and is likely mediated by jasmonates. The specific local emission of volatiles from herbivore-damaged leaves might help herbivore enemies to find their hosts or prey in the tree canopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Irmisch
- />Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Yifan Jiang
- />Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN37996, USA
| | - Feng Chen
- />Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN37996, USA
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- />Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Tobias G Köllner
- />Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, D-07745, Jena, Germany
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17
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Clavijo McCormick A, Irmisch S, Reinecke A, Boeckler GA, Veit D, Reichelt M, Hansson BS, Gershenzon J, Köllner TG, Unsicker SB. Herbivore-induced volatile emission in black poplar: regulation and role in attracting herbivore enemies. Plant Cell Environ 2014; 37:1909-23. [PMID: 24471487 DOI: 10.1111/pce.12287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2013] [Revised: 01/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2014] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
After herbivory, plants release volatile organic compounds from damaged foliage as well as from nearby undamaged leaves that attract herbivore enemies. Little is known about what controls the volatile emission differences between damaged and undamaged tissues and how these affect the orientation of herbivore enemies. We investigated volatile emission from damaged and adjacent undamaged foliage of black poplar (Populus nigra) after herbivory by gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) caterpillars and determined the compounds mediating the attraction of the gypsy moth parasitoid Glyptapanteles liparidis (Braconidae). Female parasitoids were more attracted to gypsy moth-damaged leaves than to adjacent non-damaged leaves. The most characteristic volatiles of damaged versus neighbouring undamaged leaves included terpenes, green leaf volatiles and nitrogen-containing compounds, such as aldoximes and nitriles. Electrophysiological recordings and olfactometer bioassays demonstrated the importance of nitrogenous volatiles. Under field conditions, parasitic Hymenoptera were more attracted to traps baited with these substances than most other compounds. The differences in volatile emission profiles between damaged and undamaged foliage appear to be regulated by jasmonate signalling and the local activation of volatile biosynthesis. We conclude that characteristic volatiles from damaged black poplar foliage are essential cues enabling parasitoids to find their hosts.
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Becker EM, Herrfurth C, Irmisch S, Köllner TG, Feussner I, Karlovsky P, Splivallo R. Infection of corn ears by Fusarium spp. induces the emission of volatile sesquiterpenes. J Agric Food Chem 2014; 62:5226-5236. [PMID: 24816267 DOI: 10.1021/jf500560f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Infection of corn (Zea mays L.) ears with fungal pathogens of the Fusarium genus might result in yield losses and in the accumulation of mycotoxins. The aim of this study was to investigate whether volatile profiles could be used to identify Fusarium-infected corn ears. The volatiles released by corn ears infected by Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium verticillioides, and Fusarium subglutinans were studied. Volatile emission was recorded at 24 days postinoculation (dpi) and in a time series (from 4 to 24 dpi). Twenty-two volatiles were differentially emitted from Fusarium-infected versus healthy corn ears. These included C6-C8 compounds and sesquiterpenoids. All volatiles indicative of Fusarium infection were detectable as early as 4-8 dpi and continued to be produced to the final sampling time (early milk maturity stage). The induced emission of β-macrocarpene and β-bisabolene correlated with an increased transcript accumulation of corn terpene synthase 6/11 (tps6/11). Additionally, the modification of volatile profiles after Fusarium infection was accompanied by the induction of plant defense compounds such as zealexins and oxylipins. Together, these results reveal a broad metabolic response of the plant to pathogen attack. Volatile biomarkers of Fusarium infection are promising indicators for the early detection of fungal infection before disease symptoms become visible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva-Maria Becker
- Molecular Phytopathology and Mycotoxin Research, Georg-August-University , Grisebachstrasse 6, 37077 Goettingen, Germany
