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Serpiello FR, Hopkins WG, Barnes S, Tavrou J, Duthie GM, Aughey RJ, Ball K. Validity of an ultra-wideband local positioning system to measure locomotion in indoor sports. J Sports Sci 2017; 36:1727-1733. [PMID: 29192842 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2017.1411867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The validity of an Ultra-wideband (UWB) positioning system was investigated during linear and change-of-direction (COD) running drills. Six recreationally-active men performed ten repetitions of four activities (walking, jogging, maximal acceleration, and 45º COD) on an indoor court. Activities were repeated twice, in the centre of the court and on the side. Participants wore a receiver tag (Clearsky T6, Catapult Sports) and two reflective markers placed on the tag to allow for comparisons with the criterion system (Vicon). Distance, mean and peak velocity, acceleration, and deceleration were assessed. Validity was assessed via percentage least-square means difference (Clearsky-Vicon) with 90% confidence interval and magnitude-based inference; typical error was expressed as within-subject standard deviation. The mean differences for distance, mean/peak speed, and mean/peak accelerations in the linear drills were in the range of 0.2-12%, with typical errors between 1.2 and 9.3%. Mean and peak deceleration had larger differences and errors between systems. In the COD drill, moderate-to-large differences were detected for the activity performed in the centre of the court, increasing to large/very large on the side. When filtered and smoothed following a similar process, the UWB-based positioning system had acceptable validity, compared to Vicon, to assess movements representative of indoor sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- F R Serpiello
- a Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), College of Sport and Exercise Science , Victoria University , Melbourne , Australia
| | - W G Hopkins
- a Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), College of Sport and Exercise Science , Victoria University , Melbourne , Australia.,b Defence Institute , Oslo , Norway
| | - S Barnes
- a Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), College of Sport and Exercise Science , Victoria University , Melbourne , Australia
| | - J Tavrou
- a Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), College of Sport and Exercise Science , Victoria University , Melbourne , Australia
| | - G M Duthie
- a Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), College of Sport and Exercise Science , Victoria University , Melbourne , Australia.,c School of Exercise Science , Australian Catholic University , Strathfield , Australia
| | - R J Aughey
- a Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), College of Sport and Exercise Science , Victoria University , Melbourne , Australia
| | - K Ball
- a Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), College of Sport and Exercise Science , Victoria University , Melbourne , Australia
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Affiliation(s)
- F. R. Serpiello
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - A. Cox
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - L. Oppici
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - W. G. Hopkins
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
- Defence Institute, Oslo, Norway
| | - M. C. Varley
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
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Meylan CMP, Cronin J, Oliver JL, Hopkins WG, Pinder S. Contribution of Vertical Strength and Power to Sprint Performance in Young Male Athletes. Int J Sports Med 2014; 35:e2. [PMID: 24863727 DOI: 10.1055/s-0034-1377023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C M P Meylan
- Sport Performance Research Insitute New Zealand, AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand.,Canadian Sports Institute Pacific, Vancouver, Canada
| | - J Cronin
- Sport Performance Research Insitute New Zealand, AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand.,Exercise and Sports Science, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia
| | - J L Oliver
- Cardiff School of Sport, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - W G Hopkins
- Sport Performance Research Insitute New Zealand, AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - S Pinder
- Manukau Institute of Technology, Engineering, Auckland, New Zealand
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Barnes KR, Hopkins WG, McGuigan MR, Kilding AE. Warm-up with a weighted vest improves running performance via leg stiffness and running economy. J Sci Med Sport 2014; 18:103-8. [PMID: 24462560 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2013.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2013] [Revised: 12/05/2013] [Accepted: 12/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine the effects of "strides" with a weighted-vest during a warm-up on endurance performance and its potential neuromuscular and metabolic mediators. A bout of resistance exercise can enhance subsequent high-intensity performance, but little is known about such priming exercise for endurance performance. DESIGN A crossover with 5-7 days between an experimental and control trial was performed by 11 well-trained distance runners. METHODS Each trial was preceded by a warm-up consisting of a 10-min self-paced jog, a 5-min submaximal run to determine running economy, and six 10-s strides with or without a weighted-vest (20% of body mass). After a 10-min recovery period, runners performed a series of jumps to determine leg stiffness and other neuromuscular characteristics, another 5-min submaximal run, and an incremental treadmill test to determine peak running speed. Clinical and non-clinical forms of magnitude-based inference were used to assess outcomes. Correlations and linear regression were used to assess relationships between performance and underlying measures. RESULTS The weighted-vest condition resulted in a very-large enhancement of peak running speed (2.9%; 90% confidence limits ±0.8%), a moderate increase in leg stiffness (20.4%; ±4.2%) and a large improvement in running economy (6.0%; ±1.6%); there were also small-moderate clear reductions in cardiorespiratory measures. Relationships between change scores showed that changes in leg stiffness could explain all the improvements in performance and economy. CONCLUSIONS Strides with a weighted-vest have a priming effect on leg stiffness and running economy. It is postulated the associated major effect on peak treadmill running speed will translate into enhancement of competitive endurance performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- K R Barnes
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, AUT University, New Zealand.
| | - W G Hopkins
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, AUT University, New Zealand
| | - M R McGuigan
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, AUT University, New Zealand
| | - A E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, AUT University, New Zealand
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Meylan CMP, Cronin JB, Oliver JL, Hopkins WG, Contreras B. The effect of maturation on adaptations to strength training and detraining in 11-15-year-olds. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2013; 24:e156-64. [DOI: 10.1111/sms.12128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. M. P. Meylan
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand; AUT University; Auckland New Zealand
- Canadian Sport Institute Pacific; Vancouver British Columbia Canada
- Canadian Soccer Association; Ottawa Ontario Canada
| | - J. B. Cronin
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand; AUT University; Auckland New Zealand
- School of Exercise, Health and Biomedical Sciences; Edith Cowan University; Perth Western Australia Australia
| | - J. L. Oliver
- Cardiff School of Sport; Cardiff Metropolitan University; Cardiff UK
| | - W. G. Hopkins
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand; AUT University; Auckland New Zealand
| | - B. Contreras
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand; AUT University; Auckland New Zealand
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Voss SC, Alsayrafi M, Bourdon PC, Klodt F, Nonis D, Hopkins WG, Schumacher YO. Variability of serum markers of erythropoiesis during 6 days of racing in highly trained cyclists. Int J Sports Med 2013; 35:89-94. [PMID: 23868682 DOI: 10.1055/s-0033-1345177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The athlete biological passport for the fight against doping is currently based on longitudinal monitoring for abnormal changes in cellular blood parameters. Serum parameters related to altered erythropoiesis could be considered for inclusion in the passport. The aim of this study was to quantify the changes in such parameters in athletes during a period of intense exercise.12 highly trained cyclists tapered for 3 days before 6 days of simulated intense stage racing. Morning and afternoon blood samples were taken on most days and analysed for total protein, albumin, soluble transferrin receptor and ferritin concentrations. Plasma volume was determined via total haemoglobin mass measured by carbon-monoxide rebreathing. Percent changes in means from baseline and percent standard errors of measurement (analytical error plus intra-athlete variation) on each measurement occasion were estimated with mixed linear modelling of log-transformed measures. Means of all variables changed substantially in the days following the onset of racing, ranging from -13% (haemoglobin concentration) to +27% (ferritin). After the second day, errors of measurement were generally twice those at baseline. Plasma variables were affected by heavy exercise, either because of changes in plasma volume (total protein, albumin, haemoglobin), acute phase/inflammatory reactions (ferritin) or both (soluble transferrin receptor). These effects need to be taken into consideration when integrating a plasma parameter into the biological passport model for athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- S C Voss
- Anti-Doping Lab Qatar, Doha, Qatar
| | | | | | - F Klodt
- University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - D Nonis
- Exercise and Sport Sciences, Università di Milano, Italy
| | - W G Hopkins
- Sport Performance Research Institute of New Zealand, AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Y O Schumacher
- Aspetar - Qatar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital Doha, Qatar
