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Christian O, Spencer M, Ladyman M, Persico F, Gutierrez-Carazo E, Kadansky E, Temple T. Persistence of 2,4,6-triamino-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene in the environment. Environ Res 2023; 239:117378. [PMID: 37832768 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.117378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
2,4,6-triamino-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene (TATB) is an Insensitive High Explosive (IHE) that is increasingly being used as a safer alternative to traditional energetic materials. However, the high thermal stability of TATB poses challenges for its disposal, particularly through existing open burning methods and its ability to remain in the environment for long period of time. Therefore, this study investigated the persistence of TATB in the environment by conducting small-scale experiments which were designed to examine the resistance of TATB to open burning and to assess unburnt residues. To evaluate the fate and transport of the unburnt materials in soil, laboratory-scale soil column transport studies were conducted to gauge the movement of TATB through soil. The results indicate that TATB exhibits a high resistance to burning, leaving unburnt materials that can persist in soil. The study emphasizes the importance of efficient disposal methods for explosives and highlights the need for further research to understand the environmental impact and toxicity of TATB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Christian
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, UK
| | - Michael Spencer
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, UK
| | - Melissa Ladyman
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, UK
| | - Federica Persico
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, UK.
| | - Encina Gutierrez-Carazo
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, UK
| | - Evie Kadansky
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, UK
| | - Tracey Temple
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, UK
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2
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Cheng Y, Cao XB, Liu JM, Yu QQ, Zhang Q, He KB. Agricultural fire impacts on brown carbon during different seasons in Northeast China. Sci Total Environ 2023:164390. [PMID: 37236463 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Revised: 05/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Brown carbon (BrC) represents not only a major component of haze pollution but also a non-negligible contributor to positive radiative forcing, making it a key species for coordinating air quality and climate policies. In China, field observations on BrC remain limited given the highly variable emission sources and meteorological conditions across different regions. Here we focused on the optical properties of BrC in a distinct but rarely studied megacity in Northeast China, which is within a major agricultural region and experiences extremely cold winter. Agricultural fires were evident in April of 2021 and the fall of 2020, although open burning was strictly prohibited. Such emissions enhanced BrC's mass absorption efficiency at 365 nm (MAE365), more efficiently by the fall fires which were inferred to have relatively high combustion efficiencies (CE). After taking CE into consideration, the relationships between MAE365 and the levoglucosan to organic carbon ratio (a measure of the significance of agricultural fire influence) roughly converged for the fire episodes in different seasons, including those identified in February and March of 2019 by a previous campaign. Agricultural fires also influenced the determination of absorption Ångström exponent (AAE), by resulting in non-linearity for BrC's absorption spectra shown on ln-ln scale. Based on three indicators developed by this study, the non-linearity was inferred to be caused by similar chromophores although the fires were characterized by various CE levels in different seasons. In addition, for the samples without significant influence of open burning, coal combustion emissions were identified as the dominant influencing factor for MAE365, whereas none solid link was found between the solution-based AAE and aerosol source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Xu-Bing Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Jiu-Meng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China.
| | - Qin-Qin Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Qiang Zhang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Earth System Modeling, Department of Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Ke-Bin He
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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3
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Zhang R, Song W, Zhang Y, Wang X, Fu X, Li S. Particulate nitrated aromatic compounds from corn straw burning: Compositions, optical properties and potential health risks. Environ Pollut 2023; 323:121332. [PMID: 36822313 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Nitrated aromatic compounds (NACs) are important components of brown carbon (BrC), and their health and climate effects are of wide concern. Biomass burning is a major contributor to NACs in the atmosphere, yet NACs emitted from biomass burning are poorly constrained. In this study particulate NACs from open burning of corn straws were characterized in terms of their compositions, light absorption and toxic equivalents. 1, 6-dinitropyrene was the most abundant species among the measured nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (NPAHs) with a share of 13.4% in total NPAHs, while 4-nitrocatechol was the most abundant nitrophenol (NP) species and accounted for 25.4% of measured NPs. 2-nitropyrene, widely used as a marker of secondary formation of NPAHs, was found to be the second most abundant NPAHs (13.3% of the total NPAHs) in the particulate matter (PM) primarily emitted from corn straw burning, and thus is inappropriate to be an indicator of the secondary formation. The measured primary NACs could only explain a negligible part (0.2%) of the light absorption by BrC. Although the concentrations of 9 toxic NACs were less than one-third of the 16 USEPA priority PAHs, their benzo(a)pyrene toxic equivalency quotients however were approximately 10 times that of the 16 PAHs. This study suggests that in comparison of PAHs from straw burning, NACs should be given greater attention due to their potentially higher toxic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Runqi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Wei Song
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Yanli Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China; Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Xinming Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China; Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Xuewei Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Sheng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
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4
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Kováts N, Hubai K, Sainnokhoi TA, Eck-Varanka B, Hoffer A, Tóth Á, Teke G. Ecotoxicity of PM 10 emissions generated during controlled burning of waste PET. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 2023; 99:104118. [PMID: 37011741 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2023.104118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2023] [Revised: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Domestic waste is often burned either as fuel for winter heating or in open areas, simply to get rid of waste. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) represents an important component of plastics usage as well as of plastic waste produced. While most studies attempt to characterize environmental risk of open burning of mixed household waste, present work evaluates chemical and ecotoxicological parameters of particulate matter (PM) produced during controlled burning of PET samples. In the PM10 samples, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and heavy metal concentrations were measured, ecotoxicity was evaluated using the kinetic Vibrio fischeri bioassay. Both chemical composition and ecotoxicity of the 4 samples showed significant correlation, regardless of the colored or colorless nature of the original PET sample. Antimony was found in considerable concentrations, in the range of 6.93-16.9 mg/kg. PAHs profiles of the samples were very similar, showing the dominance of 4-and 5-ring PAHs, including carcinogenic benzo(a)pyrene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Kováts
- University of Pannonia, Centre for Natural Sciences, Egyetem str. 10, 8200 Veszprém, Hungary.
| | - Katalin Hubai
- University of Pannonia, Centre for Natural Sciences, Egyetem str. 10, 8200 Veszprém, Hungary
| | - Tsend-Ayush Sainnokhoi
- University of Pannonia, Centre for Natural Sciences, Egyetem str. 10, 8200 Veszprém, Hungary; Mongolian University of Life Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Khan-Uul district, Zaisan 17042, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
| | - Bettina Eck-Varanka
- University of Pannonia, Centre for Natural Sciences, Egyetem str. 10, 8200 Veszprém, Hungary
| | - András Hoffer
- MTA-PE Air Chemistry Research Group, Egyetem str. 10, 8200 Veszprém, Hungary
| | - Ádám Tóth
- MTA-PE Air Chemistry Research Group, Egyetem str. 10, 8200 Veszprém, Hungary
| | - Gábor Teke
- ELGOSCAR-2000 Environmental Technology and Water Management Ltd., 8184 Balatonfuzfo, Hungary
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5
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Sharma G, Sinha B. Future emissions of greenhouse gases, particulate matter and volatile organic compounds from municipal solid waste burning in India. Sci Total Environ 2023; 858:159708. [PMID: 36302408 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Waste generation projections for the 21st century are important for the investigation of long-term global environmental problems, and greenhouse gas emissions associated with waste management. This paper presents future waste generation and open waste burning projections for India, which are consistent with the scenarios in the shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs) database. India's waste generation will increase to 547 Tgy-1 and 828 Tgy-1, by 2030 and 2050, respectively, if India's waste generation rates converge to those of developed economies under the fossil fuel based economic growth projections of SSP5. This will increase open waste burning emissions by 140 % and 110 % over 2015 levels by 2030 and 2050, respectively. Business-as-usual projections predict a waste generation of 268 ± 14 Tgy-1 by 2030 and 356 ± 34 Tgy-1 by 2050 and elimination of waste burning other than landfill fires by the mid-2040s. Aggressive promotion of source segregation and treatment of biodegradable waste under a sustainable development scenario (SSP1) can advance this transition despite higher income growth and reduce waste burning from 68 (45-105) Tgy-1 in 2015 to 21-48 Tgy-1 and 2-22 Tgy-1 of waste burning by 2030 and 2050, respectively. The failure of programs targeted at this waste component would result in 31-60 Tgy-1 and 26-108 Tgy-1 of waste burning by 2030 and 2050, respectively. For the SSP5 income trajectory a failure to successfully source segregate and treat biodegradable waste would almost double open waste burning by 2050.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaurav Sharma
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Sector 81, Manauli PO, SAS Nagar, Punjab 140306, India
| | - Baerbel Sinha
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Sector 81, Manauli PO, SAS Nagar, Punjab 140306, India.
