Identification of a New Pyrrolyl Pyridoindole Alkaloid, Melpyrrole, and Flazin from Honey and Their Cough-Suppressing Effect in Guinea Pigs

The cough-suppressing effect of honey was demonstrated for the first time using a guinea pig model whereby cough was induced by citric acid and capsaicin, and a new pyrrolyl pyridoindole, 1-(5-(hydroxymethyl)-1H-pyrrol-2-yl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole-3-carboxylic acid (1), named melpyrrole, and flazin (2) were identified as the active principle components. The structures of 1 and 2 were estimated using a combination approach of an activity-guided survey and LC-MS/MS multivariate analysis and were finally established by total synthesis of 1 and comparison with an authentic standard for 2. Both compounds showed antitussive activity comparable to that of dextromethorphan in guinea pigs. Their antitussive effects were unaffected by an opioid antagonist and reversed by a nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor, indicating that these natural products do not act directly on opiate receptors but through the NO signaling pathway.

Bisacodyl Suppresses TGF-α-Induced MUC5AC Production in NCI-H292 Cells

MUC5AC overproduction is commonly observed in chronic inflammatory lung diseases and worsens these conditions. Therefore, drugs that inhibit MUC5AC production are urgently needed. To identify novel drugs directly inhibiting MUC5AC production, 640 already approved drugs were screened. We found that the laxative bisacodyl suppressed transforming growth factor (TGF)-α-induced MUC5AC production in a concentration-dependent manner. Additionally, bisacodyl also suppressed TGF-α-induced MUC5AC mRNA expression in the same concentration range. These results suggested that bisacodyl could be a new drug for treating mucin overproduction.

Ibudilast Suppresses MUC5AC Mucus Production through Inhibition of ERK1/2 Phosphorylation

Mucus hypersecretion is a hallmark of respiratory diseases, and excess airway mucus can worsen these conditions. Therefore, it is important to control the production of airway mucus in the treatment of respiratory diseases. The phosphodiesterase inhibitor ibudilast has been reported to be effective in treating sputum and postnasal drip in patients with chronic airway inflammation. On the basis of the hypothesis that ibudilast could inhibit mucus production in the airway, in the present study, we examined the effects of ibudilast on the production of MUC5AC, a major protein component of mucus. In in vitro studies using NCI-H292 cells, ibudilast suppressed MUC5AC production induced by various stimuli. In addition, ibudilast inhibited extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 phosphorylation and MUC5AC gene transcription. Furthermore, it attenuated MUC5AC production and Muc5ac mRNA expression in lipopolysaccharide-treated mice in vivo. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that ibudilast has an inhibitory effect on mucus production, which could at least partly be attributed to the inhibition of ERK1/2 phosphorylation and the repression of MUC5AC gene transcription.

Inactivation of beta1 integrin induces proteasomal degradation of Myc oncoproteins

The MYC family oncogenes (MYC, MYCN, and MYCL) contribute to the genesis of many human cancers. Among them, amplification of the MYCN gene and over-expression of N-Myc protein are the most reliable risk factors in neuroblastoma patients. On the other hand, we previously found that a peptide derived from fibronectin, termed FNIII14, is capable of inducing functional inactivation in β1-integrins. Here, we demonstrate that inactivation of β1-integrin by FNIII14 induced proteasomal degradation in N-Myc of neuroblastoma cells with MYCN amplification. This N-Myc degradation by FNIII14 reduced the malignant properties, including the anchorage-independent proliferation and invasive migration, of neuroblastoma cells. An in vivo experiment using a mouse xenograft model showed that the administration of FNIII14 can inhibit tumor growth, and concomitantly a remarkable decrease in N-Myc levels in tumor tissues. Of note, the activation of proteasomal degradation based on β1-integrin inactivation is applicable to another Myc family oncoprotein, c-myc, which also reverses cancer-associated properties in pancreatic cancer cells. Collectively, β1-integrin inactivation could be a new chemotherapeutic strategy for cancers with highly expressed Myc. FNIII14, which is a unique pharmacological agent able to induce β1-integrin inactivation, may be a promising drug targeting Myc oncoproteins for cancer chemotherapy.

Effects of nitrous acid exposure on baseline pulmonary resistance and Muc5ac in rats

We examined the baseline pulmonary resistance (RLung), baseline dynamic lung compliance (Cdyn), cytokine inductions, and histological alterations in rats exposed to nitrous acid (HONO) with secondary products of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and nitric oxide (NO) to assess its biological effects. We exposed three groups of nine male F344 rats to different doses of HONO for six weeks (24 h/day). The cumulative values of HONO concentration were measured twice. The average concentrations of nitrogen oxide for each group were 5.8 parts per million (ppm) HONO with secondary products of 0.7 ppm NO₂ and 2.3 ppm NO, 4.1 ppm HONO with 0.1 ppm NO₂ and 0.6 ppm NO, and a clean air control. We measured baseline RLung and baseline Cdyn using tracheal cannulation. A tracheal tube was inserted into the trachea by tracheostomy, and lung function measurements (baseline RLung and baseline Cdyn) were conducted in mechanically ventilated rats. We measured mRNA levels of Cxcl-1, TNF-α, and Muc5ac in the right lung using quantitative RT-PCR, and observed histological alterations and the alveolar mean linear intercept (Lm) on the left lung. Our results demonstrated that HONO exposure significantly increased baseline RLung, Lm and Muc5ac expression, but did not affect baseline Cdyn or expression of Cxcl-1 and TNF-α. Further, we identified bronchial smooth muscle hypertrophy, pulmonary emphysema-like alterations in the alveolar duct centriacinar regions, and increased goblet cells in HONO-exposed rats. The present results suggest that HONO (with secondary products) adversely affects respiratory function, but that these pathologies may be unrelated to inflammation.