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Horn PL, Pyne DB, Hopkins WG, Barnes CJ. Lower white blood cell counts in elite athletes training for highly aerobic sports. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 110:925-32. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-010-1573-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/05/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Harris NK, Cronin JB, Hopkins WG, Hansen KT. Inter-relationships between machine squat-jump strength, force, power and 10 m sprint times in trained sportsmen. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2010; 50:37-42. [PMID: 20308970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
AIM Strength and conditioning practitioners appear focussed on developing maximal strength based on the premise that it underpins explosive muscular performance. Investigation into the relationship between strength and a multitude of explosive power measures is limited though. Furthermore, the relationship of explosive force and power with functional performance is unclear. METHODS We examined the inter-relationships between maximal strength and explosive measures of force and power at different loads. Also investigated were the relationships between explosive measures and 10-m sprinting ability. Forty elite-level well-trained rugby union and league athletes performed 10-m sprints followed by bilateral concentric-only machine squat-jumps at 20 and 80%1RM. The magnitudes of the inter-relationships between groups of force measures, power measures and sprint times were interpreted using Pearson correlation coefficients, which had uncertainty (90% confidence limits) of approximately +/-0.25. Measures investigated included peak force, peak power, rate of force development, and some of Zatsiorsky's explosive measures, all expressed relative to body mass. RESULTS The relationship between maximal strength and peak power was moderate at 20 %1RM (r=0.32) but trivial at 80 %1RM (r=-0.03). Practically no relationship between any of the explosive measures and 10-m sprint ability was observed (r=-0.01 to 0.06). CONCLUSION Although correlations do not imply cause and effect, we speculate that the common practice of focussing on high levels of maximal strength in a machine squat to improve power output may be misguided. Our results also cast doubt on the efficacy of increasing explosive force and power in a machine squat-jump with the intention of improving sprint ability in well-trained athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nigel K Harris
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand, AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Gianotti S, Hume PA, Hopkins WG, Harawira J, Truman R. Interim evaluation of the effect of a new scrum law on neck and back injuries in rugby union. Br J Sports Med 2008; 42:427-30. [DOI: 10.1136/bjsm.2008.046987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Abstract
Live high-train low altitude exposure simulated by hypoxic devices may improve athletic performance. In this study, intermittent normobaric hypoxia was achieved with the GO2altitude hypoxicator to determine its effects on sea level performance in rugby players. Ten players were randomly assigned to two groups. Players in each group received 14 sessions of either hypoxic (10-15% O(2)) or normoxic (21% O(2)) exposure at rest over 14 consecutive days in a single blind fashion. Various performance measures were obtained consecutively in a single testing session pre- and post-exposure. Effects of hypoxic exposure on maximum speed and sprint times were trivial (<1.0%) but unclear (90% likely range, +/-5% to +/-9%). In rugby simulation, hypoxic exposure produced impairments of peak power in two scrums (15%, +/-8%; 9%, +/-7%) and impairments of time in offensive sprints (7%, +/-8%) and tackle sprints (11%, +/-9%). Pending further research, rugby players would be unwise to use normobaric intermittent hypoxic exposure to prepare for games at sea level.
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Affiliation(s)
- E A Hinckson
- Division of Sport and Recreation, Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Abstract
When physical performance is monitored with an ergometer, random error arising from the ergometer combines with biological variation from the subject to limit the precision of estimation of performance changes. We report here the contributions of ergometer error and biological variation to the error of measurement in a performance test with two popular cycle ergometers (air-braked Kingcycle, mobile SRM crankset) and a relatively new inexpensive mobile ergometer (PowerTap hub). Eleven well-trained male cyclists performed a familiarization trial followed by three 5-min time trials within 2 wk on a racing cycle fitted with the SRM and PowerTap and mounted on the Kingcycle. Mean power output in each trial was recorded with all ergometers simultaneously. A novel analysis using mixed modelling of log-transformed mean power provided estimates of the standard error of measurement as a coefficient of variation and its components arising from the ergometer and the cyclists. The usual errors of measurement were: Kingcycle 2.2 %, PowerTap 1.5 %, and SRM 1.6 % (90 % confidence limits +/- 1.3). The components of these errors arising purely from the ergometers and the cyclists were: Kingcycle 1.8 %, PowerTap 0.9 %, SRM 1.1 %, and cyclists 1.2 % (+/- 1.5). Thus, ergometer errors and biological variation made substantial contributions to the usual error of measurement. Use of the best ergometers and of test protocols that reduce biological variation would improve monitoring of the small changes that matter to elite athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- C D Paton
- Centre for Sport and Exercise Science, The Waikato Institute of Technology, Hamilton, New Zealand.
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To demonstrate the utility of a practical measure of lean mass for monitoring changes in the body composition of athletes. METHODS Between 1999 and 2003 body mass and sum of seven skinfolds were recorded for 40 forwards and 32 backs from one Super 12 rugby union franchise. Players were assessed on 13 (7) occasions (mean (SD)) over 1.9 (1.3) years. Mixed modelling of log transformed variables provided a lean mass index (LMI) of the form mass/skinfolds(x), for monitoring changes in mass controlled for changes in skinfold thickness. Mean effects of phase of season and time in programme were modelled as percentage changes. Effects were standardised for interpretation of magnitudes. RESULTS The exponent x was 0.13 for forwards and 0.14 for backs (90% confidence limits +/-0.03). The forwards had a small decrease in skinfolds (5.3%, 90% confidence limits +/-2.2%) between preseason and competition phases, and a small increase (7.8%, 90% confidence limits +/-3.1%) during the club season. A small decrease in LMI (approximately 1.5%) occurred after one year in the programme for forwards and backs, whereas increases in skinfolds for forwards became substantial (4.3%, 90% confidence limits +/-2.2%) after three years. Individual variation in body composition was small within a season (within subject SD: body mass, 1.6%; skinfolds, 6.8%; LMI, 1.1%) and somewhat greater for body mass (2.1%) and LMI (1.7%) between seasons. CONCLUSIONS Despite a lack of substantial mean changes, there was substantial individual variation in lean mass within and between seasons. An index of lean mass based on body mass and skinfolds is a potentially useful tool for assessing body composition of athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- G M Duthie
- School of Human Movement, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND The lean mass index (LMI) is a new empirical measure that tracks within-subject proportional changes in body mass adjusted for changes in skinfold thickness. OBJECTIVE To compare the ability of the LMI and other skinfold derived measures of lean mass to monitor changes in lean mass. METHODS 20 elite rugby union players undertook full anthropometric profiles on two occasions 10 weeks apart to calculate the LMI and five skinfold based measures of lean mass. Hydrodensitometry, deuterium dilution, and dual energy x ray absorptiometry provided a criterion choice, four compartment (4C) measure of lean mass for validation purposes. Regression based measures of validity, derived for within-subject proportional changes through log transformation, included correlation coefficients and standard errors of the estimate. RESULTS The correlation between change scores for the LMI and 4C lean mass was moderate (0.37, 90% confidence interval -0.01 to 0.66) and similar to the correlations for the other practical measures of lean mass (range 0.26 to 0.42). Standard errors of the estimate for the practical measures were in the range of 2.8-2.9%. The LMI correctly identified the direction of change in 4C lean mass for 14 of the 20 athletes, compared with 11 to 13 for the other practical measures of lean mass. CONCLUSIONS The LMI is probably as good as other skinfold based measures for tracking lean mass and is theoretically more appropriate. Given the impracticality of the 4C criterion measure for routine field use, the LMI may offer a convenient alternative for monitoring physique changes, provided its utility is established under various conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- G J Slater
- Australian Institute of Sport, Belconnen, ACT, Australia
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Hinckson EA, Hopkins WG, Downey BM, Smith TBRJ. The effect of intermittent hypoxic training via a hypoxic inhaler on physiological and performance measures in rowers: A pilot study. J Sci Med Sport 2006; 9:177-80. [PMID: 16574484 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2006.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Intermittent hypoxic training and discontinuous exposure to altitude were used to improve performance at sea level in elite rowers. Altitude was simulated with a newly patented device which allowed athletes to experience altitude by re-breathing oxygen-depleted expired air. Seven elite rowers (five females, two males) used inhalers for a 90-min supervised daily session (alternating 6 min on and 4 min off) for 3 weeks, while four female elite rowers used placebo devices in the same sessions. The inhalers were adjusted to produce a progressive decrease in oxygen saturation over the 3 weeks (initially 90%; finally 80%). Immediately before and 7-10 days after altitude exposure, the rowers performed an incremental lactate test to determine power output equivalent to 4 mM [BLa], a 500-m time trial and a 5000-m time trial, all on a rowing ergometer. Relative to the control group, the altitude group showed a slight improvement in mean power for the 5000-m time trial (0.6%, 90% likely limits +/-3.7%), and a substantial impairment in mean power for the 500-m trial (2.2%, +/-4.1%). Power at 4-mM lactate declined in both groups, but overall the altitude group improved by 0.4% (+/-3.5%) relative to control. The device represents a practical way to simulate altitude exposure, but it is unlikely to have major effects on performance of elite rowers.