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Irmisch S, Clavijo McCormick A, Boeckler GA, Schmidt A, Reichelt M, Schneider B, Block K, Schnitzler JP, Gershenzon J, Unsicker SB, Köllner TG. Two herbivore-induced cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP79D6 and CYP79D7 catalyze the formation of volatile aldoximes involved in poplar defense. Plant Cell 2013; 25:4737-54. [PMID: 24220631 PMCID: PMC3875747 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.113.118265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2013] [Revised: 10/15/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Aldoximes are known as floral and vegetative plant volatiles but also as biosynthetic intermediates for other plant defense compounds. While the cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYP) from the CYP79 family forming aldoximes as biosynthetic intermediates have been intensively studied, little is known about the enzymology of volatile aldoxime formation. We characterized two P450 enzymes, CYP79D6v3 and CYP79D7v2, which are involved in herbivore-induced aldoxime formation in western balsam poplar (Populus trichocarpa). Heterologous expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae revealed that both enzymes produce a mixture of different aldoximes. Knockdown lines of CYP79D6/7 in gray poplar (Populus × canescens) exhibited a decreased emission of aldoximes, nitriles, and alcohols, emphasizing that the CYP79s catalyze the first step in the formation of a complex volatile blend. Aldoxime emission was found to be restricted to herbivore-damaged leaves and is closely correlated with CYP79D6 and CYP79D7 gene expression. The semi-volatile phenylacetaldoxime decreased survival and weight gain of gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) caterpillars, suggesting that aldoximes may be involved in direct defense. The wide distribution of volatile aldoximes throughout the plant kingdom and the presence of CYP79 genes in all sequenced genomes of angiosperms suggest that volatile formation mediated by CYP79s is a general phenomenon in the plant kingdom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Irmisch
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | | | | | - Axel Schmidt
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | | | - Bernd Schneider
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Katja Block
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Institute of Biochemical Plant Pathology, Research Unit Environmental Simulation, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Jörg-Peter Schnitzler
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Institute of Biochemical Plant Pathology, Research Unit Environmental Simulation, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
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Hong YJ, Irmisch S, Wang SC, Garms S, Gershenzon J, Zu L, Köllner TG, Tantillo DJ. Theoretical and experimental analysis of the reaction mechanism of MrTPS2, a triquinane-forming sesquiterpene synthase from chamomile. Chemistry 2013; 19:13590-600. [PMID: 23963956 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201301018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Revised: 06/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Terpene synthases, as key enzymes of terpene biosynthesis, have garnered the attention of chemists and biologists for many years. Their carbocationic reaction mechanisms are responsible for the huge variety of terpene structures in nature. These mechanisms are amenable to study by using classical biochemical approaches as well as computational analysis, and in this study we combine quantum-chemical calculations and deuterium-labeling experiments to elucidate the reaction mechanism of a triquinane forming sesquiterpene synthase from chamomile. Our results suggest that the reaction from farnesyl diphosphate to triquinanes proceeds through caryophyllyl and presilphiperfolanyl cations and involves the protonation of a stable (-)-(E)-β-caryophyllene intermediate. A tyrosine residue was identified that appears to be involved in the proton-transfer process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young J Hong
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Davis, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
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Irmisch S, Unsicker SB, Gershenzon J, Köllner TG. Identification and characterization of CYP79D6v4, a cytochrome P450 enzyme producing aldoximes in black poplar (Populus nigra). Plant Signal Behav 2013; 8:e27640. [PMID: 24390071 PMCID: PMC4091388 DOI: 10.4161/psb.27640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Accepted: 12/23/2013] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
After herbivore feeding, poplar trees produce complex volatile blends containing terpenes, green leaf volatiles, aromatics, and nitrogen-containing compounds such as aldoximes and nitriles. It has been shown recently that volatile aldoximes released from gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) caterpillar-damaged black poplar (Populus nigra) trees attract parasitoids that are caterpillar enemies. In western balsam poplar (P. trichocarpa), volatile aldoximes are produced by 2 P450 monooxygenases, CYP79D6v3 and CYP79D7v2. A gene fragment with high similarity to CYP79D6/7 was recently shown to be upregulated in herbivore-damaged leaves of P. nigra. In the present study we report the cloning and characterization of this gene, designated as CYP79D6v4. Recombinant CYP79D6v4 was able to convert different amino acids into the corresponding aldoximes, which were also found in the volatile blend of P. nigra. Thus, CYP79D6v4 is most likely involved in herbivore-induced aldoxime formation in black poplar.
