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Walter JA, Castorani MCN, Bell TW, Sheppard L, Cavanaugh KC, Reuman DC. Tail-dependent spatial synchrony arises from nonlinear driver-response relationships. Ecol Lett 2022; 25:1189-1201. [PMID: 35246946 PMCID: PMC9543197 DOI: 10.1111/ele.13991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Spatial synchrony may be tail-dependent, that is, stronger when populations are abundant than scarce, or vice-versa. Here, 'tail-dependent' follows from distributions having a lower tail consisting of relatively low values and an upper tail of relatively high values. We present a general theory of how the distribution and correlation structure of an environmental driver translates into tail-dependent spatial synchrony through a non-linear response, and examine empirical evidence for theoretical predictions in giant kelp along the California coastline. In sheltered areas, kelp declines synchronously (lower-tail dependence) when waves are relatively intense, because waves below a certain height do little damage to kelp. Conversely, in exposed areas, kelp is synchronised primarily by periods of calmness that cause shared recovery (upper-tail dependence). We find evidence for geographies of tail dependence in synchrony, which helps structure regional population resilience: areas where population declines are asynchronous may be more resilient to disturbance because remnant populations facilitate reestablishment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan A. Walter
- Department of Environmental SciencesUniversity of VirginiaCharlottesvilleVirginiaUSA
| | - Max C. N. Castorani
- Department of Environmental SciencesUniversity of VirginiaCharlottesvilleVirginiaUSA
| | - Tom W. Bell
- Woods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionWoods HoleMassachusettsUSA
| | - Lawrence W. Sheppard
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Center for Ecological Research and Kansas Biological SurveyUniversity of KansasLawrenceKansasUSA
- Marine Biological Association of the United KingdomPlymouthUK
| | - Kyle C. Cavanaugh
- Department of GeographyUniversity of California, Los AngelesLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
| | - Daniel C. Reuman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Center for Ecological Research and Kansas Biological SurveyUniversity of KansasLawrenceKansasUSA
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2
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Sánchez-Barredo M, Sandoval-Gil JM, Zertuche-González JA, Ladah LB, Belando-Torrentes MD, Beas-Luna R, Cabello-Pasini A. Effects of Heat Waves and Light Deprivation on Giant Kelp Juveniles ( Macrocystis pyrifera, Laminariales, Phaeophyceae). J Phycol 2020; 56:880-894. [PMID: 32282942 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.13000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Due to climate change, the incidence of marine heat waves (MHWs) has increased, yet their effects on seaweeds are still not well understood. Adult sporophytes of Macrocystis pyrifera, the species forming the iconic giant kelp forests, can be negatively affected by thermal stress and associated environmental factors (e.g., nutrient depletion, light deprivation); however, little is known about the tolerance/vulnerability of juvenile sporophytes. Simultaneously to MHWs, juveniles can be subjected to light limitation for extended periods of time (days-weeks) due to factors causing turbidity, or even because of shading by understory canopy-forming seaweeds. This study evaluated the effects of a simulated MHW (24°C, 7 d) in combination (or not) with light deprivation, on the photosynthetic capacities, nutrient uptake, and tissue composition, as well as oxidative stress descriptors of M. pyrifera juvenile sporophytes (single blade stage, up to 20 cm length). Maximum quantum yield (Fv /Fm ) decreased in juveniles under light at 24°C, likely reflecting some damage on the photosynthetic apparatus or dynamic photoinhibition; however, no other sign of physiological alteration was found in this treatment (i.e., pigments, nutrient reserves and uptake, oxidative stress). Photosynthetic capacities were maintained or even enhanced in plants under light deprivation, likely supported by photoacclimation (pigments increment); by contrast, nitrate uptake and internal storage of carbohydrates were strongly reduced, regardless of temperature. This study indicated that light limitation can be more detrimental to juvenile survival, and therefore recruitment success of M. pyrifera forests, than episodic thermal stress from MHWs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Sánchez-Barredo
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Baja California, México
| | - Jose Miguel Sandoval-Gil
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Baja California, México
| | | | - Lydia B Ladah
- Department of Biological Oceanography, CICESE, Ensenada, Baja California, México
| | | | - Rodrigo Beas-Luna
- Facultad de Ciencias Marinas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Baja California, México
| | - Alejandro Cabello-Pasini
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Baja California, México
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3
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Pfister CA, Altabet MA, Weigel BL. Kelp beds and their local effects on seawater chemistry, productivity, and microbial communities. Ecology 2019; 100:e02798. [PMID: 31233610 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.2798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Kelp forests are known as key habitats for species diversity and macroalgal productivity; however, we know little about how these biogenic habitats interact with seawater chemistry and phototroph productivity in the water column. We examined kelp forest functions at three locales along the Olympic Peninsula of Washington state by quantifying carbonate chemistry, nutrient concentrations, phytoplankton productivity, and seawater microbial communities inside and outside of kelp beds dominated by the canopy kelp species Nereocystis luetkeana and Macrocystis pyrifera. Kelp beds locally increased the pH, oxygen, and aragonite saturation state of the seawater, but lowered seawater inorganic