Boiogito, a Kampo medicine, improves hydrarthrosis in a rat model of knee osteoarthritis

BACKGROUND

Hydrarthrosis, which is associated with knee pain and limited range of motion, decreases the quality of life (QOL) of patients with osteoarthritis (OA). The Kampo medicine boiogito is prescribed for the treatment of knee OA with hydrarthrosis; however, its precise mechanisms of action remain unknown. The purposes of this study were to assess the pharmacological effects of boiogito and its mechanisms of action on joint effusion in rats with surgically induced OA.

METHODS

A rat OA model was produced by transecting the anterior (cranial) cruciate ligament, medial collateral ligament, and medial meniscus in the right knee joints of 7-week-old female Wistar rats. The rats were given chow containing boiogito (1 or 2%) or indomethacin (0.002 %) for 4 weeks after surgical transection. Levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and hyaluronic acid (HA) were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Knee joint pain was assessed using an incapacitance tester. Osmotic water permeability in cultured rabbit synovial cells was assessed using stopped-flow analysis.

RESULTS

Increased synovial fluid volume and knee joint pain were observed in rats with surgically induced OA. In rats with OA, levels of IL-1β and HA in the articular cavity were higher but concentration of HA in synovial fluid was lower than in sham-operated rats, suggesting excessive synovial fluid secretion. Administration of boiogito improved hydrarthrosis, IL-1β, and HA concentrations and alleviated knee joint pain in rats with OA. Indomethacin reduced IL-1β and knee joint pain but failed to improve hydrarthrosis or HA concentration in rats with OA. Osmotic water permeability in synovial cells, which is related to the function of the water channel aquaporin, was decreased by treatment with boiogito.

CONCLUSION

Boiogito ameliorates the increased knee joint effusion in rats with OA by suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β production in the articular cavity and regulating function of water transport in the synovium. The improvement of hydrarthrosis by boiogito results in the increased HA concentration in synovial fluid, thus reducing joint pain. Boiogito may be a clinically useful treatment of QOL in patients with OA with hydrarthrosis.

Aquaporin 5 increases keratinocyte-derived chemokine expression and NF-κB activity through ERK activation

Aquaporin-5 (AQP5) is a water-selective channel protein that is expressed in submucosal glands and alveolar epithelial cells in the lungs. Recent studies have revealed that AQPs regulate not only water metabolism, but also some cellular functions such as cell growth and migration. Here, we report the role of AQP5 in inflammatory responses. In MLE-12 cells, knockdown of AQP5 using siRNA (10-50 nM) attenuated TNF-α-induced expression of keratinocyte chemoattractant (KC) mRNA and protein. Conversely, in NIH-3T3 cells, overexpression of AQP5 increased KC expression, NF-κB activation, and ERK phosphorylation. The AQP5-induced increase of KC expression was diminished by treatment with ERK inhibitors. Taken together, we propose a new function of AQP5 as an inflammatory signal potentiator, which may be mediated by increased activation of ERK and NF-κB.

MRI-based analysis of intracerebral hemorrhage in mice reveals relationship between hematoma expansion and the severity of symptoms

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is featured by poor prognosis such as high mortality rate and severe neurological dysfunction. In humans, several valuables including hematoma volume and ventricular expansion of hemorrhage are known to correlate with the extent of mortality and neurological dysfunction. However, relationship between hematoma conditions and the severity of symptoms in animal ICH models has not been clarified. Here we addressed this issue by using 7-tesla magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) on collagenase-induced ICH model in mice. We found that the mortality rate and the performance in behavioral tests did not correlate well with the volume of hematoma. In contrast, when hemorrhage invaded the internal capsule, mice exhibited high mortality and showed poor sensorimotor performance. High mortality rate and poor performance in behavioral tests were also observed when hemorrhage invaded the lateral ventricle, although worsened symptoms associated with ventricular hemorrhage were apparent only during early phase of the disease. These results clearly indicate that invasion of the internal capsule or the lateral ventricle by hematoma is a critical determinant of poor prognosis in experimental ICH model in mice as well as in human ICH patients. MRI assessment may be a powerful tool to refine investigations of pathogenic mechanisms and evaluations of drug effects in animal models of ICH.

Induction of epithelial-mesenchymal transition by flagellin in cultured lung epithelial cells

Toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5) recognizes bacterial flagellin and activates host inflammatory responses, mainly through activation of the NF-κB pathway. Although pulmonary fibrosis occurs in some cases of lung infection by flagellated bacteria, the pathological roles of TLR5 stimulation in pulmonary fibrosis have yet to be elucidated. In the present study, we first confirmed that flagellin activated the NF-κB pathway in cultured A549 alveolar epithelial cells. Next, we examined the types of genes whose expression was modulated by flagellin in the cells. Microarray analysis of gene expression indicated that flagellin induced a change in gene expression that had a similar trend to transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), a key factor in the induction of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Biochemical analysis revealed that TGF-β1 and flagellin increased the level of fibronectin protein, while they reduced the level of E-cadherin protein after 30 h of treatment. Interestingly, simultaneous treatment with TGF-β1 and flagellin significantly augmented these EMT-related changes. Flagellin strongly activated p38 MAP kinase, and the activation was sustained for longer than 30 h. SB203580, an inhibitor of p38 MAP kinase, inhibited the upregulation of fibronectin by both flagellin and TGF-β1. Simultaneous treatment with TGF-β1 and flagellin augmented the activation of p38 MAP kinase by TGF-β1 or flagellin alone. These results strongly suggest that flagellin cooperates with TGF-β1 in the induction of EMT in alveolar epithelial cells.