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Affiliation(s)
- E A Hinckson
- Institute of Sport and Recreation Research NZ, AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Pyne DB, Gardner AS, Sheehan K, Hopkins WG. Positional differences in fitness and anthropometric characteristics in Australian football. J Sci Med Sport 2006; 9:143-50. [PMID: 16580878 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2005.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/03/2005] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
To evaluate the utility of fitness assessment and trends in drafting of players in the Australian Football League, we analysed height, mass, skinfolds, 20-m sprint, vertical jump, agility run and endurance assessed in the 495 players attending the annual national draft camps between 1999 and 2004. Effects of player position and assessment year were expressed as standardised mean differences (Cohen effect sizes) and interpreted qualitatively. Effect of birth month on chance of being drafted, which may be important in team sports, was also analysed. Compared with midfield players, ruckmen, tall forwards and tall defenders were decisively taller (effect-size range 1.33-1.95, large) and heavier (1.30-1.63, large), but had poorer sprint speed (0.23-0.57, small), aerobic ability (0.66-1.18, moderate) and agility (0.64-1.11, moderate). The only substantial changes in fitness scores over the 5-year period were an increase in height (0.76, moderate) and an increase in 20-m sprint time (0.39, small). A majority (65%) of players attending the camps were born in the first half of a given year, but their chance of being drafted (70%) was similar to that of players born in the second half (64%). We conclude that fitness assessment is useful for differentiating between player positions and identifying some annual trends in recruitment in Australian football, and that players with a second half birth month have been disadvantaged with lower representation at the national draft camp.
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Affiliation(s)
- D B Pyne
- Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport, Belconnen ACT 2616, Canberra, Australia.
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Abstract
In this study of effects of simulated altitude exposure on sea-level performance, 10 competitive runners slept in a hypoxic environment achieved with tents for 9.8+/-1.3 h.d(-1) (mean+/-standard deviation) for 24 days-30 days at 2500-3500 m (PIO2=117-103 mmHg) above sea level. The altitude group and a control group of 10 runners performed usual training (PIO2=149 mmHg). At approximately 4-wk intervals before and after exposure both groups performed an incremental test for lactate threshold. The altitude group performed an additional test, a treadmill run to exhaustion lasting approximately 5 min. One week following exposure lactate threshold speed of the altitude group relative to the control group increased by 1.2% (90% likely limits +/-3.1%), but the effect became slightly negative after controlling for baseline differences in running speed between the groups. A 16% increase in time to exhaustion was observed in the altitude group, equivalent to a 1.9% (+/-1.4%) increase in speed in a time trial. Change in performance had an unclear relationship to total altitude exposure, genotype for angiotensin converting enzyme, and change in haemoglobin concentration. Our findings are consistent with little or no effect of use of altitude tents on sea-level performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- E A Hinckson
- Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Abstract
Sport scientists should consider seasonal trends and individual variability in performance when using tests to track performance changes resulting from training or other medium-term interventions with individuals or in research studies. We report here the seasonal changes and variability in power of 12 male competitive cyclists, who performed laboratory tests of incremental peak and 4-km mean power measured with three ergometers simultaneously in each of five sessions during three phases (base, pre-comp, comp) of a season. Repeated-measures analysis of log-transformed power provided mean percent changes in performance between phases and within-cyclist variability in performance expressed as coefficients of variation between sessions < or = 2 wk apart within a phase and between sessions 8 wk-12 wk apart in different phases. Peak power increased from the base phase to the pre-comp phase on average by 5.3%, and by a further 1.8% from pre-comp to comp phase; corresponding increases in 4-km mean power were 6.1% and 2.2% (90% likely limits all approximately +/-2.6%). The variabilities for peak and 4-km mean powers were 1.2%-1.8% for sessions separated by < or = 2 wk and 2.0%-2.3% for sessions in pre-comp and comp phases, but increased to 3.4%-3.8% for sessions between the base and other phases (likely limits approximately (x/)/(1.6). Individual differences in the improvement in performance after the base phase evidently produced the greater variability between the base and the other phases. Interventions that might produce small but worthwhile changes in performance over a period of weeks-months need to be researched in pre-comp and comp phases, when the variability is small.
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Affiliation(s)
- C D Paton
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, The Waikato Institute of Technology, Hamilton, New Zealand.
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Pyne DB, Hopkins WG, Batterham AM, Gleeson M, Fricker PA. Characterising the individual performance responses to mild illness in international swimmers. Br J Sports Med 2005; 39:752-6. [PMID: 16183773 PMCID: PMC1725039 DOI: 10.1136/bjsm.2004.017475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine individual differences in the impact of illness on the change in performance of swimmers in international competitions. METHODS Subjects were members of the Australian swimming team (33 male and 39 female, aged 15-27 years). Swimmers provided a weekly seven day recall of symptoms of illness during final six weeks of preparations for international competition over a three year period. Swimmers were categorised as either ill (one or more episodes of illness) or healthy. The measure of performances was the international point score. Mean changes in points score were calculated for healthy and ill swimmers between a national championship and an international competition ( approximately 16 weeks later). Likelihoods of substantial effects of illness on an individual's true change in performance (beneficial/trivial/harmful) were estimated from means and standard deviations, assuming a smallest substantial change of 6 points. RESULTS Illness was reported before international performances by 38% of female and 35% of male swimmers. For female swimmers the change in performance was -3.7 (21.5) points (mean (SD)) with illness and -2.6 (19.0) points when healthy; for male swimmers the changes were -1.4 (17.5) points with illness and 5.6 (13.2) points when healthy. The likelihoods that illness had a substantial beneficial/trivial/harmful effect on performance of an individual swimmer were 32%/31%/37% for female and 17%/31%/52% for male participants (90% confidence limits approximately +/-10% to 20%). CONCLUSIONS Although mild illness had only a trivial mean effect on female swimmers and a small harmful mean effect on male swimmers, there were substantial chances of benefit and harm for individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- D B Pyne
- Australian Institute of Sport, PO Box 176, Belconnen, Canberra, ACT 2616, Australia.