carbon content and total alkalinity. Although kelp beds depleted nitrate and phosphorus concentrations, ammonium and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations were enhanced. Kelp beds also decreased chlorophyll concentrations and carbon fixed by phytoplankton, although kelp carbon fixation more than compensated for any difference in phytoplankton production. Kelp beds entrained distinct microbial communities, with higher taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity compared to seawater outside of the kelp bed. Kelp forests thus had significant effects on seawater chemistry, productivity and the microbial assemblages in their proximity. Thereby, the diversity of pathways for carbon and nitrogen cycling was also enhanced. Overall, these observations suggest that the contribution of kelp forests to nearshore carbon and nitrogen cycling is greater than previously documented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine A Pfister
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, 60637, USA
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, 60637, USA
| | - Mark A Altabet
- School of Marine Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, Massachusetts, 02744, USA
| | - Brooke L Weigel
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, 60637, USA
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4
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Dunn RP, Hovel KA. Experiments reveal limited top-down control of key herbivores in southern California kelp forests. Ecology 2019; 100:e02625. [PMID: 30648729 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.2625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2018] [Revised: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Predator responses to gradients in prey density have important implications for population regulation and are a potential structuring force for subtidal marine communities, particularly on rocky reefs where herbivorous sea urchins can drive community state shifts. On rocky reefs in southern California where predatory sea otters have been extirpated, top-down control of sea urchins by alternative predators has been hypothesized but rarely tested experimentally. In laboratory feeding assays, predatory spiny lobsters (Panulirus interruptus) demonstrated a saturating functional response to urchin prey, whereby urchin proportional mortality was inversely density-dependent. In field experiments on rocky reefs near San Diego, California, predators (primarily the labrid fish California sheephead, Semicossyphus pulcher) inflicted highly variable mortality on purple urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) prey across all density levels. However, at low to moderate densities commonly observed within kelp forests, purple urchin mortality increased to a peak at a density of ~11 urchins/m2 . Above that level, at densities typical of urchin barrens, purple urchin mortality was density-independent. When larger red urchins (Mesocentrotus franciscanus) were offered to predators simultaneously with purple urchins, mortality was density-independent. Underwater videography revealed a positive relationship between purple urchin density and both the number and richness of fish predators, but these correlations were not observed when red urchins were present. Our results demonstrate highly variable mortality rates across prey densities in this system and suggest that top-down control of urchins can occur only under limited circumstances. Our findings provide insight into the dynamics of alternate community states observed on rocky reefs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert P Dunn
- Department of Biology, Coastal and Marine Institute, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, 92182, USA
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of California Davis, Davis, California, 95616, USA
| | - Kevin A Hovel
- Department of Biology, Coastal and Marine Institute, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, 92182, USA
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5
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Rassweiler A, Reed DC, Harrer SL, Nelson JC. Improved estimates of net primary production, growth, and standing crop of Macrocystis pyrifera in Southern California. Ecology 2018; 99:2132. [PMID: 29956835 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.2440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2018] [Revised: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera forms subtidal forests on shallow reefs in temperate regions of the world. It is one of the fastest-growing multicellular autotrophs on Earth and its high productivity supports diverse marine food webs. In 2008, we published a method for estimating biomass and net primary production (NPP) of giant kelp along with five years of data, to provide a more integrated measure of NPP than those yielded by previous methods. Our method combines monthly field measurements of standing crop and loss rates with a model of kelp biomass dynamics to estimate instantaneous mass-specific growth rates and NPP for each season of each year. We have since improved our approach to account for several previously unresolved sources of biomass loss. These improvements have led to a near doubling of our prior estimates of growth and NPP. At our site with the most persistent stand of giant kelp, NPP averages ~5.2 kg dry mass·m-2 ·yr-1 and results from the rapid growth (~3.5% per d) of a relatively small standing biomass (~0.4 kg dry mass/m2 on average) that turns over ~12 times annually. Here we provide revised estimates of seasonal biomass, growth, and NPP for the five years covered by our previous publication (2002-2006), along with more than a decade of additional data (2007-2017). We also present updated relationships for predicting giant kelp biomass and NPP from much more easily obtained measurements of frond density. These data can be used to understand the mechanisms that drive variation in giant kelp NPP at a wide range of temporal scales. No copyright or proprietary restrictions are associated with the use of this data set other than citation of this Data Paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Rassweiler
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, 32306, USA