Nitric oxide/soluble guanylyl cyclase signaling mediates depolarization-induced protection of rat mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons from MPP⁺ cytotoxicity

Neuronal electrical activity has been known to affect the viability of neurons in the central nervous system. Here we show that long-lasting membrane depolarization induced by elevated extracellular K(+) recruits nitric oxide (NO)/soluble guanylyl cyclase/protein kinase G signaling pathway, induces 8-nitroguanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (8-nitro-cGMP)-mediated protein S-guanylation, and confers dopaminergic neuroprotection. Treatment of primary mesencephalic cell cultures with 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP(+)) for 72 h decreased the number of dopaminergic neurons, whereas the cell loss was markedly inhibited by elevated extracellular concentration of K(+) (+40 mM). The neuroprotective effect of elevated extracellular K(+) was significantly attenuated by tetrodotoxin (a Na(+) channel blocker), amlodipine (a voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channel blocker), N(ω)-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME) (a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor), 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ) (a soluble guanylyl cyclase inhibitor), and KT5823 or Rp-8-bromo-β-phenyl-1,N(2)-ethenoguanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphorothioate (Rp-8-Br-PET-cGMPS) (protein kinase G inhibitors). Elevated extracellular K(+) increased 8-nitro-cGMP production resulting in the induction of protein S-guanylation in cells in mesencephalic cultures including dopaminergic neurons. In addition, exogenous application of 8-nitro-cGMP protected dopaminergic neurons from MPP(+) cytotoxicity, which was prevented by zinc protoporphyrin IX, an inhibitor of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Zinc protoporphyrin IX also inhibited the neuroprotective effect of elevated extracellular K(+). On the other hand, KT5823 or Rp-8-Br-PET-cGMPS did not inhibit the induction of HO-1 protein expression by 8-nitro-cGMP, although these protein kinase G inhibitors abrogated the neuroprotective effect of 8-nitro-cGMP. These results suggest that protein S-guanylation (leading to HO-1 induction) as well as canonical protein kinase G signaling pathway plays an important role in NO-mediated, activity-dependent dopaminergic neuroprotection.

Caffeic acid phenethyl ester protects nigral dopaminergic neurons via dual mechanisms involving haem oxygenase-1 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) is a component of honey bee propolis that can induce expression of haem oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Because HO-1 induction has been suggested to protect dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, we examined the effect of CAPE in experimental models of dopaminergic neurodegeneration.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Neuroprotective effect of CAPE was investigated in rat organotypic midbrain slice cultures and in vivo, using a mouse model of dopaminergic neurodegeneration induced by intranigral injection of LPS and intrastriatal injection of 6-hydroxydopamine.

KEY RESULTS

CAPE protected dopaminergic neurons in slice cultures from IFN-γ/LPS-induced injury. The effect of CAPE was inhibited by zinc protoporphyrin IX, an HO-1 inhibitor, and by neutralizing antibody against brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). A p38 MAPK inhibitor SB203580 prevented activation of NF-E2-related factor 2, attenuated increased expression of HO-1 and BDNF, and blocked the neuroprotective actions of CAPE. In the LPS-injected mouse model, daily intraperitoneal administration of CAPE protected dopaminergic neurons, up-regulated HO-1 and BDNF, and reduced the increase of activated microglia/macrophages. Neuroprotective effects of CAPE against LPS-induced injury was prevented by zinc protoporphyrin IX or anti-BDNF antibody. CAPE protected dopaminergic neurons and alleviated methamphetamine-induced rotational behaviour also in 6-hydroxydopamine hemiparkinsonian mice.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

CAPE is a novel type of neuroprotective agent whose actions are mediated by both HO-1 and BDNF. These findings may provide novel clues to develop neuroprotective agents for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders.

Estrogenic activities of Fatty acids and a sterol isolated from royal jelly

We have previously reported that royal jelly (RJ) from honeybees (Apis mellifera) has weak estrogenic activity mediated by interaction with estrogen receptors that leads to changes in gene expression and cell proliferation. In this study, we isolated four compounds from RJ that exhibit estrogenic activity as evaluated by a ligand-binding assay for the estrogen receptor (ER) β. These compounds were identified as 10-hydroxy-trans-2-decenoic acid, 10-hydroxydecanoic acid, trans-2-decenoic acid and 24-methylenecholesterol. All these compounds inhibited binding of 17β-estradiol to ERβ, although more weakly than diethylstilbestrol or phytoestrogens. However, these compounds had little or no effect on the binding of 17β-estradiol to ERα. Expression assays suggested that these compounds activated ER, as evidenced by enhanced transcription of a reporter gene containing an estrogen-responsive element. Treatment of MCF-7 cells with these compounds enhanced their proliferation, but concomitant treatment with tamoxifen blocked this effect. Exposure of immature rats to these compounds by subcutaneous injection induced mild hypertrophy of the luminal epithelium of the uterus, but was not associated with an increase in uterine weight. These findings provide evidence that these compounds contribute to the estrogenic effect of RJ.

