Identification of Quantitative Trait Loci and Candidate Genes Controlling Seed Dormancy in Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.)

Seed dormancy is a life adaptation trait exhibited by plants in response to environmental changes during their growth and development. The dormancy of commercial seeds is the key factor affecting seed quality. Eggplant seed dormancy is controlled by quantitative trait loci (QTLs), but reliable QTLs related to eggplant dormancy are still lacking. In this study, F2 populations obtained through the hybridization of paternally inbred lines with significant differences in dormancy were used to detect regulatory sites of dormancy in eggplant seeds. Three QTLs (dr1.1, dr2.1, and dr6.1) related to seed dormancy were detected on three chromosomes of eggplant using the QTL-Seq technique. By combining nonsynonymous sites within the candidate regions and gene functional annotation analysis, nine candidate genes were selected from three QTL candidate regions. According to the germination results on the eighth day, the male parent was not dormant, but the female parent was dormant. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was used to verify the expression of nine candidate genes, and the Smechr0201082 gene showed roughly the same trend as that in the phenotypic data. We proposed Smechr0201082 as the potential key gene involved in regulating the dormancy of eggplant seeds. The results of seed experiments with different concentrations of gibberellin A3 (GA3) showed that, within a certain range, the higher the gibberellin concentration, the earlier the emergence and the higher the germination rate. However, higher concentrations of GA3 may have potential effects on eggplant seedlings. We suggest the use of GA3 at a concentration of 200-250 mg·L-1 to treat dormant seeds. This study provides a foundation for the further exploration of genes related to the regulation of seed dormancy and the elucidation of the molecular mechanism of eggplant seed dormancy and germination.

Light dependent differentiation of outdoors developed purple eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) pericarp layers: Leaf chlorenchyma characteristics of the pericarp layers dissected in the dark

To interpret the final steps of chlorophyll biosynthesis, detailed knowledge of etiolation symptoms is necessary. Most of our knowledge originates from studies on plant materials grown in complete darkness. Hardly any information is available about the plastid development in internal parenchyma cells of fleshy fruits in which the food supply is almost unlimited. In this work, etiolation symptoms were studied in pericarp layers of purple eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). Tissue layers of fruits developed under open-air conditions and of etiolated fruits were dissected in a dark room. Transmission and 77 K fluorescence spectroscopy and ultrastructural studies were performed. Photosynthetic activities were measured and pigment contents were determined in light-grown fruits. The purple exocarp and a 1-1.5 cm wide green mesocarp layer of large fruits fully shade the internal pericarp layers, thus protochloropyll (ide) accumulated, flash-photoactive 644 and 655 nm emitting protochlorophyllide complexes, and only small amounts of chlorophylls were found. Photosynthetic activity was detected only in the external, green layer, which had fully developed chloroplasts, and showed 77 K fluorescence emission spectra characteristic for green leaves. The innermost endocarp regions and the etiolated fruits contained mainly protochlorophyll (ide), proplastids, and etioplasts, i.e. they showed etiolation symptoms. These symptoms correspond to those of leaves of dark-grown seedlings but are stable for long periods due to the almost unlimited nourishment supply from storage parenchyma cells. These results prove that the laboratory works with artificially dark-developed plant materials are good models of natural chlorophyll biosynthesis and plastid development.

Potential of Trichoderma virens HZA14 in Controlling Verticillium Wilt Disease of Eggplant and Analysis of Its Genes Responsible for Microsclerotial Degradation

Verticillium dahliae is a soilborne fungal pathogen that causes vascular wilt diseases in a wide range of economically important crops, including eggplant. Trichoderma spp. are effective biological control agents that suppress a wide range of plant pathogens through a variety of mechanisms, including mycoparasitism. However, the molecular mechanisms of mycoparasitism of Trichoderma spp. in the degradation of microsclerotia of V. dahliae are not yet fully understood. In this study, the ability of 15 isolates of Trichoderma to degrade microsclerotia of V. dahliae was evaluated using a dual culture method. After 15 days, isolate HZA14 showed the greatest potential for microsclerotial degradation. The culture filtrate of isolate HZA14 also significantly inhibited the mycelial growth and conidia germination of V. dahliae at different dilutions. Moreover, this study showed that T. virens produced siderophores and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). In disease control tests, T. virens HZA14 reduced disease severity in eggplant seedlings by up to 2.77%, resulting in a control efficacy of 96.59% at 30 days after inoculation. Additionally, inoculation with an HZA14 isolate increased stem and root length and fresh and dry weight, demonstrating plant growth promotion efficacy. To further investigate the mycoparasitism mechanism of T. virens HZA14, transcriptomics sequencing and real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) were used to identify the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of T. virens HZA14 at 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 days of the interaction with microsclerotia of V. dahliae. In contrast to the control group, the mycoparasitic process of T. virens HZA14 exhibited differential gene expression, with 1197, 1758, 1936, and 1914 genes being up-regulated and 1191, 1963, 2050, and 2114 genes being down-regulated, respectively. Among these genes, enzymes associated with the degradation of microsclerotia, such as endochitinase A1, endochitinase 3, endo-1,3-beta-glucanase, alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase, laccase-1, and peroxidase were predicted based on bioinformatics analysis. The RT-qPCR results confirmed the RNA-sequencing data, showing that the expression trend of the genes was consistent. These results provide important information for understanding molecular mechanisms of microsclerotial degradation and integrated management of Verticillium wilt in eggplant and other crops.