| | - Daniel C Reed
- Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, California, 93106, USA
| | - Shannon L Harrer
- Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, California, 93106, USA
| | - J Clint Nelson
- Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, California, 93106, USA
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6
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Rothäusler E, Reinwald H, López BA, Tala F, Thiel M. High acclimation potential in floating Macrocystis pyrifera to abiotic conditions even under grazing pressure - a field study. J Phycol 2018; 54:368-379. [PMID: 29533462 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.12643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
The persistence of floating seaweeds, which depends on abiotic conditions but also herbivory, had previously been mostly tested in outdoor mesocosm experiments. In order to investigate if the obtained mesocosm results of high seaweed persistence under natural environmental conditions and under grazing pressure can be extrapolated to field situations, we conducted in situ experiments. During two summers (2007 and 2008), Macrocystis pyrifera was tethered (for 14 d) to lines in the presence and absence of the amphipod Peramphithoe femorata at three sites (Iquique, Coquimbo, Calfuco). We hypothesized that grazing damage and seaweed persistence vary among sites due to different abiotic factors. By incubating the sporophytes in mesh bags, we were either able to isolate (grazing) or exclude (control) amphipods. To test for a mesh bag artifact, a set of sporophytes was incubated without mesh bags (natural). Mesh bags used to exclude herbivores influenced sporophyte growth and physiological performance. The chlorophyll a (Chl a) content depended largely on grazers and grazed sporophytes grew less than natural and control sporophytes within the two summers. A decrease in Chl a content was found for the sites with the highest prevailing irradiances and temperatures, suggesting an efficient acclimation to these sea surface conditions. Our field-based results of sporophyte acclimation ability even under grazing pressure widely align with previous mesocosm results. We conclude that M. pyrifera and other temperate floating seaweeds can function as long-distance dispersal vectors even with hitchhiking mesoherbivores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Rothäusler
- Section of Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Turku, FIN-20014, Turku, Finland
| | - Hannes Reinwald
- Departamento de Biología Marina, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Católica del Norte, Larrondo 1281, Coquimbo, Chile
- Department of Bioscience, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Boris A López
- Doctorado en Biología y Ecología Aplicada, Universidad Católica del Norte, Larrondo 1281, Coquimbo, Chile
- Departamento de Acuicultura y Recursos Agroalimentarios, Universidad de Los Lagos, Avenida Fuchslocher 1305, Osorno, Chile
| | - Fadia Tala
- Departamento de Biología Marina, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Católica del Norte, Larrondo 1281, Coquimbo, Chile
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico en Algas de la Universidad Católica del Norte (CIDTA-UCN), Larrondo 1281, Coquimbo, Chile
| | - Martin Thiel
- Departamento de Biología Marina, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Católica del Norte, Larrondo 1281, Coquimbo, Chile
- Millennium Nucleus Ecology and Sustainable Management of Oceanic Island (ESMOI), Coquimbo, Chile
- Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Zonas Áridas (CEAZA), Coquimbo, Chile
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7
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Dunn RP, Baskett ML, Hovel KA. Interactive effects of predator and prey harvest on ecological resilience of rocky reefs. Ecol Appl 2017; 27:1718-1730. [PMID: 28581670 DOI: 10.1002/eap.1581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Revised: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
A major goal of ecosystem-based fisheries management is to prevent fishery-induced shifts in community states. This requires an understanding of ecological resilience: the ability of an ecosystem to return to the same state following a perturbation, which can strongly depend on species interactions across trophic levels. We use a structured model of a temperate rocky reef to explore how multi-trophic level fisheries impact ecological resilience. Increasing fishing mortality of prey (urchins) has a minor effect on equilibrium biomass of kelp, urchins, and spiny lobster predators, but increases resilience by reducing the range of predator harvest rates at which alternative stable states are possible. Size-structured predation on urchins acts as the feedback maintaining each state. Our results demonstrate that the resilience of ecosystems strongly depends on the interactive effects of predator and prey harvest in multi-trophic level fisheries, which are common in marine ecosystems but are unaccounted for by traditional management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert P Dunn
- Coastal and Marine Institute & Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, 92182, USA
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, 95616, USA
| | - Marissa L Baskett
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, 95616, USA
| | - Kevin A Hovel
- Coastal and Marine Institute & Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, 92182, USA
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8