Orexin neurons in hypothalamic slice cultures are vulnerable to endoplasmic reticulum stress

Narcolepsy results from disruption of orexin neurons in the hypothalamus that play a key role in maintenance of the arousal state. Underlying mechanisms leading to selective loss of orexin neurons remain unknown. On the other hand, endoplasmic reticulum stress, namely, conditions associated with impairment of endoplasmic reticulum functions such as proper folding and sorting of newly synthesized proteins, is implicated in pathogenesis of several types of neurodegenerative disorders. Here we found that application of endoplasmic reticulum stress inducers such as tunicamycin (that prevents protein N-glycosylation) and thapsigargin (that inhibits Ca²⁺-ATPase) to organotypic slice cultures of the hypothalamus caused preferential loss of orexin-immunoreactive neurons, as compared to melanin-concentrating hormone- or calcitonin gene-related peptide-immunoreactive neurons. The decrease in orexin-immunoreactive neurons at early time points (6-24 h) was not accompanied by induction of cell death as indicated by the absence of caspase-3 activation and no significant change in the number of NeuN-positive cells, whereas sustained treatment with tunicamycin for 72 h induced cell death. At 24-h treatment, tunicamycin and thapsigargin did not decrease expression of prepro-orexin mRNA, suggesting that post-transcriptional mechanisms were responsible for depletion of orexin peptides. In addition, inhibition of axonal transport by colchicine and inhibition of proteasomal activity by MG132 significantly prevented the decrease in orexin immunoreactivity by tunicamycin. Comparative examinations of expression of unfolded protein response-related proteins revealed that C/EBP-homologous protein (a transcription factor that promotes induction of apoptosis) as well as phosphorylated form of RNA-dependent protein kinase-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (a protein kinase that mediates inhibition of protein translation) was expressed more prominently in orexin neurons than in melanin-concentrating hormone neurons, in response to tunicamycin. These results indicate that orexin neurons are particularly sensitive to endoplasmic reticulum stress, which may be relevant to pathogenic events in narcolepsy.

Midbrain dopaminergic neurons utilize nitric oxide/cyclic GMP signaling to recruit ERK that links retinoic acid receptor stimulation to up-regulation of BDNF

Stimulation of retinoic acid receptors (RARs) protects midbrain dopaminergic neurons, presumably via up-regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression. The present study was focused on unexplored signaling mechanisms linking RAR stimulation to BDNF expression. Rat midbrain slice cultures treated with an RAR agonist Am80 showed increased tissue levels of BDNF mRNA and protein as compared to cultures without treatment. Am80-induced increase in BDNF expression was observed in dopaminergic neurons, which was blocked by inhibition of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation. We also found that Am80 increased neuronal nitric oxide synthase expression in dopaminergic neurons even during ERK inhibition, and this increase was accompanied by 8-nitro-cyclic GMP formation. Notably, the effect of Am80 on BDNF expression was attenuated by inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase, soluble guanylyl cyclase and cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG). Am80-induced ERK phosphorylation in dopaminergic neurons was also attenuated by inhibition of soluble guanylyl cyclase and PKG. Moreover, 8-Br-cyclic GMP induced ERK phosphorylation and BDNF expression in dopaminergic neurons. These results suggest that, by recruiting cyclic GMP and PKG, neuronal nitric oxide synthase-derived nitric oxide plays a novel and essential role in RAR signaling leading to ERK-dependent BDNF up-regulation in midbrain dopaminergic neurons.

Depolarizing stimuli cause persistent and selective loss of orexin in rat hypothalamic slice culture

A hypothalamic neuropeptide orexin (hypocretin) is a critical regulator of physiological processes including sleep/wakefulness and feeding. Using organotypic slice culture of rat hypothalamus, we found that exposure to elevated extracellular concentration of K(+) (+10-30 mM) for 24-72h led to a substantial decrease in the number of neurons immunoreactive for orexin and a co-existing neuropeptide dynorphin-A. In contrast, the same treatment affected neither the number of melanin-concentrating hormone-immunoreactive neurons nor the number of total neurons. A substantial decrease of orexin-immunoreactive neurons was also induced by 72h treatment with 1-10 microM veratridine, a Na(+) channel activator. The effect of elevated K(+) was only partially reversible, and that of veratridine was virtually irreversible, although the decrease in orexin immunoreactivity was not associated with signs of cell damage assessed by propidium iodide uptake and Hoechst 33342 nuclear staining. In addition, the level of preproorexin mRNA did not decrease during treatment with elevated K(+) or veratridine. After treatment with elevated K(+) and veratridine, c-Fos immunoreactivity appeared in orexin-immunoreactive neurons but not in melanin-concentrating hormone-immunoreactive neurons, suggesting selective excitation of orexin neurons. However, the amount of orexin released extracellularly was paradoxically decreased by treatment with elevated K(+) and veratridine. Overall, these characteristics of orexin neurons may be taken into consideration to understand the behaviors of these neurons under physiological and pathophysiological conditions.