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6
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Nguyen MN, Nguyen ATQ, Dultz S, Tsubota T, Duong LT, Nguyen AM, Pham NTT. Thermal induced changes of rice straw phytolith in relation to arsenic release: A perspective of rice straw arsenic under open burning. J Environ Manage 2022; 304:114294. [PMID: 34920282 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.114294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 11/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
On-site open burning is a common practice for handling rice straw, but its negative impacts, e.g., biomass loss and air pollution, are largely debated worldwide. To address the negative effects of open burning, many efforts have been made to 'ignite' worldwide bans. However, these bans are likely based on a singular view in which some positive aspects of open burning are overlooked. In this study, we aimed to determine the thermal-induced changes of straw and straw arsenic (As) under open burning and heat-treatments (in the temperature range from 300 to 900 °C). It was found that silica phase in rice straw (so-called phytolith) can encapsulate As in its structure. Open burning or heat-treatment of straw resulted in a tighter association of As and phytolith, thereby reducing dissolution of As. We proposed an opinion that open burning causes air pollution, but it can increase the activity of phytolith in sequestrating As, enabling delayed As cycle in rice ecosystems. The combat of on-site open burning of rice straw to reduce air pollution will alter straw handling routines, thereby changing the cycle of straw phytolith and the route of straw As.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minh N Nguyen
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 334 Nguyen Trai, Thanh Xuan, Hanoi, Viet Nam.
| | - Anh T Q Nguyen
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 334 Nguyen Trai, Thanh Xuan, Hanoi, Viet Nam; Hanoi University of Natural Resources & Environment, 41A Phu Dien, Bac Tu Liem, Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Stefan Dultz
- Institute of Soil Science, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Toshiki Tsubota
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Kitakyushu-shi, Fukuoka, 804-8550, Japan
| | - Lim T Duong
- Institute of Geography, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Anh M Nguyen
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 334 Nguyen Trai, Thanh Xuan, Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Nga T T Pham
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 334 Nguyen Trai, Thanh Xuan, Hanoi, Viet Nam
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Ajay SV, Kirankumar PS, Sanath K, Prathish KP, Haridas A. An experimental simulation study of conventional waste burning practices in India for the assessment and inventorisation of PCDD/F/dl-PCB emissions. J Environ Manage 2022; 303:114109. [PMID: 34838386 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.114109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Revised: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The paper reports an update to the polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs) annual emission inventory of India from open burning of municipal solid wastes (MSW) through the generation of nation-specific emission factors for air (EFair) and burned residue (EFland) vectors. The MSW characteristics and modes of disposal practiced in Indian cities exhibits subtle variations from that of developed nations due to differences in food habits, living standards and climatic conditions. The annual emission calculations based on EFs from hitherto studies simulating conditions prevailing in developed countries can lead to anomalous accounting of emission levels. It is the first experimental study reported from Indian subcontinent to determine EFs of dioxins and dl-PCBs from MSW open burning by simulated combustion experiments conducted in a custom fabricated Open Burning Test Facility (OBTF) - "Burn Hut", using real dumpsite waste samples. Iso-kinetic sampling and coning and quartering methods were employed for the sampling of air and land emissions from combustion experiments. The PCDD/F's EFair ranged from 3 to 675 μg toxicity equivalence (TEQ)/ton of waste with a geometric mean (GMair) of 67.0 μgTEQ/ton and EFland ranged from 10 to 2531 μgTEQ/ton waste (GMland - 100.0 μgTEQ/ton). The EFair and EFland of dl-PCBs ranged from 0.5 to 46 μgTEQ/ton (GMair 7.0 μgTEQ/ton) and 0.5 to 96 μgTEQ/ton of waste (GMland 6.0 μgTEQ/ton) respectively. A detailed assessment of correlations between emission and MSW composition/combustion practices were conducted along with a comparative evaluation of EFpresent vis-à-vis EFs reported elsewhere.
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Affiliation(s)
- S V Ajay
- Environmental Technology Division, CSIR- National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, (CSIR-NIIST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 695 019, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - P S Kirankumar
- Environmental Technology Division, CSIR- National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, (CSIR-NIIST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 695 019, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - K Sanath
- Environmental Technology Division, CSIR- National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, (CSIR-NIIST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 695 019, India
| | - K P Prathish
- Environmental Technology Division, CSIR- National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, (CSIR-NIIST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 695 019, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India.
| | - Ajit Haridas
- Environmental Technology Division, CSIR- National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, (CSIR-NIIST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 695 019, India; 42 Vrindavan Gardens B, Thiruvananthapuram, 695004, India
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8
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Insian W, Yabueng N, Wiriya W, Chantara S. Size-fractionated PM-bound PAHs in urban and rural atmospheres of northern Thailand for respiratory health risk assessment. Environ Pollut 2022; 293:118488. [PMID: 34793907 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Size-fractionated particulate matters (SPMs) in a range of 9.0 to 0.43 μm, classified based on aerodynamic diameter (dae) as fine PMs (0.43 μm ≤ dae < 2.1 μm) and coarse PMs (2.1 μm ≤ dae < 9.0 μm) were collected by cascade impactors (7 fractions) during smoke haze (SH) and non-smoke haze (NSH) seasons in urban and rural areas of Chiang Mai, Thailand. Their polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) compositions were determined for respiratory health risk assessment. During SH episode, concentrations of SPMs and PAHs in the rural area were approximately two times higher than in the urban area and about 62-68% of the SPMs were fine particles. Conversely, during NSH season the concentrations in the urban area were higher due to traffic emission. The finest particle sizes (0.65-0.43 μm) contained the highest PAHs concentrations among the other PM sizes. Benzo[b]fluoranthene was a main PAH component found during SH season suggesting biomass burning is a major pollutant source. High molecular weight (5-6 rings) PAHs with high carcinogenicity were likely to concentrate in fine particles. Distribution patterns of SPMs and PAHs during SH season were bimodal with the highest peak at a fine size range (0.65-0.43 μm) and a small peak at a coarse size range (5.8-4.7 μm). Respiratory health risk was estimated based on toxicity equivalent concentrations of PAHs bound-SPMs and inhalation cancer risk (ICR). Relatively high ICR values (1.14 × 10-4 (rural) and 6.80 × 10-5 (urban)) were found during SH season in both areas, in which fine particles played an important role. It revealed that high concentration of fine particles in ambient air is related to high respiratory health risk due to high content of carcinogenic substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wittawat Insian
- Environmental Science Research Center, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
| | - Nuttipon Yabueng
- Environmental Science Research Center, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
| | - Wan Wiriya
- Environmental Science Research Center, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand; Environmental Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
| | - Somporn Chantara
- Environmental Science Research Center, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand; Environmental Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand.
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Shi Y, Tian P, Jin Z, Hu Y, Zhang Y, Li F. Stable nitrogen isotope composition of NO x of biomass burning in China. Sci Total Environ 2022; 803:149857. [PMID: 34496345 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 07/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Owing to the local characteristics of stable nitrogen isotopes in nitrogen oxides (δ15N-NOx) emitted from biomass burning, the lack of data on δ15N-NOx values associated with biomass burning in China limits the use of this parameter in identifying and quantifying the sources of atmospheric nitrate (NO3-) and NOx. The results showed that the δ15N-NOx values of open burning and rural cooking stoves in China ranged from -3.7‰ to 3.1‰ and -11.9‰ to 1.5‰, respectively. The δ15N values of nine biomass fuel sources (δ15N-biomass) ranged from 0.1‰ to 4.1‰. Significant linear relationships between the δ15N-biomass values and δ15N-NOx values of open burning (δ15N-NOx = 1.1δ15N-biomass - 2.7; r2 = 0.63; p < 0.05) and rural cooking stoves (δ15N-NOx = 1.7δ15N-biomass - 9.8; r2 = 0.72; p < 0.01) suggested that the variations in δ15N-NOx values from biomass burning were mainly controlled by the biomass fuel source. The isotopic fractionation of nitrogen during the biomass burning process might have led to the higher δ15N-NOx values from open burning in comparison to rural cooking stoves. By combining the δ15N-NOx values of biomass burning with biomass burning emission inventory data, a model for calculating the δ15N-NOx values of biomass burning in different regions of China was established, and the estimated δ15N-NOx value of biomass burning at the national scale was -0.8 ± 1.2‰. But the limited δ15N-biomass values increase the uncertainty of model in national scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasheng Shi
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - Ping Tian
- Zhejiang Zone-King Environmental Sci & Tech Co., Ltd, Hanghzou 310004, China
| | - Zanfang Jin
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China.