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES To document the effects of compulsory mouthguard wearing on rugby related dental injury claims made to ACC, the administrator of New Zealand's accident compensation scheme. METHODS An ecological study was conducted. Estimates of mouthguard wearing rates were available from prospective studies conducted in 1993, 2002, and 2003. Rugby related dental injury claims were available for the period 1995-2003. Player numbers were available from 1998. Mouthguard wearing was made compulsory during match play for rugby players at under 19 level and below at the beginning of the 1997 season, and for all grades of domestic rugby at the beginning of the 1998 season. Greater powers of enforcement were provided to referees at the beginning of the 2003 season. RESULTS The self reported rate of mouthguard use was 67% of player-weeks in 1993 and 93% in 2003. A total of 2644 claims was reported in 1995. There was a 43% (90% confidence interval 39% to 46%) reduction in dental claims from 1995 to 2003. On the reasonable assumption that the number of players and player-matches remained constant throughout the study period, the relative rate of injury claims for non-wearers versus wearers was 4.6 (90% confidence interval 3.8 to 5.6). The cumulative savings in claim costs compared with the cost per year if claim numbers had remained constant from 1995 is 1.87 million NZD. CONCLUSION Although ecological studies have acknowledged weaknesses, the findings provide evidence that mouthguard use is a simple and effective injury prevention strategy for rugby players. The use of mouthguards for all players in both matches and contact practice situations is strongly recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L Quarrie
- NZ Rugby Football Union, Research and Injury Prevention, PO Box 2172, Wellington, New Zealand.
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Abstract
Relationships between fitness testing and career progression in the Australian Football League (AFL) are under-explored. This study investigated relationships between anthropometric and fitness tests conducted at the annual AFL National Draft Camp and subsequent career progression of players. A total of 283 players was tested over three consecutive camps (1999-2001). The anthropometric and fitness measures were: height, mass, sum of skinfolds, 20-m sprint test, vertical jump (standing and bilateral running), agility run and a multi-stage incremental shuttle run. The five outcome variables were: drafted (yes/no), AFL debut (yes/no), number of AFL games played to the end of 2003, and subjective ratings of career potential and career value (5-point scale). Of 205 players (72%) subsequently drafted, 166 (59%) eventually made their AFL debut. Players drafted to AFL clubs were faster over 5 m, 10 m and 20 m, ran further in the shuttle run and ran marginally faster in the agility test than players not drafted. Multi-regression analysis showed small to moderate correlations (r = 0.27-0.31) between the designated outcome variables and selected fitness tests: 20-m sprint time (faster), agility run test (faster), and running vertical jump (higher absolute height and smaller difference between left and ride sides). Regression analysis for the standing vertical jump relative to standing reach height showed a counterintuitive negative correlation with positive outcomes, possibly reflecting non-compliance with testing procedures by the less successful athletes. We conclude that the 20-m sprint, jump, agility and shuttle run tests have a small but important association with career progression of AFL footballers.
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Affiliation(s)
- D B Pyne
- Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra, Australia.
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Kinsman TA, Gore CJ, Hahn AG, Hopkins WG, Hawley JA, McKenna MJ, Clark SA, Aughey RJ, Townsend NE, Chow CM. Sleep in athletes undertaking protocols of exposure to nocturnal simulated altitude at 2650 m. J Sci Med Sport 2005; 8:222-32. [PMID: 16075782 DOI: 10.1016/s1440-2440(05)80013-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A popular method to attempt to enhance performance is for athletes to sleep at natural or simulated moderate altitude (SMA) when training daily near sea level. Based on our previous observation of periodic breathing in athletes sleeping at SMA, we hypothesised that athletes' sleep quality would also suffer with hypoxia. Using two typical protocols of nocturnal SMA (2650 m), we examined the effect on the sleep physiology of 14 male endurance-trained athletes. The selected protocols were Consecutive (15 successive exposure nights) and Intermittent (3x 5 successive exposure nights, interspersed with 2 normoxic nights) and athletes were randomly assigned to follow either one. We monitored sleep for two successive nights under baseline conditions (B; normoxia, 600 m) and then at weekly intervals (nights 1, 8 and 15 (N1, N8 and N15, respectively)) of the protocols. Since there was no significant difference in response between the protocols being followed (based on n=7, for each group) we are unable to support a preference for either one, although the likelihood of a Type II error must be acknowledged. For all athletes (n=14), respiratory disturbance and arousal responses between B and N1, although large in magnitude, were highly individual and not statistically significant. However, SpO2 decreased at N1 versus B (p<0.001) and remained lower on N8 (p<0.001) and N15 (p<0.001), not returning to baseline level. Compared to B, arousals were more frequent on N8 (p=0.02) and N15 (p=0.01). The percent of rapid eye movement sleep (REM) increased from N1 to N8 (p=0.03) and N15 (p=0.01). Overall, sleeping at 2650 m causes sleep disturbance in susceptible athletes, yet there was some improvement in REM sleep over the study duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- T A Kinsman
- Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport Canberra, Australia
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24
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Abstract
We have estimated the reliability of performance in a commonly employed exercise test consisting of repeated sprints on a cycle ergometer. Eight recreationally active young men completed a practice trial and three more trials at 3- to 6-day intervals. Each trial consisted of two bouts of 30-s maximal-effort cycling on an electromagnetically braked cycle ergometer; the bouts were separated by 4 min of rest. The typical (standard) errors of measurement for peak and mean power between trials 2 to 4 were 2.5 and 1.7% respectively for the first bout and 1.9 and 1.8% for the second bout. These errors are substantially less than those in previous reliability studies of single 30-s sprint tests, probably because of differences in quality of ergometer. The typical errors for the difference between bouts (i.e., fatigue) for peak power and mean power were 3.0 and 2.5%, respectively. Typical errors for the average of the two bouts were 1.6 and 1.2% for peak and mean power respectively, which are small enough to give adequate precision for moderate treatment effects in studies with modest sample sizes.
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Affiliation(s)
- K K O Watt
- School of Health Sciences, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia
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25
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Abstract
Human athletes taper or reduce their training load before a race to enhance performance, apparently because recovery from the effects of fatigue occurs faster than the loss of fitness from the reduced training. However, there appear to be no previous studies of tapering of equine athletes. Our aim in the present study was, therefore, to investigate the efficacy of tapering with Standardbred pacers. We determined the effect of repeated cycles of tapered training on performance of Standardbred pacers. After 8 weeks of jogging and 3 x 2 week cycles of pace work, 19 horses were randomised to a taper and a control group. The taper group completed 5 consecutive 2 week cycles, each incorporating a 7 day taper; some cycles included high-intensity interval training. The control group continued with 5 more cycles of pace work. All horses completed a 2400 m individual time trial after each cycle. Peak and mean speed of the taper group were faster than those of the control group in all cycles; the differences were clear-cut in all cycles for peak speed (overall 4.4%, 95% confidence interval 1.7 to 7.1%), but only in one of the interval-training cycles for mean speed (2.4%, 0.3 to 4.7%). Four horses in the taper group were injured during interval training. Repeated tapering produces a worthwhile enhancement of performance in Standardbreds, but the addition of interval training appears to increase the risk of injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Shearman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
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26
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Abstract
Various changes in physiological parameters are associated with overtraining, which can be a serious problem for human and equine athletes. A 34 week longitudinal study was conducted to investigate the effects of an acute training overload on physiological parameters in 10 Standardbred racehorses. After 24 weeks of training, horses received 8 weeks of increased workload, followed by 2 weeks recovery. Horses performed a 2400 m time trial and a progressive submaximal exercise test on alternate weeks. By the end of the heavy training period, the average time for the final 1200 m of the time trial increased by 4.0% (95% probable range of true value 1.7-5.8) and peak velocity decreased by 6.9% (4.7-8.9), indicating that overtraining had occurred. Acute overtraining coincided with an increase in blood lactate concentration after the time trial and submaximal test. There were also substantial decreases in bodyweight, plasma cortisol concentration and packed cell volume after the time trial, and in the velocity at a heart rate of 200/min (V200). Parameters that showed no clear-cut change with overtraining included maximal and recovery heart rate, basal plasma cortisol, plasma and red cell volume, and markers of skeletal damage (plasma concentrations of creatine kinase and aspartate aminotransferase). Bodyweight, V200, postexercise blood lactate and plasma cortisol concentrations may all be useful for detecting acute overtraining in equine athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Hamlin
- Department of Physiology, University of Otago, School of Medical Sciences, Dunedin, New Zealand
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27
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Abstract
Performance tests are an integral component of assessment for competitive cyclists in practical and research settings. Cycle ergometry is the basis of most of these tests. Most cycle ergometers are stationary devices that measure power while a cyclist pedals against sliding friction (e.g. Monark), electromagnetic braking (e.g. Lode), or air resistance (e.g. Kingcycle). Mobile ergometers (e.g. SRM cranks) allow measurement of power through the drive train of the cyclist's own bike in real or simulated competitions on the road, in a velodrome or in the laboratory. The manufacturers' calibration of all ergometers is questionable; dynamic recalibration with a special rig is therefore desirable for comparison of cyclists tested on different ergometers. For monitoring changes in performance of a cyclist, an ergometer should introduce negligible random error (variation) in its measurements; in this respect, SRM cranks appear to be the best ergometer, but more comparison studies of ergometers are needed. Random error in the cyclist's performance should also be minimised by choice of an appropriate type of test. Tests based on physiological measures (e.g. maximum oxygen uptake, anaerobic threshold) and tests requiring self-selection of pace (e.g. constant-duration and constant-distance tests) usually produce random error of at least approximately 2 to 3% in the measure of power output. Random error as low as approximately 1% is possible for measures of power in 'all-out' sprints, incremental tests, constant-power tests to exhaustion and probably also time trials in an indoor velodrome. Measures with such low error might be suitable for tracking the small changes in competitive performance that matter to elite cyclists.