Inhibition of neural activity depletes orexin from rat hypothalamic slice culture

Orexins (hypocretins) are neuropeptides produced by a small population of hypothalamic neurons whose dysregulation may lead to narcolepsy, a neurological disorder characterized by disorganization of sleep and wakefulness. Excessive stimulation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate receptors causes preferential loss of orexin neurons in the hypothalamus, whereas an adequate level of neuronal excitatory activities is generally known to be important for the maintenance of central neurons. By examining the effect of manipulation of neural activity, we found that 24-72 hr application of tetrodotoxin (TTX) caused a substantial decrease in the number of orexin-immunoreactive neurons, but not of melanin-concentrating hormone-immunoreactive neurons, in hypothalamic slice culture. Similar results were obtained when neural activity was arrested by added extracellular Mg(2+). Reduction of orexin expression by TTX and Mg(2+) was also observed at mRNA level. The decrease of orexin-immunoreactive neurons was attributable to depletion of orexin, because it was reversible after washout of TTX or elevated extracellular Mg(2+) and was not associated with induction of cell death. Blockers of voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channels as well as of NMDA receptors also induced a significant and selective decrease of orexin-immunoreactive neurons. Moreover, TTX-induced decrease of orexin immunoreactivity was largely abrogated by concurrent application of a moderate concentration of NMDA. These results suggest that Ca(2+) entry associated with nontoxic levels of spontaneous activity of glutamatergic inputs plays an important role in the maintenance of orexin neurons in a tissue culture model.

Internalization of MUC1 by anti-MUC1 antibody from cell membrane through the macropinocytotic pathway

MUC1 is a type I transmembrane glycoprotein aberrantly overexpressed in various cancer cells. It is thought to serve as a physical barrier from the extracellular environment and also as a receptor for various extracellular molecules. However, little is known about the fate of MUC1 during and after the interaction with these molecules. In the present study, we used anti-MUC1 antibody as an interacting molecule and investigated the cellular trafficking of MUC1. Our results showed that: (1) anti-MUC1 antibody was internalized only in MUC1 expressing cells and triggered internalization and down-regulation of MUC1; (2) the internalization of MUC1 by anti-MUC1 antibody required the cytoplasmic tail of MUC1 and was suppressed by inhibitors of Na(+)/H(+) exchanger, and caveola/raft-dependent internalization, but not by an inhibitor of clathrin-dependent internalization. We conclude that antibody-induced internalization of MUC1 involves the macropinocytotic pathway.

Retinoic acid receptor stimulation protects midbrain dopaminergic neurons from inflammatory degeneration via BDNF-mediated signaling

Functions of retinoic acid receptors (RARs) in adult CNS have been poorly characterized. Here we investigated potential neuroprotective action of tamibarotene (Am80), an RARalpha/beta agonist available for the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia, on midbrain dopaminergic neurons. Am80 protected dopaminergic neurons in rat midbrain slice culture from injury mediated by lipopolysaccharide-activated microglia, without affecting production of nitric oxide, a key mediator of cell injury. The effect of Am80 was mimicked by another RAR agonist, TAC-101, but not by a retinoid X receptor agonist, HX630, and HX630 did not synergize with Am80. We observed neuronal expression of RARalpha and RARbeta in midbrain slice culture and also found that Am80 increased tissue level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA. Exogenous BDNF prevented dopaminergic neurodegeneration, and the neuroprotective effect of Am80 was suppressed by a TrkB inhibitor, K252a, or by anti-BDNF neutralizing antibody. These results reveal a novel action of RARs mediated by enhancement of BDNF expression. Finally, oral administration of Am80 prevented dopaminergic cell loss in the substantia nigra induced by local injection of lipopolysaccharide in mice, indicating that RARs are a promising target of therapeutics for neurodegenerative disorders.

Age-related pulmonary emphysema in mice lacking alpha/beta hydrolase domain containing 2 gene

The alpha/beta hydrolase family genes have been identified as down-regulated genes in human emphysematous lungs. Although proteins in the alpha/beta hydrolase family generally act as enzymes, such as lipases, the specific functions of the Abhd2 protein are unknown. To examine the role of Abhd2 in the lung, we analyzed Abhd2 deficient mice obtained by gene trap mutagenesis. Abhd2 was expressed in the alveolar type II cells. Abhd2 deficiency resulted in a decreased level of phosphatidylcholine in the bronchoalveolar lavage. These mice developed spontaneous gradual progression of emphysema, due to increased macrophage infiltration, increased inflammatory cytokines, a protease/anti-protease imbalance and enhanced apoptosis. This phenotype is more akin to the pace of emphysema that develops in humans. Our findings suggest that derangement in alveolar phospholipid metabolism can induce emphysema, and that Abhd2 plays a critical role in maintaining lung structural integrity.

Hypoxia enhances MUC1 expression in a lung adenocarcinoma cell line

Expression of a transmembrane mucin MUC1 is emphasized in most cases of carcinoma. High expression of MUC1 is closely associated with cancer progression and metastasis, leading to poor prognosis. However, little is known about how MUC1 is overexpressed in malignant tumor. In this study, we demonstrated that: (1) Hypoxia, a typical feature of malignant tumor, enhanced the expression of MUC1 mRNA and protein in a human lung adenocarcinoma cell line; (2) the hypoxia-induced increase in MUC1 mRNA was mediated by the transcriptional activity of MUC1 promoter, but not mRNA stability. Moreover; (3) CoCl(2), an inducer of Hypoxia Inducible Factor (HIF)-1alpha, increased the expression of MUC1 mRNA; and (4) HIF-1alpha-targeted siRNA but not its control siRNA decreased hypoxia-induced MUC1 mRNA. These data suggest that hypoxia enhances the expression of MUC1 through the transcriptional regulation by HIF-1alpha in a human lung epithelial cell line.