| | - Yuming Hu
- Zhejiang Zone-King Environmental Sci & Tech Co., Ltd, Hanghzou 310004, China
| | - Yongqi Zhang
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - Feili Li
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
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Sharma G, Annadate S, Sinha B. Will open waste burning become India's largest air pollution source? Environ Pollut 2022; 292:118310. [PMID: 34626708 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
India struggles with frequent exceedances of the ambient air quality standard for particulate matter and benzene. In the past two decades, India has made considerable progress in tackling indoor air pollution, by phasing out kerosene lamps, and pushing biofuel using households towards Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) usage. In this study, we use updated emission inventories and trends in residential fuel consumption, to explore changes in the contribution of different sectors towards India's largest air pollution problem. We find that residential fuel usage is still the largest air pollution source, and that the <10% households using cow dung as cooking fuel contribute ∼50% of the residential PM2.5 emissions. However, if current trends persist, residential biofuel usage in India is likely to be phased out by 2035. India's renewable energy policies are likely to reduce emissions in the heat and electricity sector, and manufacturing industries, in the mid-term. PM2.5 emissions from open waste burning, on the other hand, hardly changed in the decade from 2010 to 2020. We conclude that without strong policies to promote recycling and upcycling of non-biodegradable waste, and the conversion of biodegradable waste to biogas, open waste burning is likely to become India's largest source of air pollution by 2035. While our study is limited to India, our findings are of relevance for other countries in the global South suffering from similar waste management challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaurav Sharma
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Sector 81, SAS Nagar, Manauli PO, Punjab, 140306, India
| | - Saurabh Annadate
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Sector 81, SAS Nagar, Manauli PO, Punjab, 140306, India
| | - Baerbel Sinha
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Sector 81, SAS Nagar, Manauli PO, Punjab, 140306, India.
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11
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Chansuebsri S, Kraisitnitikul P, Wiriya W, Chantara S. Fresh and aged PM 2.5 and their ion composition in rural and urban atmospheres of Northern Thailand in relation to source identification. Chemosphere 2022; 286:131803. [PMID: 34364233 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This study aims to investigate ion composition of PM2.5 in various sites and seasons and to identify the main sources on spatial and temporal basis. PM2.5 compositions of two urban and two rural areas in Northern Thailand in 2019 were investigated to distinguish urban traffic and rural open burning sources. During the burning season, average PM2.5 concentrations in rural areas (104 ± 45 μg m-3) were slightly higher than those in urban areas (94 ± 39 μg m-3). Source identification of PM2.5 by cluster analysis during burning season in urban sites and one rural site revealed mixed sources of aged aerosols from biomass burning, traffic and transboundary pollution, characterized by (NH4)2SO4 and KNO3. Only PM2.5 in one rural area (Chiang Dao), where intense open burning activities observed, contained significant KCl level in addition to other compounds. KCl is being used as a tracer for fresh aerosols from biomass burning as opposes to KNO3 for aged aerosols. It was found that KNO3 proportion in total ions increased with PM2.5 concentrations both in urban and rural areas, indicating prominent open burning influences in regional scale. Source identification in other seasons was more distinguishable between urban and rural areas, and more varied depending on local emissions. Urban PM2.5 sources were secondary inorganic aerosols from traffic gas conversion in contrast with rural PM2.5 which were mainly from biomass burning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarana Chansuebsri
- Environmental Science Research Center, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
| | - Pavidarin Kraisitnitikul
- Environmental Science Research Center, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
| | - Wan Wiriya
- Environmental Science Research Center, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand; Environmental Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
| | - Somporn Chantara
- Environmental Science Research Center, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand; Environmental Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand.
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Ramadan BS, Rachman I, Matsumoto T. Activity and emission inventory of open waste burning at the household level in developing countries: a case study of Semarang City. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 2022; 24:1194-1204. [PMID: 35221793 PMCID: PMC8857914 DOI: 10.1007/s10163-022-01371-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED In this study, total burned household waste and the potential emissions released from waste burning in Semarang City, Indonesia, were estimated. Waste piles were monitored using the transect walk survey method in 16 sub-districts of Semarang City. Carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrocarbon (HC), nitrous oxide (NOx), and total particulate matter (TPM) were directly analyzed through a simulation of waste combustion. The potential emissions from other pollutants were predicted by multiplying the weight of the burned waste by the emission factors available in the literature. The estimated waste burned in Semarang City in 2020-2021 was 58.8 Gg/year, or approximately 9.70% of the total waste generated in Semarang City. This estimation exceeds local government estimates of 2020 by two-fold. Peri-urban areas (both inner and outer) were identified as the most significant contributors to waste burning. Further, garden waste was the most burned waste (73.61%), followed by plastic waste (17.45%). Other wastes, including paper, leather, textile, rubber, and food, were also burned. Overall, a decrease in the activity of waste burning is an important step for reducing the potential of air pollution and climate change. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10163-022-01371-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bimastyaji Surya Ramadan
- Department of Life and Environment Engineering, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, The University of Kitakyushu, Kitakyushu, 808-0135 Japan
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang, 50275 Indonesia
| | - Indriyani Rachman
- Department of Life and Environment Engineering, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, The University of Kitakyushu, Kitakyushu, 808-0135 Japan
- Department of Natural Science Education, School of Postgraduate Studies, Universitas Pakuan, Bogor, 16143 Indonesia
| | - Toru Matsumoto
- Department of Life and Environment Engineering, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, The University of Kitakyushu, Kitakyushu, 808-0135 Japan
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13
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Noblet C, Besombes JL, Lemire M, Pin M, Jaffrezo JL, Favez O, Aujay-Plouzeau R, Dermigny A, Karoski N, Van Elsuve D, Dubois P, Collet S, Lestremau F, Albinet A. Emission factors and chemical characterization of particulate emissions from garden green waste burning. Sci Total Environ 2021; 798:149367. [PMID: 34375266 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This work provides an evaluation of the emission factors (EFs) of typical garden waste burning (fallen leaves and hedge trimming) in terms of particulate matter (PM), elemental and organic carbon (EC-OC) together with a detailed chemical characterization of 88 particle-bound organic species including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), levoglucosan and its isomers, lignin breakdown products (methoxyphenols), cholesterol, alkanes, polyols and sugars. Furthermore, wood-log based burning experiments have been performed to highlight key indicators or chemical patterns of both, green waste and wood burning (residential heating) sources, that may be used for PM source apportionment purposes. Two residential log wood combustion appliances, wood stove (RWS) and fireplace, under different output conditions (nominal and reduced) and wood log moisture content (mix of beech, oak and hornbeam), have been tested. Open wood burning experiments using wood logs were also performed. Green waste burning EFs obtained were comparable to the available literature data for open-air biomass burning. For PM and for most of the organic species studied, they were about 2 to 30 times higher than those observed for wood log combustion experiments. Though, poor performance wood combustions (open-air wood log burning, fireplace and RWS in reduced output) showed comparable EFs for levoglucosan and its isomers, methoxyphenols, polyols, PAHs and sugars. Toxic PAH equivalent benzo[a]pyrene EFs were even 3-10 times higher for the fireplace and open-air wood log burning. These results highlighted the impact of the nature of the fuel burnt and the combustion performances on the emissions. Different chemical fingerprints between both biomass burning sources were highlighted with notably a predominance of odd high-molecular weight n-alkanes (higher carbon preference index, CPI), lower levoglucosan/mannosan ratio and lower sinapylaldehyde abundance for green waste burning. However, the use of such indicators seems limited, especially if applied alone, for a clear discrimination of both sources in ambient air.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Noblet
- Institut National de l'Environnement industriel et des RISques (Ineris), 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France; Université Savoie Mont-Blanc, CNRS, EDYTEM (UMR5204), F-73000 Chambéry, France
| | - Jean-Luc Besombes
- Université Savoie Mont-Blanc, CNRS, EDYTEM (UMR5204), F-73000 Chambéry, France
| | - Marie Lemire
- Université Savoie Mont-Blanc, CNRS, EDYTEM (UMR5204), F-73000 Chambéry, France
| | - Mathieu Pin
- Université Savoie Mont-Blanc, CNRS, EDYTEM (UMR5204), F-73000 Chambéry, France
| | - Jean-Luc Jaffrezo
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, IRD, INP-G, IGE (UMR 5001), F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Olivier Favez
- Institut National de l'Environnement industriel et des RISques (Ineris), 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France
| | - Robin Aujay-Plouzeau
- Institut National de l'Environnement industriel et des RISques (Ineris), 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France
| | - Adrien Dermigny
- Institut National de l'Environnement industriel et des RISques (Ineris), 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France
| | - Nicolas Karoski
- Institut National de l'Environnement industriel et des RISques (Ineris), 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France
| | - Denis Van Elsuve
- Institut National de l'Environnement industriel et des RISques (Ineris), 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France
| | - Pascal Dubois
- Institut National de l'Environnement industriel et des RISques (Ineris), 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France
| | - Serge Collet
- Institut National de l'Environnement industriel et des RISques (Ineris), 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France
| | - François Lestremau
- Institut National de l'Environnement industriel et des RISques (Ineris), 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France
| | - Alexandre Albinet
- Institut National de l'Environnement industriel et des RISques (Ineris), 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France.