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Affiliation(s)
- C D Paton
- Centre for Sport and Exercise Science, The Waikato Polytechnic, Hamilton, New Zealand
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28
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Abstract
PURPOSE The typical variation in an athlete's performance from race to race sets a benchmark for assessing the utility of performance tests and the magnitude of factors affecting medal prospects. We report here the typical variation in competitive performance of endurance runners. METHODS Repeated-measures analysis of log-transformed official race times provided the typical within-athlete variation in performance as coefficients of variation (CV). The types of race were cross-country runs (4 races over 9 wk), summer road runs (5 races over 4 wk), winter road runs (4 races over 9 wk), half marathons (3 races over 13 wk and 2 races over 22 wk), and marathons (2 races over 22 wk). RESULTS Typical variation of times for the fastest quartile of male runners was 1.2-1.9% in the cross-country and road runs, 2.7% and 4.2% in half marathons, and 2.6% in marathons. Times for the slower half of runners in most events were more variable than those of the faster half (ratio of slower/faster CV, 1.0-2.3). Times of younger adult runners were more variable than times of older runners (ratio of younger/older CV, 1.1-1.8). Times of male runners were generally more variable than those of female runners (ratio of male/female CV, 0.9-1.7). CONCLUSION Tests of endurance power suitable for assessing the smallest worthwhile changes in running performance for top runners need CV < or = 2.5% and < or = 1.5% for tests simulating half or full marathons and shorter running races, respectively. Most of the differences in variability of race times between types of race, ability groups, age groups, and sexes probably arise from differences in competitive experience and attitude toward competing.
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Affiliation(s)
- W G Hopkins
- Department of Physiology and School of Physical Education, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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29
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Abstract
PURPOSE The effect of caffeine ingestion on sprint performance is unclear. We have therefore investigated its effect on performance in a test that simulates the repeated sprints of team sports. METHODS In a randomized double-blind crossover experiment, 16 male team-sport athletes ingested either caffeine (6 mg.kg-1 of body mass) or a placebo 60 min before performing a repeated 20-m sprint test. The test consisted of 10 sprints, each performed within 10 s and followed by rest for the remainder of each 10 s. The caffeine and placebo trials followed a familiarization trial, and the time between consecutive trials was 2-3 d. To allow estimation of variation in treatment effects between individuals, nine subjects performed three more trials without a supplement 7-14 d later. We estimated the smallest worthwhile effect on sprint time in a team sport to be approximately 0.8%. RESULTS Mean time to complete 10 sprints increased by 0.1% (95% likely range -1.5 to 1.7%) with caffeine ingestion relative to placebo. Individual variation in this effect was a standard deviation of 0.7% (-2.7 to 2.9%). Time to complete the 10th sprint was 14.4% longer than the first; caffeine increased this time by 0.7% (-1.8 to 3.2%) relative to placebo, and individual variation in this effect was 2.4% (-3.4 to 4.9%). CONCLUSION The observed effect of caffeine ingestion on mean sprint performance and fatigue over 10 sprints was negligible. The true effect on mean performance could be small at most, although the true effects on fatigue and on the performance of individuals could be somewhat larger. Pending confirmatory research, team-sport athletes should not expect caffeine to enhance sprint performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- C D Paton
- Center for Sport and Exercise Science, The Waikato Polytechnic, Hamilton, New Zealand.
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30
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Abstract
The reliability of power in tests of physical performance affects the precision of assessment of athletes, patients, clients and study participants. In this meta-analytic review we identify the most reliable measures of power and the factors affecting reliability. Our measures of reliability were the typical (standard) error of measurement expressed as a coefficient of variation (CV) and the percent change in the mean between trials. We meta-analysed these measures for power or work from 101 studies of healthy adults. Measures and tests with the smallest CV in exercise of a given duration include field tests of sprint running (approximately 0.9%), peak power in an incremental test on a treadmill or cycle ergometer (approximately 0.9%), equivalent mean power in a constant-power test lasting 1 minute to 3 hours on a treadmill or cycle ergometer (0.9 to 2.0%), lactate-threshold power (approximately 1.5%), and jump height or distance (approximately 2.0%). The CV for mean power on isokinetic ergometers was relatively large (> 4%). CV were larger for nonathletes versus athletes (1.3 x), female versus male nonathletes (1.4 x), shorter (approximately 1-second) and longer (approximately 1-hour) versus 1-minute tests (< or = 1.6 x), and respiratory- versus ergometer-based measures of power (1.4 to 1.6 x). There was no clear-cut effect of time between trials. The importance of a practice trial was evident in studies with > 2 trials: the CV between the first 2 trials was 1.3 times the CV between subsequent trials; performance also improved by 1.2% between the first 2 trials but by only 0.2% between subsequent trials. These findings should help exercise practitioners and researchers select or design good measures and protocols for tests of physical performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- W G Hopkins
- Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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31
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Anderson ME, Bruce CR, Fraser SF, Stepto NK, Klein R, Hopkins WG, Hawley JA. Improved 2000-meter rowing performance in competitive oarswomen after caffeine ingestion. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2000; 10:464-75. [PMID: 11099373 DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.10.4.464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Eight competitive oarswomen (age, 22 +/- 3 years; mass, 64.4 +/- 3.8 kg) performed three simulated 2,000-m time trials on a rowing ergometer. The trials, which were preceded by a 24-hour dietary and training control and 72 hours of caffeine abstinence, were conducted 1 hour after ingesting caffeine (6 or 9 mg á kg-1 body mass) or placebo. Plasma free fatty acid concentrations before exercise were higher with caffeine than placebo (0.67 +/- 0.34 vs. 0.72 +/- 0.36 vs. 0.30 +/- 0.10 mM for 6 and 9 mg á kg-1 caffeine and placebo, respectively; p <.05). Performance time improved 0.7% (95% confidence interval [CI] 0 to 1.5%) with 6 mg á kg-1 caffeine and 1. 3% (95% CI 0.5 to 2.0%) with 9 mg á kg-1 caffeine. The first 500 m of the 2,000 m was faster with the higher caffeine dose compared with placebo or the lower dose (1.53 +/- 0.52 vs.1.55 +/- 0.62 and 1. 56 +/- 0.43 min; p =.02). We concluded that caffeine produces a worthwhile enhancement of performance in a controlled laboratory setting, primarily by improving the first 500 m of a 2,000-m row.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Anderson
- Exercise Metabolism Group, Department of Human Biology and Movement Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia
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32
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Abstract
To determine the relationship between prescribed training and seasonal-best swimming performance, we surveyed 24 swim coaches and 185 of their age-group and open-class swimmers specializing in sprint (50 and 100 m) and middle-distance (200 and 400 m) events in a summer and winter season. We expressed effects on training as either multiples of swimmers' standard deviations (effect size, ES) or as correlations (r). Coaches prescribed higher mileage and longer repetitions of lower intensity to middle-distance swimmers than to sprinters (ES = 0.4-1.5); as competitions approached, repetition intensity and duration of rest intervals increased (ES = 0.5-0.9), whereas session and repetition distances decreased (ES = 0.4-1.3). The 95% likely ranges of the true values for these effects were about +/- 0.3. Weekly mileage swum at an easy or moderate pace remained at almost 60% of the total throughout both seasons. Interval training reduced gradually from 40% of total distance in the build-up to 30% at the end of tapering. Older swimmers had shorter rests and swam more miles (r = 0.5-0.8). After partialling out the effects of age on performance (r = 0.7-0.8), better performance was significantly associated only with greater weekly mileage (r = 0.5-0.8) and shorter duration of rest intervals (r = 0.6-0.7) in middle-distance swimmers. We conclude that periodization of training and differences in training between sprint and middle-distance events were broadly in accord with principles of specificity. Strong effects of specificity on performance were not apparent, but weak effects might have been detected with a larger sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Stewart
- Department of Physical Education, Sport and Leisure Studies, University of Edinburgh, UK.