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Krumhansl KA, Bergman JN, Salomon AK. Assessing the ecosystem-level consequences of a small-scale artisanal kelp fishery within the context of climate-change. Ecol Appl 2017; 27:799-813. [PMID: 27984678 DOI: 10.1002/eap.1484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Revised: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Coastal communities worldwide rely on small-scale artisanal fisheries as a means of increasing food security and alleviating poverty. Even small-scale fishing activities, however, are prone to resource depletion and environmental degradation, which can erode livelihoods in the long run. Thus, there is a pressing need to identify viable and resilient artisanal fisheries, and generate knowledge to support management within the context of a rapidly changing climate. We examined the ecosystem-level consequences of an artisanal kelp fishery (Macrocystis pyrifera), finding small-scale harvest of this highly productive species poses minimal impacts on kelp recovery rates, survival, and biomass dynamics, and abundances of associated commercial and culturally important fish species. These results suggest that small-scale harvest poses minimal trade-offs for the other economic benefits provided by these ecosystems, and their inherent, spiritual, and cultural value to humans. However, we detected a negative impact of warmer seawater temperatures on kelp recovery rates following harvest, indicating that the viability of harvest, even at small scales, may be threatened by future increases in global ocean temperature. This suggests that negative impacts of artisanal fisheries may be more likely to arise in the context of a warming climate, further highlighting the widespread effects of global climate change on coastal fisheries and livelihoods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kira A Krumhansl
- School of Resource and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, V5A 1S6, Canada
- Hakai Institute, P.O. Box 309, Heriot Bay, British Columbia, V0P 1H0, Canada
| | - Jordanna N Bergman
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, 100 8th Avenue, St. Petersburg, Florida, 33701, USA
| | - Anne K Salomon
- School of Resource and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, V5A 1S6, Canada
- Hakai Institute, P.O. Box 309, Heriot Bay, British Columbia, V0P 1H0, Canada
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9
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Murúa P, Müller DG, Patiño DJ, Westermeier R. Giant kelp vegetative propagation: Adventitious holdfast elements rejuvenate senescent individuals of the Macrocystis pyrifera "integrifolia" ecomorph. J Phycol 2017; 53:230-234. [PMID: 27878814 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.12493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Recent findings on holdfast development in the giant kelp highlighted its key importance for Macrocystis vegetative propagation. We report here for the first time the development of adventitious holdfasts from Macrocystis stipes. Swellings emerge spontaneously from different areas of the stipes, especially in senescent or creeping individuals. After being manually fastened to solid substrata, these swellings elongated into haptera, which became strongly attached after 1 month. Within 4 months, new thalli increased in size and vitality, and developed reproductive fronds. Our results suggest the usage of these structures for auxiliary attachment techniques. These could act as a backup, when primary holdfasts are weak, and thus improve the survival rate of the giant kelp in natural beds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Murúa
- Instituto de Acuicultura, Universidad Austral de Chile, Sede Puerto Montt, PO Box 1327, Puerto Montt, Chile
- Oceanlab, University of Aberdeen, Main Street, Newburgh, AB41 6AA, UK
- The Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Culture Collection for Algae and Protozoa, Oban, Argyll, PA37 1QA, UK
| | - Dieter G Müller
- Fachbereich Biologie der Universität Konstanz, D-78457, Konstanz, Germany
| | - David J Patiño
- Instituto de Acuicultura, Universidad Austral de Chile, Sede Puerto Montt, PO Box 1327, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - Renato Westermeier
- Instituto de Acuicultura, Universidad Austral de Chile, Sede Puerto Montt, PO Box 1327, Puerto Montt, Chile
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Drobnitch ST, Nickols K, Edwards M. Abiotic influences on bicarbonate use in the giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, in the Monterey Bay. J Phycol 2017; 53:85-94. [PMID: 27861900 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.12480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
In the Monterey Bay region of central California, the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera experiences broad fluctuations in wave forces, temperature, light availability, nutrient availability, and seawater carbonate chemistry, all of which may impact their productivity. In particular, current velocities and light intensity may strongly regulate the supply and demand of inorganic carbon (Ci) as substrates for photosynthesis. Macrocystis pyrifera can acquire and utilize both CO2 and bicarbonate (HCO3- ) as Ci substrates for photosynthesis and growth. Given the variability in carbon delivery (due to current velocities and varying [DIC]) and demand (in the form of saturating irradiance), we hypothesized that the proportion of CO2 and bicarbonate utilized is not constant for M. pyrifera, but a variable function of their fluctuating environment. We further hypothesized that populations acclimated to different wave exposure and irradiance habitats would display different patterns of bicarbonate uptake. To test these hypotheses, we carried out oxygen evolution trials in the laboratory to measure the proportion of bicarbonate utilized by M. pyrifera via external CA under an orthogonal cross of velocity, irradiance, and acclimation treatments. Our Monterey Bay populations of M. pyrifera exhibited proportionally higher external bicarbonate utilization in high irradiance and high flow velocity conditions than in sub-saturating irradiance or low flow velocity conditions. However, there was no significant difference in proportional bicarbonate use between deep blades and canopy blades, nor between individuals from wave-exposed versus wave-protected sites. This study contributes a new field-oriented perspective on the abiotic controls of carbon utilization physiology in macroalgae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Tepler Drobnitch
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, 95060, USA
| | - Kerry Nickols
- School of Natural Sciences, California State University, Monterey Bay, Seaside, California, 93955, USA
| | - Matthew Edwards
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, 92101, USA
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