Nitric oxide-cyclic GMP signaling pathway limits inflammatory degeneration of midbrain dopaminergic neurons: cell type-specific regulation of heme oxygenase-1 expression

Excessive production of nitric oxide (NO) by microglia is at least in part responsible for the pathogenesis of various neurodegenerative disorders including Parkinson disease, but at the same time NO may also play a distinct role as a signaling molecule such as an activator of soluble guanylyl cyclase. Here we investigated potential roles of the NO-soluble guanylyl cyclase-cyclic GMP signaling pathway in the regulation of dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Activation of microglia by interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) followed by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) caused dopaminergic cell death in rat midbrain slice cultures, which was dependent on NO production. 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ), a soluble guanylyl cyclase inhibitor, as well as KT5823, an inhibitor of cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase, exacerbated dopaminergic cell death induced by IFN-gamma/LPS. Conversely, 8-bromo-cyclic GMP attenuated IFN-gamma/LPS cytotoxicity on dopaminergic neurons. Notably, although heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) was expressed prominently in cells other than dopaminergic neurons in control cultures, robust expression of HO-1 was induced in surviving dopaminergic neurons challenged with IFN-gamma/LPS. ODQ and KT5823 decreased, whereas 8-bromo-cyclic GMP increased, the number of dopaminergic neurons expressing HO-1 after IFN-gamma/LPS challenge, without parallel changes in HO-1 expression in other cell populations. An NO donor 3-(4-morpholinyl)sydnonimine hydrochloride also induced HO-1 expression in dopaminergic neurons, which was abolished by ODQ and augmented by 8-bromo-cyclic GMP. Moreover, IFN-gamma/LPS-induced dopaminergic cell death was augmented by zinc protoporphyrin IX, an HO-1 inhibitor. The NO donor cytotoxicity on dopaminergic neurons was also augmented by ODQ and zinc protoporphyrin IX. These results indicate that the NO-cyclic GMP signaling pathway promotes the induction of HO-1 specifically in dopaminergic neurons, which acts as an endogenous protective system to limit inflammatory degeneration of this cell population.

Glycyrrhizin inhibits interleukin-8 production and nuclear factor-kappaB activity in lung epithelial cells, but not through glucocorticoid receptors

This study was designed to examine the glucocorticoid-like inhibitory effect of glycyrrhizin (GL) on interleukin (IL)-8 production in A549 lung epithelial cells. GL, as well as dexamethasone (DEX) inhibited both tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α –and IL-1β –induced IL-8 production, mRNA expression, and promoter activity in A549 cells. Both GL and DEX inhibited transactivation of nuclear factor (NF)-κ B, without inhibiting translocation of the NF-κ B p65 subunit to the nucleus. However, the effect of GL was insensitive to RU486, a GR antagonist, and to GR knockdown by siRNA. Furthermore, only GL inhibited DNA binding of p65 to the IL-8 promoter region. These findings indicated that GL had a glucocorticoid-like inhibitory effect on IL-8 production via a mechanism that differs from that of glucocorticoids.

The signaling pathway involved in neutrophil elastase stimulated MUC1 transcription

We previously reported that neutrophil elastase (NE) stimulated MUC1 gene expression in A549 lung epithelial cells through binding of Sp1 to the MUC1 promoter element. The current study was undertaken to elucidate the complete signaling pathway leading to Sp1 activation. Using a combination of pharmacologic inhibitors, dominant-negative mutant, RNA interference, and soluble receptor blocking techniques, we identified a protein kinase Cdelta (PKCdelta) --> dual oxidase 1 (Duox1) --> reactive oxygen species (ROS) --> TNF-alpha-converting enzyme (TACE) --> TNF-alpha --> TNF receptor (TNFR)1 --> extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 --> Sp1 pathway as responsible for NE-activated MUC1 transcription. This cascade was identical up to the point of TACE with the signaling pathway previously reported for NE-stimulated MUC5AC production. However, unlike the MUC5AC pathway, TNF-alpha, TNFR1, ERK1/2, and Sp1 were unique components of the MUC1 pathway. Given the anti-inflammatory role of MUC1 during airway bacterial infection, up-regulation of MUC1 by inflammatory mediators such as NE and TNF-alpha suggests a crucial role for MUC1 in the control of excessive inflammation during airway bacterial infection.

TNF-alpha induces MUC1 gene transcription in lung epithelial cells: its signaling pathway and biological implication

The current study was conducted to elucidate the mechanism through which TNF-alpha stimulates expression of MUC1, a membrane-tethered mucin. A549 human lung alveolar cells treated with TNF-alpha exhibited significantly higher MUC1 protein levels in detergent lysates compared with cells treated with vehicle alone. Increased MUC1 protein levels were correlated with significantly higher levels of MUC1 mRNA in TNF-alpha-treated cells compared with controls. However, TNF-alpha did not alter MUC1 transcript stability, implying increased de novo transcription induced by the cytokine. TNF-alpha increased MUC1 gene promoter activity in A549 cells transfected with a promoter-luciferase reporter plasmid. Both U0126, an inhibitor of MEK1/2, and dominant negative ERK1 prevented TNF-alpha-induced MUC1 promoter activation, and anti-TNFR1 antibody blocked TNF-alpha-stimulated ERK1/2 activation. MUC1 promoter activation by TNF-alpha also was blocked by mithramycin A, an inhibitor of Sp1, as well as either deletion or mutation of a putative Sp1 binding site in the MUC1 promoter located between nucleotides -99 and -90. TNF-alpha-stimulated binding of Sp1 to the MUC1 promoter in intact cells was demonstrated by chromatin immunoprecipitation assay. We conclude that TNF-alpha induces MUC1 gene transcription through a TNFR1 --> MEK1/2 --> ERK1 --> Sp1 pathway.