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33
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Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate the effect of caffeine ingestion on short-term endurance performance in competitive rowers. METHODS In this randomized double-blind crossover study, eight competitive oarsmen (peak oxygen uptake [VO2peak] 4.7+/-0.4 L x min(-1), mean +/- SD) performed three familiarization trials of a 2000-m rowing test on an air-braked ergometer, followed by three experimental trials at 3- to 7-d intervals, each 1 h after ingesting caffeine (6 or 9 mg x kg(-1) body mass) or placebo. Trials were preceded by a standardized warm-up (6 min at 225+/-39 W; 75+/-7.7% VO2peak). RESULTS Urinary caffeine concentration was similar before ingestion (approximately 1 mg x L(-1)) but rose to 6.2+/-3.6 and 14.5+/-7.0 mg x L(-1) for the low and high caffeine doses, respectively. Plasma free fatty acid concentration before exercise was higher after caffeine ingestion (0.29+/-0.17 and 0.39+/-0.20 mM for 6 and 9 mg x kg(-1), respectively) than after placebo (0.13+/-0.05 mM). Respiratory exchange ratio during the warm-up was also substantially lower with caffeine (0.94+/-0.09 and 0.93+/-0.06 for the low and high dose) than with placebo (0.98+/-0.12). Subjects could not distinguish between treatments before or after the exercise test. Both doses of caffeine had a similar ergogenic effect relative to placebo: performance time decreased by a mean of 1.2% (95% likely range 0.4-1.9%); the corresponding increase in mean power was 2.7% (0.4-5.0%). Performance time showed some evidence of individual differences in the effect of caffeine (SD 0.9%; 95% likely range 1.5 to -0.9%). CONCLUSIONS Ingestion of 6 or 9 mg x kg(-1) of caffeine produces a worthwhile enhancement of short-term endurance performance in a controlled laboratory setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- C R Bruce
- Department of Human Biology and Movement Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria Australia
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34
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the reliability of 2 time-trial protocols, 1 that involved use of a pacemaker and 1 that did not, for assessing performance of Standardbred racehorses. ANIMALS 3- to 7-year-old Standardbred maiden pacers. PROCEDURE 11 Standardbred pacers were used to determine the reliability of a time-trial protocol that involved use of a galloping pacemaker. All tests were performed by a single driver. Horses were paced for an initial 1,600 m then raced and timed for the final 800 m. They were retested 9 days later. Twenty-two horses were used to determine the reliability of a time-trial protocol that did not involve use of a pacemaker. All tests were performed by a second driver. Horses were paced for the first 1,200 m then raced and timed for the final 1,200 m. They were retested 3 and 8 days later. RESULTS Reliability of performance time, expressed as the coefficient of variation (ie, the typical percentage variation in a horse's time between trials), was similar for the 2 protocols (1.0% and 1.3%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS The small variations in performance times for the 2 time-trial protocols were similar to those of the best comparable laboratory and field tests of human and equine performance. Both protocols would be suitable for investigating factors affecting performance of Standardbred racehorses.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Shearman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, Great Britain
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35
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Abstract
PURPOSE The placebo effect, a favorable outcome from belief that one has received a beneficial treatment, may be an important phenomenon in athletic performance. We have therefore investigated the placebo effect of a carbohydrate supplement on endurance performance. METHODS Forty-three competitive endurance cyclists (2 female, 41 male) performed two simulated 40-km time trials on an air-braked ergometer. In the first trial they ingested water to establish baseline performance (mean power 265 +/- 46 W for 58 +/- 4 min, mean +/- SD). For the second trial 6-8 d later they were randomized to two groups: one group ingested 16 mL x kg(-1) of a drink containing 7.6 g x 100 mL(-1) carbohydrate; the other ingested an indistinguishable noncaloric placebo drink. Cyclists in each group were further randomized to three subgroups according to whether they were told the drink contained carbohydrate, placebo, or either (not told). RESULTS Changes in mean power in the second trial were: told carbohydrate, 4.3 +/- 4.8%; told placebo, 0.5 +/- 5.8%; and not told, -1.1 +/- 8.5%. The difference between the told-carbohydrate and told-placebo groups was 3.8% (95% likely range 7.9 to -0.2%). The change in performance in the not-told group was more variable than that of the told groups by a factor of 1.6 (2.6 to 1.0). The real effect of carbohydrate was a slight reduction in power of 0.3% (4.4 to -3.8%). CONCLUSIONS (a) The placebo effect of a potentially ergogenic treatment during unblinded laboratory time trials lasting approximately 1 h is probably a small but worthwhile increase in endurance power. (b) Blinding subjects to the treatment increases individual differences in endurance effort, which may reduce precision of performance outcomes in controlled trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- V R Clark
- Sports Science Institute of South Africa, Cape Town
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36
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Abstract
Reliability refers to the reproducibility of values of a test, assay or other measurement in repeated trials on the same individuals. Better reliability implies better precision of single measurements and better tracking of changes in measurements in research or practical settings. The main measures of reliability are within-subject random variation, systematic change in the mean, and retest correlation. A simple, adaptable form of within-subject variation is the typical (standard) error of measurement: the standard deviation of an individual's repeated measurements. For many measurements in sports medicine and science, the typical error is best expressed as a coefficient of variation (percentage of the mean). A biased, more limited form of within-subject variation is the limits of agreement: the 95% likely range of change of an individual's measurements between 2 trials. Systematic changes in the mean of a measure between consecutive trials represent such effects as learning, motivation or fatigue; these changes need to be eliminated from estimates of within-subject variation. Retest correlation is difficult to interpret, mainly because its value is sensitive to the heterogeneity of the sample of participants. Uses of reliability include decision-making when monitoring individuals, comparison of tests or equipment, estimation of sample size in experiments and estimation of the magnitude of individual differences in the response to a treatment. Reasonable precision for estimates of reliability requires approximately 50 study participants and at least 3 trials. Studies aimed at assessing variation in reliability between tests or equipment require complex designs and analyses that researchers seldom perform correctly. A wider understanding of reliability and adoption of the typical error as the standard measure of reliability would improve the assessment of tests and equipment in our disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- W G Hopkins
- Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences and School of Physical Education, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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37
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St Clair Gibson A, Hopkins WG. Postmodernism, the law, and ethical dilemmas in medicine. S Afr Med J 2000; 90:479-80. [PMID: 10901816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
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38
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Abstract
PURPOSE The consistency of performance between events impacts how athletes should specialize in events, how competitions should be structured, and how changes in performance affect an athlete's placing in an event. We have therefore determined the consistency of swimming performance in events within and between two national-level competitions. METHODS We used mixed linear modeling to analyze official performance times of 149 male and 162 female swimmers at a junior national championship, and of 117 male and 104 female swimmers at an open national championship 20 d later. The events differed in stroke (backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly, freestyle, and individual medley) or distance (50-1500 m). RESULTS Swimmers were most consistent in their performance for the same event between the two competitions (typical variation between competitions, 1.4%; 95% likely range of true value, 1.3-1.5%). They were less consistent between distances of a given stroke within each competition (1.7%; 1.5-1.9%) and least consistent between strokes for a given distance (2.7%; 2.3-3.1%). Variation in performance between the longest continuous freestyle distances (400, 800, and 1500 m) in the open competition was half that between widely spaced freestyle distances (50, 200, and 800 m). Faster swimmers were more consistent (1.1%; 0.9-1.4%) for the same event between competitions than slower swimmers (1.5%; 1.3-1.9%). CONCLUSIONS (a) Swimmers are stroke specialists rather than distance specialists; with the present set of events in competitions, they should concentrate training and competing on a particular stroke rather than a particular distance. (b) More swimmers would have a chance of winning a medal if events of a given stroke differed more widely in distance. (c) Factors that affect performance time by as little as 0.5% will affect the placing of a top junior swimmer.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Stewart