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Li T, Dai Q, Bi X, Wu J, Zhang Y, Feng Y. Size distribution and chemical characteristics of particles from crop residue open burning in North China. J Environ Sci (China) 2021; 109:66-76. [PMID: 34607675 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2021.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Crop residue open burning is an important emission source of ambient particles in China. This study analyzed the particle emission characteristics of crop residue open burning through combustion experiments with a novel open combustion simulation device using three typical crop straws in north China (corn, wheat, and rice). Particle samples size ranging from 0.006-9.890 µm were collected by an Electrical Low Pressure Impactor plus, a high size-resolution instrument capable of dividing particles into 14 size stages. The size distributions of organic carbon (OC), elemental carbon (EC), water-soluble ions, and elements were analyzed, and source chemical profiles were constructed for PM0.1, PM1, PM2.5, and PM10. The number concentration of particles was concentrated in the Aiken nuclei mode (0.006-0.054 µm), accounting for 75% of the total number, whereas the mass concentration was concentrated in the accumulation mode (0.054-0.949 µm), accounting for 85.43% of the mass loading. OC, EC, Cl-, and K(include total K and water-soluble K) were the major chemical components of the particles, whose mass percentage distributions differed from those of other components. These five main components exhibited a bell-shaped size distribution in the 0.006-9.890 µm range, whereas the other components exhibited a U-shaped distribution. Among the chemical profiles for PM0.1-PM10, OC was the most important component at 10-30%, followed by EC at 2%-8%. The proportions of K+, Cl-, and K varied substantially in different experimental groups, ranging from 0-15%, and K+ and Cl- were significantly correlated (r = 0.878, α = 0.000).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingkun Li
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Qili Dai
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Xiaohui Bi
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Jianhui Wu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Yufen Zhang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Yinchang Feng
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300350, China..
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15
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Velis CA, Cook E. Mismanagement of Plastic Waste through Open Burning with Emphasis on the Global South: A Systematic Review of Risks to Occupational and Public Health. Environ Sci Technol 2021; 55:7186-7207. [PMID: 34003007 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c08536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Large quantities of mismanaged plastic waste threaten the health and wellbeing of billions worldwide, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where waste management capacity is being outstripped by increasing levels of consumption and plastic waste generation. One of the main self-management strategies adopted by 2 billion people who have no waste collection service, is to burn their discarded plastic in open, uncontrolled fires. While this strategy provides many benefits, including mass and volume reduction, it is a form of plastic pollution that results in the release of chemical substances and particles that may pose serious risks to public health and the environment. We followed adapted PRISMA guidelines to select and review 20 publications that provide evidence on potential harm to human health from open burning plastic waste, arranging evidence into eight groups of substance emissions: brominated flame retardants; phthalates; potentially toxic elements; dioxins and related compounds; bisphenol A; particulate matter; and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. We semiquantitatively assessed 18 hazard-pathway-receptor combination scenarios to provide an indication of the relative harm of these emissions so that they could be ranked, compared and considered in future research agenda. This assessment overwhelmingly indicated a high risk of harm to waste pickers, a large group of 11 million informal entrepreneurs who work closely with waste, delivering a circular economy but often without protective equipment or a structured, safe system of work. Though the risk to human health from open burning emissions is high, this remains a substantially under-researched topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Costas A Velis
- School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, U.K
| | - Ed Cook
- School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, U.K
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16
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He JJ, Hu QX, Jiang MN, Huang QX. Nanostructure and reactivity of soot particles from open burning of household solid waste. Chemosphere 2021; 269:129395. [PMID: 33385669 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The main purpose of this work was to quantify and characterize chemically and morphologically the emission of soot particles from the open burning of several common solid waste including paperboard, wood, peel, chemical fiber, polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The experiment was conducted in a laboratory-scale open-burning combustor with a dilution sampling system to obtain soot particles. The thermogravimetric profiles (TGA) showed an increasing order of oxidation reactivity: PE > PVC > fiber > paper ≈ peel > wood. High resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) images revealed more detailed information about the morphology and the particle size of soot aggregates. Subsequent quantification of nanostructure by fringe analysis showed that plastics generated soot particles with the looser carbon layers with higher tortuosity compared to the three kind of biomass. Raman spectroscopy further confirms the observed differences. In addition, wood soot exhibited the highest content of C-OH group (17.5%) among the six samples (X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy, XPS), whereas PE and PVC soot exhibited the highest absorption peaks of aliphatic C-H groups (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, FTIR). Comparative analysis revealed that the interlayer distance was more important on the evaluation of reactivity than soot morphologies. The present work concluded that the physiochemical characteristics of soot particles releasing during open burning are strongly depending on waste composition and provided new data for the understanding of soot emissions from open burning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Jie He
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Qin-Xuan Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Ming-Nan Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Qun-Xing Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China; Alibaba-Zhejiang University Joint Research Institute of Frontier Technologies, China.
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17
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Anezaki K, Kashiwagi N. Daily variations and factors of atmospheric PCDD/Fs in post-harvest paddy fields: PCDD/F source estimation using a Bayesian semi-factor model. Chemosphere 2021; 268:129292. [PMID: 33360941 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the daily variations in the concentration of atmospheric dioxins (PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs) in paddy fields after the autumn harvest. The geometric mean of the concentrations of dioxins during the research period was 0.042 pg-TEQ/m3, and the concentrations ranged from 0.0058 to 0.53 pg-TEQ/m3. When the weather was calm with no rain or snow and the atmosphere was stable, relatively high concentrations of dioxins were observed. The characteristics of congeners and homologues produced through the combustion of PCDD/Fs were classified into four groups using principal component analysis and cluster analysis. In addition, agricultural chemicals (pentachlorophenol, PCP and chlornitrofen, CNP) were identified as the source of PCDD/Fs using a Bayesian semifactor model. When the dioxin concentrations were high, the combustion of TeCDFs and PeCDFs produced large emissions, representing the impact of open burning of rice straw. When the dioxin concentrations were low, the contribution of CNP was strong, indicating the effects of the release of previously used agricultural chemicals from the soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsunori Anezaki
- Hokkaido Research Organization, Industrial Technology and Environment Research Department, Research Institute of Energy, Environment and Geology, N19W12, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0819, Japan.