Nitric oxide decreases cell surface expression of aquaporin-5 and membrane water permeability in lung epithelial cells

Nitric oxide (NO) is implicated in the pathogenesis of lung inflammation and edema. In this study, the effects of nitric oxide (NO)-donors on membrane water permeability and cell surface expression of aquaporin-5 (AQP5) in mouse lung epithelial cells were examined. NO-donors, GSNO and NOC-18 decreased cell surface expression of AQP5, concentration- and time-dependently, whereas they did not affect the amount of AQP5 in whole cell lysates. The membrane water permeability of cells was also decreased by treatment with NO-donors. The decrease in cell surface AQP5 by NO was abolished by simultaneous treatment with methyl-beta-cyclodextrin, but not with ODQ, an inhibitor of the cGMP-dependent pathway. In addition, immunocytochemistry with anti-AQP5 indicated that NO changed AQP5 localization from the plasma membrane to the intracellular fraction. These data indicate that NO stimulates AQP5 internalization from the plasma membrane through a cGMP-independent mechanism, and decreases membrane water permeability.

The role of CpG methylation in cell type-specific expression of the aquaporin-5 gene

Aquaporin-5 (AQP5) is expressed in a cell type-specific manner. Here, we show that the AQP5 gene is regulated by CpG methylation. The AQP5 promoter containing a putative CpG island was highly methylated in NIH-3T3 or freshly isolated alveolar epithelial cells, correlating with the repression of this gene in these cells. In contrast, the AQP5 promoter was hypo-methylated in MLE-12 or cultured alveolar epithelial cells, which express high levels of AQP5. Repression of AQP5 transcription in NIH-3T3 cells could be relieved with 5-azacytidine, and in vitro methylation of the AQP5 promoter resulted in inhibition of transcription of the reporter gene in MLE-12 cells. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays showed that endogenous Sp1 bound to the hypo-methylated, but not highly methylated, AQP5 promoter region. These results demonstrate that the hypo-methylated state of the AQP5 promoter leading to increased Sp1 binding may play a role in regulation of cell type-specific expression of the AQP5 gene.

All-trans retinoic acid increases expression of aquaporin-5 and plasma membrane water permeability via transactivation of Sp1 in mouse lung epithelial cells

Aquaporin-5 (AQP5) is a water-selective channel protein that is expressed in lacrimal glands, salivary glands, and distal lung. Several studies using AQP5 knockout mice have revealed that AQP5 plays an important role in maintaining water homeostasis in the lung. We report here that all-trans retinoic acid (atRA) increases plasma membrane water permeability, AQP5 mRNA and protein expression, and AQP5 promoter activity in MLE-12 cells. The promoter activation induced by atRA was diminished by mutation at the Sp1/Sp3 binding element (SBE), suggesting that the SBE mediates the effects of atRA. In addition, atRA increased the binding of Sp1 to the SBE without changing the levels of Sp1 in the nucleus. Taken together, our data indicate that atRA increases AQP5 expression through transactivation of Sp1, leading to an increase in plasma membrane water permeability.

Royal jelly stimulates bone formation: physiologic and nutrigenomic studies with mice and cell lines

Royal jelly (RJ) has diverse physiological and pharmacological functions. We observed its weak estrogenic activity in the previous study. RJ stimulated the proliferation of mouse osteoblast-like MC3T3-E1 cells at 0.1 mg/ml, and the effect was blocked by the specific estrogen receptor antagonist ICI 182,780. The addition of 0.1-1.0 mg/ml RJ enhanced collagen production in culture medium. Oral administration of RJ to normal female mice for 9 weeks increased the ash content of their tibiae. DNA microarray analysis revealed significant changes in gene expression related to extracellular matrix formation when the femurs of mice fed RJ were analyzed. Quantitative reverse transcriptase-PCR (RT-PCR) confirmed up-regulation of procollagen I alpha1 gene expression. These data suggest that RJ as a whole or some of its individual components stimulates production of type I collagen and other activities for bone formation through action on osteoblasts.

Neutrophil elastase induces IL-8 gene transcription and protein release through p38/NF-{kappa}B activation via EGFR transactivation in a lung epithelial cell line

In this study, we investigated the regulation and mechanism of IL-8 expression by A549 human lung carcinoma cells treated with neutrophil elastase (NE). NE-treated cells exhibited significantly higher IL-8 protein levels in culture media compared with cells treated with vehicle alone. Blocking of gene transcription with actinomycin D suggested that NE stimulated IL-8 synthesis via increased mRNA expression, which was verified by real-time RT-PCR. NE activated the IL-8 promoter but did not alter the stability of its mRNA, confirming that the protease induced IL-8 synthesis through increased gene transcription. The results from the use of chemical inhibitors and mutant gene constructs against various signal transduction components seem to suggest the linear signaling pathway involving the activation of PKC-delta --> dual oxidase 1 --> reactive oxygen species --> TNF-alpha-converting enzyme --> EGF receptor --> p38 --> NF-kappaB for NE-activated IL-8 gene expression. A NF-kappaB potential binding site, located between nucleotides -82 and -69 of the IL-8 promoter, was identified as necessary for NE-induced IL-8 transcription. We conclude that NE increases IL-8 transcription through p38/NF-kappaB activation via EGFR transactivation.