- Scottish Institute of Sports Medicine and Sports Science, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow
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39
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Abstract
We examined the time course of metabolic adaptations to 15 days of a high-fat diet (HFD). Sixteen endurance-trained cyclists were assigned randomly to a control (CON) group, who consumed their habitual diet (30% +/- 8% mJ fat), or a HFD group, who consumed a high-fat isocaloric diet (69% +/- 1% mJ fat). At 5-day intervals, the subjects underwent an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT); on the next day, they performed a 2.5-hour constant-load ride at 70% peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak), followed by a simulated 40-km cycling time-trial while ingesting a 10% 14C-glucose + 3.44% medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) emulsion at a rate of 600 mL/h. In the OGTT, plasma glucose concentrations at 30 minutes increased significantly after 5 days of the HFD and remained elevated at days 10 and 15 versus the levels measured prior to the HFD (P < .05). The activity of carnitine acyltransferase (CAT) in biopsies of the vastus lateralis muscle also increased from 0.45 to 0.54 micromol/g/min over days 0 to 10 of the HFD (P < .01) without any change in citrate synthase (CS) or 3-hydroxyacyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase (3-HAD) activities. Changes in glucose tolerance and CAT activity were associated with a shift from carbohydrate (CHO) to fat oxidation during exercise (P < .001), which occurred within 5 to 10 days of the HFD. During the constant-load ride, the calculated oxidation of muscle glycogen was reduced from 1.5 to 1.0 g/min (P < .001) after 15 days of the HFD. Ingestion of a HFD for as little as 5 to 10 days significantly altered substrate utilization during submaximal exercise but did not attenuate the 40-km time-trial performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Goedecke
- Medical Research Council/University of Capetown Bioenergetics of Exercise Research Unit, University of Cape Town Medical School, Newlands, South Africa
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40
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Abstract
PURPOSE Text books attribute the side pain "stitch" during exercise to changes in blood flow to the viscera, but the little available research favors stretching of visceral ligaments. We therefore induced and modified stitch experimentally to investigate its cause and possible treatments. METHODS Ten active healthy young men reported the intensity of stitch during sessions of intermittent exercise after drinking either no fluid (control) or a body-mass-adjusted volume (14 mL x kg(-1)) of each of four fluids: water, Exceed, decarbonated Coca-Cola, and a hypertonic solution of the nonabsorbable sugar lactulose. Each exercise session consisted of five 5-min bouts of hard running on a treadmill, with 10-min rests between each bout. In another experiment, seven subjects reported the effect of several physical maneuvers on stitch during exercise after drinking decarbonated Coca-Cola. RESULTS Stitch developed to a similar intensity with all fluids during the first two bouts of running; thereafter, stitch declined only with Exceed, reaching the intensity with no fluid by the last two bouts. Bending forward while tightening abdominal muscles, tightening a belt around the waist, or breathing through pursed lips with increased lung volume alleviated stitch within seconds, but attempting to relax abdominal muscles or increasing the impact of foot strike had little effect. CONCLUSIONS Our observations cannot be explained readily by mechanisms involving digestion-induced changes in blood flow but are consistent with the notion that stitch arises when the fluid-engorged gut tugs on visceral ligaments.
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Affiliation(s)
- B T Plunkett
- Department of Physiology and School of Physical Education, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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41
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Abstract
High retest reliability is desirable in tests used to monitor athletic performance, but the reliability of many popular tests has not been established. The aim of this study was to determine the reliability of performance of a 2000-m time-trial lasting approximately 7 min performed on a Concept II rowing ergometer. Eight well-trained rowers (peak oxygen uptake 61+/-5 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1); mean +/- standard deviation) performed the time-trials on three occasions at 3-day intervals. Mean power (313+/-38 W in trial 1) improved by 2.3% (95% confidence interval 0.1 to 4.5%) in trial 2 and by a further 0.9% (-1.4 to 3.3%) in trial 3. The variability of performance for individual rowers expressed as a coefficient of variation for mean power was 2.0% (1.3 to 3.1%), and the retest correlation was 0.96 (0.87 to 0.99). Variability and changes in performance expressed as time to complete the test were approximately one-third those of mean power, apparently because simulated velocity is proportional to the cube root of power on this ergometer. Such high reliability makes this combination of ergometer, athlete and test protocol very suitable for monitoring rowing performance and for investigating factors that affect performance in short, high-intensity endurance events.
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Affiliation(s)
- E J Schabort
- MRC/UCT Bioenergetics of Exercise Research Unit, Newlands, South Africa
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42
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Abstract
PURPOSE We have investigated the effect of varying the intensity of interval training on 40-km time-trial performance in 20 male endurance cyclists (peak oxygen uptake 4.8+/-0.6 L x min(-1), mean +/- SD). METHODS Cyclists performed a 25-kJ sprint test, an incremental test to determine peak aerobic power (PP) and a simulated 40-km time-trial on a Kingcycle ergometer. They were then randomly assigned to one of five types of interval-training session: 12x30 s at 175% PP, 12x60 s at 100% PP, 12x2 min at 90% PP, 8x4 min at 85% PP, or 4x8 min at 80% PP. Cyclists completed 6 sessions over 3 wk, in addition to their usual aerobic base training. All laboratory tests were then repeated. RESULTS Performances in the time trial were highly reliable when controlled for training effects (coefficient of variation = 1.1%). The percent improvement in the time trial was modeled as a polynomial function of the rank order of the intensity of the training intervals, a procedure validated by simulation. The cubic trend was strong and statistically significant (overall correlation = 0.70, P = 0.005) and predicted greatest enhancement for the intervals performed at 85% PP (2.8%, 95% CI = 4.3-1.3%) and at 175% PP (2.4%, 95% CI = 4.0-0.7%). Intervals performed at 100% PP and 80% PP did not produce statistically significant enhancements of performance. Quadratic and linear trends were weak or insubstantial. CONCLUSIONS Interval training with work bouts close to race-pace enhance 1-h endurance performance; work bouts at much higher intensity also appear to improve performance, possibly by a different mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- N K Stepto
- Department of Physiology, University of Cape Town Medical School, South Africa
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43
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Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to assess research aimed at measuring performance enhancements that affect success of individual elite athletes in competitive events. ANALYSIS Simulations show that the smallest worthwhile enhancement of performance for an athlete in an international event is 0.7-0.4 of the typical within-athlete random variation in performance between events. Using change in performance in events as the outcome measure in a crossover study, researchers could delimit such enhancements with a sample of 16-65 athletes, or with 65-260 in a fully controlled study. Sample size for a study using a valid laboratory or field test is proportional to the square of the within-athlete variation in performance in the test relative to the event; estimates of these variations are therefore crucial and should be determined by repeated-measures analysis of data from reliability studies for the test and event. Enhancements in test and event may differ when factors that affect performance differ between test and event; overall effects of these factors can be determined with a validity study that combines reliability data for test and event. A test should be used only if it is valid, more reliable than the event, allows estimation of performance enhancement in the event, and if the subjects replicate their usual training and dietary practices for the study; otherwise the event itself provides the only dependable estimate of performance enhancement. Publication of enhancement as a percent change with confidence limits along with an analysis for individual differences will make the study more applicable to athletes. Outcomes can be generalized only to athletes with abilities and practices represented in the study. CONCLUSION estimates of enhancement of performance in laboratory or field tests in most previous studies may not apply to elite athletes in competitive events.