| | - Nobuhisa Kashiwagi
- The Institute of Statistical Mathematics, 10-3 Midori-cho, Tachikawa, Tokyo, 190-8562, Japan; SOKENDAI, Shonan Village, Hayama, Kanagawa, 240-0193, Japan
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Zhang M, Fujimori T, Shiota K, Li X, Takaoka M. Formation pathways of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans from burning simulated PVC-coated cable wires. Chemosphere 2021; 264:128542. [PMID: 33059280 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Open burning of PVC-coated cables is a major source of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/F). In the present study, the formation characteristics of PCDD/F from burning of PVC-based samples with and without metallic copper were evaluated over the dioxin formation temperature window (200-500 °C). This temperature range also inevitably occurs under open burning conditions. The PCDD/F yield from PVC added with Cu increased by factors of 1390 (300 °C), 65 (400 °C) and 17 (500 °C) compared with that from PVC alone, confirming the stimulatory effect of metallic Cu on PCDD/F production. For the first time, a relatively complete isomer-specific analysis is established for PVC acting as source of PCDD/F. Formation pathways of PCDD/F and the reaction mechanisms were investigated using a combined analysis of PCDD/F isomer signatures, thermogravimetric results and Cl K-edge X-ray absorption spectra. De novo synthesis is the major pathway leading to massive production of PCDD/F. Copper extends the temperature range for the concurrence of de(hydro)chlorination of PVC with cross-linking and aromatisation of polyenes and then stimulates cracking of the chlorine-embedded carbon network. Together, these processes contribute to the strongly enhanced formation of PCDD/F via de novo synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengmei Zhang
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 6158510, Japan
| | - Takashi Fujimori
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 6158510, Japan.
| | - Kenji Shiota
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 6158510, Japan
| | - Xiaodong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Masaki Takaoka
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 6158510, Japan
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Wang J, Niu X, Sun J, Zhang Y, Zhang T, Shen Z, Zhang Q, Xu H, Li X, Zhang R. Source profiles of PM 2.5 emitted from four typical open burning sources and its cytotoxicity to vascular smooth muscle cells. Sci Total Environ 2020; 715:136949. [PMID: 32041051 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Revised: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the chemical profiles of PM2.5 from open burning of electronic waste (E-waste), household garbage, wheat residue, and outdoor barbeque in a combustion chamber. Carbonaceous fractions, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and water-soluble ions and elements in PM2.5 were quantified. A PM2.5 exposure study was performed to detect PM2.5-induced bioreactivities in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Among all fractions, organic carbon (OC) exhibited the highest mass contribution to PM2.5-ranging from 39.9% ± 0.82% to 53.1% ± 8.76%. Proportions of total water-soluble ions and total elements both followed the sequence E-waste > wheat straw > outdoor barbeque > household garbage. Because of the high burning temperature, outdoor barbeque PM2.5 exhibited the highest total quantified PAHs (29.7‰). E-waste PM2.5 exhibited the highest heavy metal contents, derived mainly from the materials in printed circuit boards. The coefficients of divergence among the four source profiles ranged from 0.47 to 0.75, indicating that the collinear problems could be avoided in source apportionment in receptor models. The induced production of reactive oxygen species exhibited a significant dose-dependent increase and followed the sequence E-waste > household garbage > outdoor barbeque > wheat residue. Similar patterns and sequence among the four sources were observed in monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) and interleukin 1β (IL-1β) production. The data indicated that PM2.5 emitted from E-waste has the highest cytotoxicity and special protections should be aimed at mitigating it. The Pearson correlation coefficient demonstrated that elemental carbon, heavy metals, and nitrated PAHs were strongly correlated with VSMC bioreactivity. Light elements exhibited moderate negative correlations with bioreactivities, implying that light elements (e.g., Ca) could mitigate heavy metal-induced cytotoxicity. This study summarized the chemical profiles of PM2.5 from four typical open burning sources and demonstrated their high cytotoxicity to the cardiovascular system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinhui Wang
- NICU, Xi'an Children's Hospital, Xi'an 710003, China
| | - Xinyi Niu
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China.
| | - Jian Sun
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China
| | - Yue Zhang
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China
| | - Tian Zhang
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China
| | - Zhenxing Shen
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China
| | - Qian Zhang
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China
| | - Hongmei Xu
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China
| | - Xuxiang Li
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China
| | - Renjian Zhang
- Key Lab of Regional Climate-Environment Research for Temperate East Asia, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China.
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Prithiviraj B, Chakraborty P. Atmospheric polychlorinated biphenyls from an urban site near informal electronic waste recycling area and a suburban site of Chennai city, India. Sci Total Environ 2020; 710:135526. [PMID: 31784153 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2019] [Revised: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies evidenced informal electronic waste (e-waste) recycling as a potential source of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the metropolitan environment of India. Given the recent evidences on the release of hazardous organic compounds from the informal e-waste recycling workshops in the Chennai city, we have conducted high volume air sampling in an urban site close to the informal e-waste recycling corridor and in a suburban site located about 35 km away from the urban center. Weekly diurnal gaseous and particulate phase samples were collected from both urban and suburban sites during summer and winter samples were collected only from suburban site. Mean atmospheric PCB levels in the urban site (Avg ± Stdev, 46 ± 16 ng/m3) is several orders of magnitude higher than suburban summer (10 ± 12 ng/m3) and winter (4 ± 3 ng/m3). Back trajectories originating from the land seems to have impacted the samples recorded with maximum PCB concentration. No significant difference was seen between summer and winter atmospheric PCBs in the suburban site. In urban site, PCB-52 and dioxin like PCBs (dl-PCBs) have increased from the past observations with maximum PCB-52 concentration in night time samples. Positive matrix factorization source-receptor model outputs suggest that in the urban centers, open burning in municipal dumpsites is a major source for PCB-52, while dl-PCBs were related to e-waste recycling by the informal sector. Exponential increment in most toxic non-ortho dl-PCBs proclaims the severity of on-going sources which contributed to the high toxic equivalency (TEQs) upto 105 pg TEQ/m3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balasubramanian Prithiviraj
- Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Research Institute, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur 603203, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Paromita Chakraborty
- Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Research Institute, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur 603203, Tamil Nadu, India.
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Cao P, Fujimori T, Juhasz A, Takaoka M, Oshita K. Bioaccessibility and human health risk assessment of metal(loid)s in soil from an e-waste open burning site in Agbogbloshie, Accra, Ghana. Chemosphere 2020; 240:124909. [PMID: 31550590 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2019] [Revised: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Environmental pollution and human health issues due to unrestricted electronic waste (e-waste) recycling activities have been reported at a number of locations. Among different e-waste recycling techniques, open burning of e-waste releases diverse metal(loid)s into the environment, which has aroused concern worldwide. In human health risk assessments (HHRAs), oral ingestion of soil can be a major route of exposure to many immobile soil contaminants. In vitro assays are currently being developed and validated to avoid overestimation of pollutants absorbed by the human body when calculating total pollutant concentrations in HHRAs. In this study, Cu, As, Cd, Sb, and Pb bioaccessibility in polluted soils (n = 10) from e-waste open burning sites at Agbogbloshie in Accra, Ghana, was assessed using an in vitro assay, the physiologically based extraction test. A bioaccessibility-corrected HHRA was then conducted to estimate the potential health risks to local inhabitants. The in vitro results (%) varied greatly among the different metal(loid)s (Cu: 1.3-60, As: 1.3-40, Cd: 4.2-67, Sb: 0.7-85, Pb: 4.1-57), and also showed marked variance between the gastric phase and small intestinal phase. The particle sizes of soil samples and chemical forms of metal(loid)s also influenced bioaccessibility values. Using these bioaccessibility values, both the hazard index and carcinogenic risk were calculated. The hazard index was above the threshold value (>1) for 5/10 samples, indicating a potential health risk to local inhabitants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peiqing Cao
- Department of Global Ecology, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nisikyo-ku, Kyoto, 615-8540, Japan
| | - Takashi Fujimori
- Department of Global Ecology, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nisikyo-ku, Kyoto, 615-8540, Japan; Department of Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nisikyo-ku, Kyoto, 615-8540, Japan.