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Irmisch S, Krause ST, Kunert G, Gershenzon J, Degenhardt J, Köllner TG. The organ-specific expression of terpene synthase genes contributes to the terpene hydrocarbon composition of chamomile essential oils. BMC Plant Biol 2012; 12:84. [PMID: 22682202 PMCID: PMC3423072 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-12-84] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2012] [Accepted: 06/01/2012] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The essential oil of chamomile, one of the oldest and agronomically most important medicinal plant species in Europe, has significant antiphlogistic, spasmolytic and antimicrobial activities. It is rich in chamazulene, a pharmaceutically active compound spontaneously formed during steam distillation from the sesquiterpene lactone matricine. Chamomile oil also contains sesquiterpene alcohols and hydrocarbons which are produced by the action of terpene synthases (TPS), the key enzymes in constructing terpene carbon skeletons. RESULTS Here, we present the identification and characterization of five TPS enzymes contributing to terpene biosynthesis in chamomile (Matricaria recutita). Four of these enzymes were exclusively expressed in above-ground organs and produced the common terpene hydrocarbons (-)-(E)-β-caryophyllene (MrTPS1), (+)-germacrene A (MrTPS3), (E)-β-ocimene (MrTPS4) and (-)-germacrene D (MrTPS5). A fifth TPS, the multiproduct enzyme MrTPS2, was mainly expressed in roots and formed several Asteraceae-specific tricyclic sesquiterpenes with (-)-α-isocomene being the major product. The TPS transcript accumulation patterns in different organs of chamomile were consistent with the abundance of the corresponding TPS products isolated from these organs suggesting that the spatial regulation of TPS gene expression qualitatively contribute to terpene composition. CONCLUSIONS The terpene synthases characterized in this study are involved in the organ-specific formation of essential oils in chamomile. While the products of MrTPS1, MrTPS2, MrTPS4 and MrTPS5 accumulate in the oils without further chemical alterations, (+)-germacrene A produced by MrTPS3 accumulates only in trace amounts, indicating that it is converted into another compound like matricine. Thus, MrTPS3, but also the other TPS genes, are good markers for further breeding of chamomile cultivars rich in pharmaceutically active essential oils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Irmisch
- Institute of Pharmacy, Martin Luther University, Hoher Weg 8, Halle 06120, Germany
- Current address: Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Sandra T Krause
- Institute of Pharmacy, Martin Luther University, Hoher Weg 8, Halle 06120, Germany
| | - Grit Kunert
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Jörg Degenhardt
- Institute of Pharmacy, Martin Luther University, Hoher Weg 8, Halle 06120, Germany
| | - Tobias G Köllner
- Institute of Pharmacy, Martin Luther University, Hoher Weg 8, Halle 06120, Germany
- Current address: Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, Jena 07745, Germany
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Danner H, Boeckler GA, Irmisch S, Yuan JS, Chen F, Gershenzon J, Unsicker SB, Köllner TG. Four terpene synthases produce major compounds of the gypsy moth feeding-induced volatile blend of Populus trichocarpa. Phytochemistry 2011; 72:897-908. [PMID: 21492885 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2011.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2011] [Revised: 03/11/2011] [Accepted: 03/15/2011] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
After herbivore damage, many plants increase their emission of volatile compounds, with terpenes usually comprising the major group of induced volatiles. Populus trichocarpa is the first woody species with a fully sequenced genome, enabling rapid molecular approaches towards characterization of volatile terpene biosynthesis in this and other poplar species. We identified and characterized four terpene synthases (PtTPS1-4) from P. trichocarpa which form major terpene compounds of the volatile blend induced by gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) feeding. The enzymes were heterologously expressed and assayed with potential prenyl diphosphate substrates. PtTPS1 and PtTPS2 accepted only farnesyl diphosphate and produced (-)-germacrene D and (E,E)-α-farnesene as their major products, respectively. In contrast, PtTPS3 and PtTPS4 showed both mono- and sesquiterpene synthase activity. They produce the acyclic terpene alcohols linalool and nerolidol but exhibited opposite stereospecificity. qRT-PCR analysis revealed that the expression of the respective terpene synthase genes was induced after feeding of gypsy moth caterpillars. The TPS enzyme products may play important roles in indirect defense of poplar to herbivores and in mediating intra- and inter-plant signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger Danner
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Biochemistry, Hans-Knöll Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - G Andreas Boeckler
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Biochemistry, Hans-Knöll Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Sandra Irmisch
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Biochemistry, Hans-Knöll Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Joshua S Yuan
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Feng Chen
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Biochemistry, Hans-Knöll Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Sybille B Unsicker
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Biochemistry, Hans-Knöll Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Tobias G Köllner
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Biochemistry, Hans-Knöll Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
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