Royal jelly has estrogenic effects in vitro and in vivo

Royal jelly (RJ) from honeybees (Apis mellifera) is traditionally thought to improve menopausal symptoms. The potential estrogenic activities of RJ were investigated using various approaches. RJ competed for binding of 17beta-estradiol to the human estrogen receptor alpha and beta but its affinities were weak compared with diethylstilbestrol and phytoestrogens. The reporter gene expression assays suggested that 0.1-1 mg/ml RJ activated estrogen receptors, leading to enhanced transcription of a reporter gene through an estrogen-responsive element. 1 mg/ml RJ stimulated the mRNA expression of estrogen-responsive pS2 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) by increasing gene transcription in MCF-7 cells. Treatment with RJ at concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 1 mg/ml enhanced MCF-7 cell proliferation, but concomitant treatment with 1 microM tamoxifen blocked this effect. In vivo studies using ovariectomized rats showed that 17beta-estradiol (20 mg/kg, s.c.) treatment restored VEGF expression in both uterus and brain, whereas RJ (1 g/kg, s.c.) restored it in uterus but not in brain. These findings provide evidence that RJ has estrogenic activities through interaction with estrogen receptors followed by endogenous gene expressions.

Neutrophil elastase stimulates MUC1 gene expression through increased Sp1 binding to the MUC1 promoter

We previously reported MUC1 was a cell surface receptor for Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and binding of bacteria to cells was significantly reduced by pretreatment with neutrophil elastase (NE) (Lillehoj EP, Hyun SW, Kim BT, Zhang XG, Lee DI, Rowland S, and Kim KC. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 280: L181-L187, 2001). The current study was conducted to ascertain NE effects on MUC1 gene transcription, and MUC1 protein synthesis and degradation. A549 human lung carcinoma cells treated with NE exhibited significantly higher MUC1 protein levels in detergent lysates compared with cells treated with vehicle alone. Also, MUC1 protein shed into cell-conditioned medium was rapidly and completely degraded by NE. Actinomycin D blocked NE-stimulated increase in MUC1 protein expression, suggesting a mechanism of increased gene transcription that was confirmed by measurement of quantitatively greater MUC1 mRNA levels in NE-treated cells compared with controls. However, NE did not alter MUC1 mRNA stability, implying increased de novo transcription induced by the protease. NE increased promoter activity in A549 cells transfected with MUC1 gene promoter-luciferase reporter plasmid. This effect of NE was completely blocked by mithramycin A, an inhibitor of Sp1, as well as mutation of one of the putative Sp1 binding sites in MUC1 promoter located at -99/-90 relative to transcription initiation site. EMSA revealed NE enhanced binding of Sp1 to this 10-bp segment in a time-dependent manner. These results indicate the increase in MUC1 gene transcription by NE is mediated through increase in Sp1 binding to -99/-90 segment of MUC1 promoter.

Lipopolysaccharide changes the subcellular distribution of aquaporin 5 and increases plasma membrane water permeability in mouse lung epithelial cells

Aquaporin-5 (AQP5), a major water channel in lung epithelial cells, plays an important role in maintaining water homeostasis in the lungs. Cell surface expression of AQP5 is regulated by not only mRNA and protein synthesis but also changes in subcellular distribution. We investigated the effect of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on the subcellular distribution of AQP5 in a mouse lung epithelial cell line (MLE-12). LPS caused significant increases in AQP5 in the plasma membrane at 0.5-2 h. Immunofluorescence and Western blotting strongly suggested that LPS altered AQP5 subcellular distribution from an intracellular vesicular compartment to the plasma membrane. The specific p38 MAP kinase inhibitor SB 203580 apparently prevented LPS-induced changes in AQP5 distribution. Furthermore, LPS increased the osmotic water permeability of MLE-12 cells. These findings demonstrate that LPS increases cell surface AQP5 expression by changing its subcellular distribution and increases membrane osmotic water permeability through activation of p38 MAP kinase.

ETS2 is involved in protein kinase C-activated expression of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in human non-small lung carcinoma cell line, A549

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is a cytokine expressed in the non-small lung carcinoma cells (NSCLC). However, transcriptional regulation of GM-CSF is not well characterized in NSCLC. In this study we found that two cis-acting ETS family consensus sites are important for transcriptional regulation of GM-CSF in A549 human lung carcinoma cells. These two sites are located separately at around -40 and -100 bp from the transcription start site. Results of transient transfection assays with A549 cells indicated that ETS2 had a strong positive effect on GM-CSF promoter activity. Furthermore, this activity was enhanced by protein kinase C activator, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), in an ETS consensus-dependent manner, while PMA could also enhance the expression level of ETS2. The protein kinase C inhibitors decreased GM-CSF promoter activity induced by the protein kinase C activator PMA. We also found that antisense ETS2 mRNA decreased PMA-induced GM-CSF promoter activity, supporting the possibility that ETS2 is involved in protein kinase C-induced GM-CSF transcriptional function. Endogenous expression of GM-CSF mRNA was increased by ETS2 transfection and the increased expression was further enhanced by PMA. These data indicate that GM-CSF is up-regulated by ETS2, a target of protein kinase C.