| | - Albert Juhasz
- Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, 5095, Australia
| | - Masaki Takaoka
- Department of Global Ecology, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nisikyo-ku, Kyoto, 615-8540, Japan; Department of Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nisikyo-ku, Kyoto, 615-8540, Japan
| | - Kazuyuki Oshita
- Department of Global Ecology, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nisikyo-ku, Kyoto, 615-8540, Japan; Department of Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nisikyo-ku, Kyoto, 615-8540, Japan
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Kumari K, Kumar S, Rajagopal V, Khare A, Kumar R. Emission from open burning of municipal solid waste in India. Environ Technol 2019; 40:2201-2214. [PMID: 28678614 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2017.1351489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Open burning of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is a potential non-point source of emission, which causes greater concern especially in developing countries such as India. Lack of awareness about environmental impact of open burning, and ignorance of the fact, i.e. 'Open burning is a source of emission of carcinogenic substances' are major hindrances towards an appropriate municipal solid waste management system in India. The paper highlights the open burning of MSW practices in India, and the current and projected emission of 10 major pollutants (dioxin, furans, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and 1-hexene) emitted due to the open burning of MSW. Waste to Energy potential of MSW was also estimated adopting effective biological and thermal techniques. Statistical techniques were applied to analyse the data and current and projected emission of various pollutants were estimated. Data pertaining to population, MSW generation and its collection efficiency were compiled for 29 States and 7 Union Territories. Thereafter, emission of 10 pollutants was measured following methodology prescribed in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change guideline for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, 2006. The study revealed that people living in Metropolitan cities are more affected by emissions from open burning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanchan Kumari
- a National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, CSIR , Nagpur , India
| | - Sunil Kumar
- a National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, CSIR , Nagpur , India
| | - Vineel Rajagopal
- a National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, CSIR , Nagpur , India
- b National Institute of Technology-Karnataka , Surathkal , India
| | - Ankur Khare
- a National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, CSIR , Nagpur , India
| | - Rakesh Kumar
- a National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, CSIR , Nagpur , India
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23
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Chuang HC, Sun J, Ni H, Tian J, Lui KH, Han Y, Cao J, Huang RJ, Shen Z, Ho KF. Characterization of the chemical components and bioreactivity of fine particulate matter produced during crop-residue burning in China. Environ Pollut 2019; 245:226-234. [PMID: 30423537 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.10.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Revised: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 10/28/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Five types of crop residue (rice, wheat, corn, sorghum, and sugarcane) collected from different provinces in China were used to characterize the chemical components and bioreactivity properties of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) emissions during open-burning scenarios. Organic carbon (OC) and elemental carbon (EC) were the most abundant components, contributing 41.7%-54.9% of PM2.5 emissions. The OC/EC ratio ranged from 8.8 to 31.2, indicating that organic matter was the dominant component of emissions. Potassium and chloride were the most abundant components in the portion of PM2.5 composed of water-soluble ions. The coefficient of divergence ranged from 0.27 to 0.51 among various emissions profiles. All samples exposed to a high PM2.5 concentration (150 μg/mL) exhibited a significant reduction in cell viability (A549 lung alveolar epithelial cells) and increase in lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) and interleukin 6 levels compared with those exposed to 20 or 0 μg/mL. Higher bioreactivity (determined according to LDH and interleukin 6 level) was observed for the rice, wheat, and corn samples than for the sorghum straw samples. Pearson's correlation analysis suggested that OC, heavy metals (chromium, manganese, iron, nickel, copper, zinc, tin, and barium), and water-soluble ions (fluoride, calcium, and sulfate) are the components potentially associated with LDH production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiao-Chi Chuang
- School of Respiratory Therapy, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei Medical University, New Taipei City, Taiwan; Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jian Sun
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China
| | - Haiyan Ni
- Key Laboratory of Aerosol Chemistry and Physics, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710075, China; State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology (SKLLQG), Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710061, China
| | - Jie Tian
- Key Laboratory of Aerosol Chemistry and Physics, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710075, China; State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology (SKLLQG), Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710061, China
| | - Ka Hei Lui
- The Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Yongming Han
- Key Laboratory of Aerosol Chemistry and Physics, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710075, China; State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology (SKLLQG), Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710061, China
| | - Junji Cao
- Key Laboratory of Aerosol Chemistry and Physics, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710075, China; Institute of Global Environmental Change, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China
| | - Ru-Jin Huang
- Key Laboratory of Aerosol Chemistry and Physics, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710075, China
| | - Zhenxing Shen
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Kin-Fai Ho
- Key Laboratory of Aerosol Chemistry and Physics, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710075, China; The Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; Shenzhen Municipal Key Laboratory for Health Risk Analysis, Shenzhen Research Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China.
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24
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Ding L, Cai B, Wang S, Qu C. Concentrations, spatial distributions, and congener profiles of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans around original plastic solid waste recovery sites in China. Environ Pollut 2018; 242:692-699. [PMID: 30029168 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.07.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The concentrations, profiles, and spatial distributions of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in soil and sediment samples from several typical plastic solid waste (PSW) recovery sites (particularly from areas in which PSW is burned openly) in China were investigated. The results showed that burning PSW directly influenced PCDD/F concentrations immediately around the burning area. All of the samples in which soil contained black burning residue, collected from immediately around burning areas, had PCDD/F concentrations (mean 21708 ng kg-1) and toxic equivalent (TEQ) concentrations (mean 2140 ng I-TEQ kg-1 or 1877 ng WHO2006-TEQ kg-1) more than 100 times higher than the concentrations in samples collected away from burning areas (mean 222 ng kg-1, 8.75 ng I-TEQ kg-1, 7.96 ng WHO2006-TEQ kg-1). Principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis indicated that the PCDD/F concentrations in seven soil samples from near PSW burning areas were influenced by PSW burning but that the PCDD/Fs in these soil samples may have had other or multiple sources. PCDD/F distributions at PSW recovery sites have been investigated in few previous studies. The results presented here indicate that appropriate measures should be taken to decrease the ecological risks posed by PSW recovery and to prevent, control, and remediate PCDD/F and other chemical contamination caused by PSW recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Ding
- Jiangsu Provincial Academy of Environmental Science, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210036, China
| | - Bingjie Cai
- Jiangsu Provincial Academy of Environmental Science, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210036, China
| | - Shui Wang
- Jiangsu Provincial Academy of Environmental Science, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210036, China.
| | - Changsheng Qu
- Jiangsu Provincial Academy of Environmental Science, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210036, China.
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25
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Yadav P, Samadder SR. Environmental impact assessment of municipal solid waste management options using life cycle assessment: a case study. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2018; 25:838-854. [PMID: 29063409 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-0439-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The goal of this study is to use life cycle assessment (LCA) tool to assess possible environmental impacts of different municipal solid waste management (MSWM) scenarios on various impact categories for the study area Dhanbad City, India. The scenarios included in the present study are collection and transportation (denoted as S1); baseline scenario consisting of recycling, open burning, open dumping, and finally unsanitary landfilling without energy recovery (denoted by S2); composting and landfilling (denoted by S3); and recycling and composting followed by landfilling of inert waste without energy recovery (denoted by S4). One ton of municipal solid waste (MSW) was selected as the functional unit. The primary data were collected through sampling, surveys, and literatures. Background data were obtained from Eco-invent data of SimaPro 8.1 libraries. The scenarios were compared using the CML 2 baseline 2000 method, and the results indicated that the scenario S1 had the highest impact on marine aquatic ecotoxicity (1.86E + 04 kg 1,4-DB eq.) and abiotic depletion (2.09E + 02 kg Sb eq.). S2 had the highest impact on global warming potential (9.42E + 03 kg CO2 eq.), acidification (1.15E + 01 kg SO2 eq.), eutrophication (2.63E + 00 kg PO43- eq.), photochemical oxidation (2.12E + 00 kg C2H4 eq.), and human toxicity (2.25E + 01 kg 1,4-DB eq.). However, S3 had the highest impact on abiotic depletion (fossil fuels) (2.71E + 02 MJ), fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity (6.54E + 00 kg 1,4-DB eq.), terrestrial ecotoxicity (3.36E - 02 kg 1,4-DB eq.), and ozone layer depletion (2.73E - 06 kg CFC-11 eq.). But S4 did not have the highest impact on any of the environmental impact categories due to recycling of packaging waste and landfilling of inert waste. Landfilling without energy recovery of mixed solid waste was found as the worst disposal alternative. The scenario S4 was found as the most environmentally suitable technology for the study area and recommended that S4 should be considered for strategic planning of MSWM for the study area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Yadav
- Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, 826004, India
| | - Sukha Ranjan Samadder
- Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, 826004, India.