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Affiliation(s)
- W G Hopkins
- Department of Physiology and School of Physical Education, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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44
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Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to devise and evaluate a laboratory test of cycling performance that simulates the variable power demands of competitive road racing. The test is a 100-km time trial interspersed with four 1-km and four 4-km sprints. METHODS On three occasions separated by 5-7 d, eight endurance-trained cyclists (peak oxygen uptake 5.0 +/- 0.7 L.min-1, peak power output 411 +/- 43 W, mean +/- SD) performed the test on their own bikes mounted on an air-braked Kingcycle ergometer. Subjects were free to regulate their power output but were asked to complete each sprint and the full distance as quickly as possible. The only feedback given to the cyclists during each test was elapsed distance. RESULTS In the first test, time for the 100 km and mean times for the 1-km and 4-km sprints were 151:42 +/- 10:36, 1:16 +/- 0:06, and 5:31 +/- 0:16 min:s, respectively; these times improved by 1.6-2.2% in the second test, but there was little further improvement in the third test (0.7 to -0.5%). The between-test correlation for 100-km time was 0.93 (95% CI 0.79 to 0.98), and the within-cyclist coefficient of variation was 1.7% (95% CI 1.1 to 2.5%). Mean sprint performance showed similar good reliability (within-subject variation and correlations for the 1-km and 4-km sprint times of 1.9%, 2.0%, 0.93, and 0.81, respectively). CONCLUSIONS The high reliability of this laboratory test will make the test useful for research on performance of competitive road cyclists.
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Affiliation(s)
- E J Schabort
- Department of Physiology, University of Cape Town Medical School, South Africa
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45
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Stepto NK, Hopkins WG, Hawley JA, Dennis S. LACK OF SPECIFICITY IN THE EFFECT OF INTERVAL TRAINING ON ENDURANCE CYCLING PERFORMANCE. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998. [DOI: 10.1097/00005768-199805001-00202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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46
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Abstract
The reproducibility of performance in a laboratory test impacts on the statistical power of that test to detect changes of performance in experiments. The purpose of this study was to determine the reproducibility of performance of distance runners completing a 60 min time trial (TT) on a motor-driven treadmill. Eight trained distance runners (age 27 +/- 7yrs, peak oxygen consumption [VO2peak] 66 +/- 5 ml x min(-1) x kg(-1), mean +/- SD) performed the TT on three occasions separated by 7-10 days. Throughout each TT the runners controlled the speed of the treadmill and could view current speed and elapsed time, but they did not know the elapsed or final distance. On the basis of heart-rate, it is estimated that the subjects ran at an average intensity equivalent to 80-83% of VO2peak. The distance run in 1 h did not vary substantially between trials (16.2 +/- 1.4 km, 15.9 +/- 1.4 km, and 16.1 +/- 1.2 km for TTs 1-3 respectively, p = 0.5). The coefficient of variation (CV) for individual runners was 2.7% (95% Cl = 1.8-4.0%) and the test-retest reliability expressed as an intraclass correlation coefficient was 0.90 (95% Cl = 0.72-0.98). Reproducibility of performance in this test was therefore acceptable. However, higher reproducibility is required for experimental studies aimed at detecting the smallest worthwhile changes in performance with realistic sample sizes.
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Affiliation(s)
- E J Schabort
- MRC/UCT Bioenergetics of Exercise Research Unit, Department of Physiology, University of Cape Town Medical School, South Africa
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47
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Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine how closely competitive swimmers complied with their coaches' prescriptions when training in squads. A training session early in the buildup phase of the season was observed for each of 24 coaches who had been randomized to two groups: an experimental, high-intensity, low-distance program (E) and a control (usual) program (C). Swim distances, rest durations, and swim durations for at least one set of prescribed repetitions (reps) were recorded for each of 47 swimmers (87 sets, 429 reps) in E and for 49 swimmers (79 sets, 402 reps) in C. The pace of each rep, expressed as percent of the swimmer's current personal best pace for the distance of the rep, represented observed intensity. There was almost perfect agreement between the prescribed and observed swim distances for the set of reps (Spearman r = 0.99 in both groups). Prescribed and observed rest intervals were also closely matched in E and C (Spearman r = 0.87 and 0.77 respectively). Four coaches in E and 10 coaches in C prescribed intensity subjectively as easy, moderate, hard, or race-pace; mean +/- SD observed intensities (%) for their swimmers were 79 +/- 6, 81 +/- 3, 91 +/- 2, and 93 +/- 5, respectively. The relationship between these coaches' subjective training prescription and individual swimmers' interpretations of these intensities was poor (Cohen's kappa = 0.39). Nine coaches in E prescribed intensity as percent of personal best pace. Although the mean prescribed and observed intensities for their swimmers were similar (89 +/- 4 and 90 +/- 7, respectively), the relationship between individual values was poor (Pearson r = 0.30). We conclude that swimmers complied with prescribed distances and rest intervals but were less effective in judging the intensity of swim training. We recommend that coaches monitor training intensity more closely.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Stewart
- School of Physical Education and Department of Physiology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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48
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Abstract
Validated six-month retrospective questionnaires were completed by 119 female and 234 male coached distance runners (59% compliance) for a descriptive study of relationships between specificity of training and best performance in a summer season. Runners were aged 26 +/- 10 y (mean +/- SD), specialising in distances from 800 m to the marathon, with seasonal best paces of 82 +/- 7% of sex- and age-group world records. They reported typical weekly durations of interval and strength training, and typical weekly durations and paces of moderate and hard continuous running, for build-up, precompetition, competition, and postcompetition phases of the season. The training programs showed some evidence of specificity, especially for runners preparing for longer events. A potentially beneficial effect of specificity was evident in a significant (p < 0.01) correlation between performance and seasonal mean weekly duration of moderate continuous running for runners specialising in longer distances (r = 0.29). The only other significant correlates of performance were seasonal mean relative training paces of moderate (r = -0.18) and hard (r = -0.42) continuous running, which exemplified detrimental effects of specificity for most runners. Thus, the training of better runners is not characterised strongly by greater specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Hewson
- Department of Physiology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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49
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Abstract
A survey of 123 distance-running coaches and their best runners was undertaken to describe prescribed seasonal training and its relationship to the performance and self-reported training of the runners. The runners were 43 females and 80 males, aged 24 +/- 8 years (mean +/- S.D.), training for events from 800 m to the marathon, with seasonal best paces of 86 +/- 6% of sex- and age-group world records. The coaches and runners completed a questionnaire on typical weekly volumes of interval and strength training, and typical weekly volumes and paces of moderate and hard continuous running, for build-up, pre-competition, competition and post-competition phases of a season. Prescribed training decreased in volume and increased in intensity from the build-up through to the competition phase, and had similarities with 'long slow distance' training. Coaches of the faster runners prescribed longer build-ups, greater volumes of moderate continuous running and slower relative paces of continuous running (r = 0.19-0.36, P < 0.05), suggesting beneficial effects of not training close to competition pace. The mean training volumes and paces prescribed by the coaches were similar to those reported by the runners, but the correlations between prescribed and reported training were poor (r = 0.2-0.6). Coaches may therefore need to monitor their runners' training more closely.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Hewson
- Department of Physiology and School of Physical Education, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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50
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Stewart AM, Hopkins WG. CONSISTENCY OF SEASONAL-BEST SWIMMING PACES EXPRESSED AS PERCENT OF WORLD RECORDS. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995. [DOI: 10.1249/00005768-199505001-00171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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