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26
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Soam S, Borjesson P, Sharma PK, Gupta RP, Tuli DK, Kumar R. Life cycle assessment of rice straw utilization practices in India. Bioresour Technol 2017; 228:89-98. [PMID: 28056373 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.12.082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Revised: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study is to find potential utilization practice of rice straw in India from an environmental perspective. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is conducted for four most realistic utilization practices of straw including: (1) incorporation into the field as fertilizer (2) animal fodder (3) electricity (4) biogas. The results show that processing of 1 ton straw to electricity and biogas resulted in net reduction of 1471 and 1023kg CO2 eq., 15.0 and 3.4kg SO2 eq. and 6.7 and 7.1kg C2H6 eq. emissions in global warming, acidification and photochemical oxidation creation potential respectively. Electricity production from straw replaces the coal based electricity and resulted in benefits in most of the environmental impacts whereas use as an animal fodder resulted in eutrophication benefits. The burning of straw is a harmful practice of managing straw in India which can be avoided by utilizing straw for bioenergy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shveta Soam
- DBT-IOC Centre for Advanced Bioenergy Research, Research & Development Centre, Indian Oil Corporation Limited, Sector-13, Faridabad 121007, India
| | - Pal Borjesson
- Environmental and Energy Systems Studies, Lund University, Lund 22100, Sweden
| | - Pankaj K Sharma
- College of Engineering, University of Petroleum & Energy Studies, Village & P.O. Bidholi, Prem Nagar, Dehradun, UA 248007, India
| | - Ravi P Gupta
- DBT-IOC Centre for Advanced Bioenergy Research, Research & Development Centre, Indian Oil Corporation Limited, Sector-13, Faridabad 121007, India
| | - Deepak K Tuli
- DBT-IOC Centre for Advanced Bioenergy Research, Research & Development Centre, Indian Oil Corporation Limited, Sector-13, Faridabad 121007, India
| | - Ravindra Kumar
- DBT-IOC Centre for Advanced Bioenergy Research, Research & Development Centre, Indian Oil Corporation Limited, Sector-13, Faridabad 121007, India.
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27
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Ni HG, Lu SY, Mo T, Zeng H. Brominated flame retardant emissions from the open burning of five plastic wastes and implications for environmental exposure in China. Environ Pollut 2016; 214:70-76. [PMID: 27064612 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.03.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Revised: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/19/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Based on the most widely used plastics in China, five plastic wastes were selected for investigation of brominated flame retardant (BFR) emission behaviors during open burning. Considerable variations were observed in the emission factors (EF) of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) from the combustion of different plastic wastes. Distribution of BFR output mass showed that ΣPBDE was emitted mainly by the airborne particle (51%), followed by residual ash (44%) and the gas phase (5.1%); these values for ΣHBCD were 62%, 24%, and 14%, respectively. A lack of mass balance after the burning of the plastic wastes for some congeners (output/input mass ratios>1) suggested that formation and survival exceeded PBDE decomposition during the burns. However, that was not the case for HBCD. A comparison with literature data showed that the open burning of plastic waste is major source of PBDE compared to regulated combustion activities. Even for state-of-the-art waste incinerators equipped with sophisticated complex air pollution control technologies, BFRs are released on a small scale to the environment. According to our estimate, ΣPBDE release to the air and land from municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration plants in China in 2015 were 105 kg/year and 7124 kg/year. These data for ΣHBCD were 25.5 and 71.7 kg/year, respectively. Considering the fact that a growing number of cities in China are switching to incineration as the preferred method for MSW treatment, our estimate is especially important. This study provides the first data on the environmental exposure of BFRs emitted from MSW incineration in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Gang Ni
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Circular Economy, Shenzhen Graduate School, Peking University, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Shao-You Lu
- Shenzhen Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Ting Mo
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Circular Economy, Shenzhen Graduate School, Peking University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Hui Zeng
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Circular Economy, Shenzhen Graduate School, Peking University, Shenzhen 518055, China
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28
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Fujimori T, Itai T, Goto A, Asante KA, Otsuka M, Takahashi S, Tanabe S. Interplay of metals and bromine with dioxin-related compounds concentrated in e-waste open burning soil from Agbogbloshie in Accra, Ghana. Environ Pollut 2016; 209:155-63. [PMID: 26686056 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2015.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2015] [Revised: 11/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/19/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Open burning of electronic waste (e-waste) releases various metals and organohalogen compounds in the environment. Here we investigated the interplay of metals (Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe, Co, and Sr) and bromine (Br) in the formation of dioxin-related compounds (DRCs), including polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PCDD/Fs) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs), as well as non-regulated DRCs such as polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PBDD/Fs) and their monobrominated PCDD/Fs in soils sampled from open burning e-waste sites at Agbogbloshie in Accra, Ghana. The predominant DRCs were PBDFs, PCDFs, PCDDs, and DL-PCBs. Statistical analyzes, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and the PCDF/PCDD ratio suggested possible formation paths of PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs by catalytic behaviors of copper chlorides (CuCl, CuCl2, and Cu2(OH)3Cl) and thermal breakdown of polyvinyl chloride. Predominant formation of brominated furans may be derived from electron transfer from intermediates of PBDE to copper, Cu(II) → Cu(I). Lead chloride also contributed to generate DRCs and may become highly bioaccessible through the open burning of e-waste. The main zinc species (ZnCl2 and ZnS) suggested a possible relationship to generate DRCs and specific zinc source such as tire burning. Cu, Pb, Zn, and Br contained in various e-wastes, wires/cables, plastics, and tires strongly influenced generation of many DRCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Fujimori
- Department of Global Ecology, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nisikyo-ku, Kyoto, 615-8540, Japan; Department of Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nisikyo-ku, Kyoto, 615-8540, Japan
| | - Takaaki Itai
- Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, Bunkyo-cho 2-5, Matsuyama, Ehime 790-8577, Japan.
| | - Akitoshi Goto
- Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, Bunkyo-cho 2-5, Matsuyama, Ehime 790-8577, Japan
| | - Kwadwo A Asante
- Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, Bunkyo-cho 2-5, Matsuyama, Ehime 790-8577, Japan; CSIR Water Research Institute, PO Box AH 38, Achimota, Accra, Ghana
| | - Masanari Otsuka
- Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, Bunkyo-cho 2-5, Matsuyama, Ehime 790-8577, Japan; Ehime Prefectural Institute of Public Health and Environmental Science, 8-234 Sanban-cho, Matsuyama 790-0003, Japan
| | - Shin Takahashi
- Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, Bunkyo-cho 2-5, Matsuyama, Ehime 790-8577, Japan; Department of Environmental Conservation, Ehime University, Matsuyama 790-8577, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Tanabe
- Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, Bunkyo-cho 2-5, Matsuyama, Ehime 790-8577, Japan
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Matsukami H, Tue NM, Suzuki G, Someya M, Tuyen LH, Viet PH, Takahashi S, Tanabe S, Takigami H. Flame retardant emission from e-waste recycling operation in northern Vietnam: environmental occurrence of emerging organophosphorus esters used as alternatives for PBDEs. Sci Total Environ 2015; 514:492-499. [PMID: 25701386 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Revised: 02/03/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Three oligomeric organophosphorus flame retardants (o-PFRs), eight monomeric PFRs (m-PFRs), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were identified and quantified in surface soils and river sediments around the e-waste recycling area in Bui Dau, northern Vietnam. Around the e-waste recycling workshops, 1,3-phenylene bis(diphenyl phosphate) (PBDPP), bisphenol A bis(diphenyl phosphate) (BPA-BDPP), triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), TBBPA, and PBDEs were dominant among the investigated flame retardants (FRs). The respective concentrations of PBDPP, BPA-BDPP, TPHP, TBBPA and the total PBDEs were 6.6-14000 ng/g-dry, <2-1500 ng/g-dry, 11-3300 ng/g-dry, <5-2900 ng/g-dry, and 67-9200 ng/g-dry in surface soils, and 4.4-78 ng/g-dry, <2-20 ng/g-dry, 7.3-38 ng/g-dry, 6.0-44 ng/g-dry and 100-350 ng/g-dry in river sediments. Near the open burning site of e-waste, tris(methylphenyl) phosphate (TMPP), (2-ethylhexyl)diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP), TPHP, and the total PBDEs were abundantly with respective concentrations of <2-190 ng/g-dry, <2-69 ng/g-dry, <3-51 ng/g-dry and 1.7-67 ng/g-dry in surface soils. Open storage and burning of e-waste have been determined to be important factors contributing to the emissions of FRs. The environmental occurrence of emerging FRs, especially o-PFRs, indicates that the alternation of FRs addition in electronic products is shifting in response to domestic and international regulations of PBDEs. The emissions of alternatives from open storage and burning of e-waste might become greater than those of PBDEs in the following years. The presence and environmental effects of alternatives should be regarded as a risk factor along with e-waste recycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidenori Matsukami
- Center for Material Cycles and Waste Management Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba 305-8506, Japan; Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa 277-8563, Japan.
| | - Nguyen Minh Tue
- Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, 2-5 Bunkyo-cho, Matsuyama 790-8577, Japan; Centre for Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development (CETASD), Hanoi University of Science, 334 Nguyen Trai, Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Go Suzuki
- Center for Material Cycles and Waste Management Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba 305-8506, Japan
| | - Masayuki Someya
- Tokyo Metropolitan Research Institute for Environmental Protection, 1-7-5 Shinsuna Koto, Tokyo 136-0075, Japan
| | - Le Huu Tuyen
- Centre for Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development (CETASD), Hanoi University of Science, 334 Nguyen Trai, Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Pham Hung Viet
- Centre for Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development (CETASD), Hanoi University of Science, 334 Nguyen Trai, Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Shin Takahashi
- Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, 2-5 Bunkyo-cho, Matsuyama 790-8577, Japan; Center of Advanced Technology for the Environment, Faculty of Agriculture, Ehime University, 3-5-7 Tarumi, Matsuyama 790-8566, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Tanabe
- Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, 2-5 Bunkyo-cho, Matsuyama 790-8577, Japan
| | - Hidetaka Takigami
- Center for Material Cycles and Waste Management Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba 305-8506, Japan; Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa 277-8563, Japan
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30
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Aurell J, Gullett BK, Tabor D, Williams RK, Mitchell W, Kemme MR. Aerostat-based sampling of emissions from open burning and open detonation of military ordnance. J Hazard Mater 2015; 284:108-120. [PMID: 25463224 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.10.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Revised: 10/10/2014] [Accepted: 10/17/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Emissions from open detonation (OD), open burning (OB), and static firing (SF) of obsolete military munitions were collected using an aerostat-lofted sampling instrument maneuvered into the plumes with remotely controlled tether winches. PM2.5, PM10, metals, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), energetics, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were characterized from 121 trials of three different munitions (Composition B (hereafter, "Comp B"), V453, V548), 152 trials of five different propellants (M31A1E1, M26, SPCF, Arc 451, 452A), and 12 trials with static firing of ammonium perchlorate-containing Sparrow rocket motors. Sampling was conducted with operational charge sizes and under open area conditions to determine emission levels representative of actual disposal practices. The successful application of the tethered aerostat and sampling instruments demonstrated the ability to sample for and determine the first ever emission factors for static firing of rocket motors and buried and metal-cased OD, as well as the first measurements of PM2.5 for OB and for surface OD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Aurell
- National Research Council Post Doctoral Fellow to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA.
| | - Brian K Gullett
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA.
| | - Dennis Tabor
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA.
| | - Ryan K Williams
- U.S. Department of Defense, Joint Munitions Command, Logistics Integration Directorate, Engineering and Demil Technology Office, AMSJM-LIB-T, OK 74501, USA.
| | - William Mitchell
- William Mitchell, Bill Mitchell & Associates, LLC, 5621 Pelham Rd., Durham, NC 27713, USA.
| | - Michael R Kemme
- U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, Attn: CEERD-CN-E, PO Box 9005, Champaign, IL 61826-9005, USA.
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Ni M, Huang J, Lu S, Li X, Yan J, Cen K. A review on black carbon emissions, worldwide and in China. Chemosphere 2014; 107:83-93. [PMID: 24875874 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.02.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2013] [Revised: 02/22/2014] [Accepted: 02/23/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Black carbon (BC) produced from open burning (OB) and controlled combustion (CC) is a range of carbonaceous products of incomplete combustion of biomass and fossil fuel, and is deemed as one of the major contributors to impact global environment and human health. BC has a strong relationship with POPs, in waste combustion, BC promotes the formation of POPs, and then the transport of POPs in the environment is highly influenced by BC. However less is known about BC formation, measurement and emissions estimation especially in developing countries such as China. Different forms of BC are produced both in CC and OB. BC emission characteristics and combustion parameters which determine BC emissions from CC and OB are discussed. Recent studies showed a lack of common methodology and the resulting data for describing the mechanisms related to BC formation during combustion processes. Because BC is a continuum carbonaceous combustion product, different sampling and measuring methods are used for measuring their emissions with great quantitative uncertainty. We discuss the commonly used BC sampling and measuring methods along with the causes for uncertainty and measures to minimizing the uncertainty. Then, we discuss the estimations of BC emission factors and emission inventory for CC and OB sources. The total emissions of BC from CC and OB in China are also estimated and compared with previous BC emission inventories in this review and we find the inventories tend to be overestimated. As China becomes the largest contributor to global BC emissions, studies for characterizing BC emissions from OB and CC sources are absent in China. Finally, we comment on the current state of BC emission research and identify major deficiencies that need to overcome. Moreover, the advancement in research tools, measuring technique in particular, as discussed in this review is critical for researchers in developing countries to improve their capability to study BC emissions for addressing the growing climate change and public health concerns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingjiang Ni
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Jianxin Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Shengyong Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China.
| | - Xiaodong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Jianhua Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Kefa Cen
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
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Man YB, Kang Y, Wang HS, Lau W, Li H, Sun XL, Giesy JP, Chow KL, Wong MH. Cancer risk assessments of Hong Kong soils contaminated by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. J Hazard Mater 2013; 261:770-776. [PMID: 23465409 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.11.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2012] [Revised: 11/21/2012] [Accepted: 11/24/2012] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate soils from 12 different land use types on human cancer risks, with the main focus being on human cancer risks related to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Fifty-five locations were selected to represent 12 different types of land use (electronic waste dismantling workshop (EW (DW)); open burning site (OBS); car dismantling workshop (CDW) etc.). The total concentrations of 16 PAHs in terms of total burden and their bioaccessibility were analysed using GC/MS. The PAHs concentrations were subsequently used to establish cancer risks in humans via three exposure pathways, namely, accident ingestion of soil, dermal contact soil and inhalation of soil particles. When the 95th centile values of total PAH concentrations were used to derive ingestion and dermal cancer risk probabilities on humans, the CDW land use type indicated a moderate potential for cancerous development (244 × 10(-6) and 209 × 10(-6), respectively). Bioaccessible PAHs content in soil samples from CDW (3.60 × 10(-6)) were also classified as low cancer risk. CDW soil possessed a higher carcinogenic risk based on PAH concentrations. Bioremediation is recommended to treat the contaminated soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Bon Man
- School of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Lin'an, Zhejiang 311300, PR China; State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution - Croucher Institute for Environmental Sciences, Hong Kong Baptist University and City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, PR China
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Gullett BK, Tabor D, Bertrand A, Touati A. Quality control for sampling of PCDD/PCDF emissions from open combustion sources. Chemosphere 2013; 93:494-498. [PMID: 23871593 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2012] [Revised: 04/12/2013] [Accepted: 06/02/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Both long duration (>6h) and high temperature (up to 139°C) sampling efforts were conducted using ambient air sampling methods to determine if either high volume throughput or higher than ambient air sampling temperatures resulted in loss of target polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDDs/PCDFs) from a polyurethane foam (PUF) sorbent. Emissions from open burning of simulated military forward operating base waste were sampled using EPA Method TO-9A for 185 min duration using a filter/PUF/PUF in series combination. After a 54 m(3) sample was collected, the sampler was removed from the combustion source and the second PUF was replaced with a fresh, clean PUF. An additional 6h of ambient air sampling (171 m(3)) was conducted and the second PUF was analyzed to determine if the PCDD/PCDF transferred from the filter and the first PUF. Less than 4.4% of the initial PCDD/PCDF was lost to the second PUF. To assess the potential for blow off of PCDD/PCDF analytes during open air sampling, the mobility of spiked mono- to hepta-PCDD/PCDF standards across a PUF sorbent was evaluated from ambient air temperatures to 145°C with total volumes between 600 L and 2400 L. Lower molecular weight compounds and higher flow amounts increased release of the spiked standards consistent with vapor pressure values. At 600 L total sampled volume, the release temperature for 1% of the tetra-CDD (the lowest chlorinated homologue with a toxic compound) was 87°C; increasing the volume fourfold reduced this temperature to 73°C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian K Gullett
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development (E343-04), Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA.
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