iTRAQ-Based Quantitative Proteomics Unveils Protein Dynamics in the Root of Solanum melongena L. under Waterlogging Stress Conditions

Waterlogging poses significant abiotic stress that endangers the survival of plants, including crops. In response, plants dramatically change their physiology to enhance their tolerance to waterlogging, such as proteome reconfiguration. Here, we utilized isobaric tags for the relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ)-based protein labeling technique to examine the proteomic changes induced by waterlogging in the roots of Solanum melongena L., a solanaceous plant. The plants were subjected to 6, 12, and 24 h of waterlogging stress at the flowering stage. Of the 4074 identified proteins, compared to the control, the abundance of the proteins increased and decreased in 165 and 78 proteins, respectively, in 6 h of treatments; 219 and 89 proteins, respectively, in 12 h of treatments; and 126 and 127 proteins, respectively, in 24 h of treatments. The majority of these differentially regulated proteins participated in processes such as energy metabolism, amino acid biosynthesis, signal transduction, and nitrogen metabolism. Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase and three alcohol dehydrogenase genes, in particular, were up- or down-regulated in waterlogging-treated Solanum melongena roots, suggesting that some proteins related to anaerobic metabolism (glycolysis and fermentation) may play vital roles in protecting its roots from waterlogging stress to enable long-term survival. Overall, this research not only offers a comprehensive dataset of protein alterations in waterlogged Solanum melongena roots but also insights into the mechanisms by which solanaceous plants adapt to waterlogging stress.

Alleviation of Associated Drought and Salinity Stress' Detrimental Impacts on an Eggplant Cultivar ('Bonica F1') by Adding Biochar

To investigate the impact of biochar on eggplant growth, physiology, and yield parameters under separate and associated drought and salt stress, a pot experiment was carried out. An eggplant variety ('Bonica F1') was exposed to one NaCl concentration (S1 = 300 mM), three irrigation regimes (FI: full irrigation; DI: deficit irrigation; ARD: alternate root-zone drying irrigation), and one dose of biochar (B1 = 6% by weight). Our findings demonstrated that associated drought and salt stress had a greater negative impact on 'Bonica F1' performance in comparison to single drought or salt stress. Whereas, adding biochar to the soil improved the ability of 'Bonica F1' to alleviate the single and associated effects of salt and drought stress. Moreover, in comparison to DI under salinity, biochar addition in ARD significantly increased plant height, aerial biomass, fruit number per plant, and mean fresh weight per fruit by 18.4%, 39.7%, 37.5%, and 36.3%, respectively. Furthermore, under limited and saline irrigation, photosynthetic rate (A_n), transpiration rate (E), and stomatal conductance (g_s) declined. In addition, the interaction between ARD and biochar effectively restored the equilibrium between the plant chemical signal (ABA) and hydraulic signal (leaf water potential). As a result, mainly under salt stress, with ARD treatment, intrinsic water use efficiency (WUE_i) and yield traits were much higher than those in DI. Overall, biochar in combination with ARD could be an efficient approach for preserving crop productivity.

Single and Associated Effects of Drought and Heat Stresses on Physiological, Biochemical and Antioxidant Machinery of Four Eggplant Cultivars

The impact of heat and drought stresses, either individually or combined, on physiological and biochemical parameters of four eggplant varieties (Solanum melongena L.) was investigated. The results showed that associated stress generated the highest increment in proline content, MDA concentration, and H2O2 accumulation and generated the lowest increment in RWC. In addition, ‘Bonica’ and ‘Galine’ exhibited higher starch accumulation and lower electrolyte leakage (EL) under combined stress. Moreover, drought and heat stresses applied individually contributed to a substantial decline in Chla, Chlb, total Chl, Chla/b, and carotenoids (p > 0.05) in ‘Adriatica’ and ‘Black Beauty’. The decreasing level of pigments was more substantial under associated drought and heat stresses. The simultaneous application of drought and heat stresses reduced PSII efficiency (Fv/Fm), quantum yield (ΦPSII), and photochemical efficiency (qp) and boosted non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) levels. However, the change recorded in the chlorophyll fluorescence parameters was less pronounced in ‘Bonica’ and ‘Galine’. In addition, the gas exchange parameters, transpiration rate (E), CO2 assimilation rate (A), and net photosynthesis (Pn) were decreased in all varieties under all stress conditions. However, the reduction was more pronounced in ‘Adriatica’ and ‘Black Beauty’. Under associated stress, antioxidant enzymes, SOD, APX, CAT, and GR exhibited a significant increment in all eggplant cultivars. However, the rising was more elevated in ‘Bonica’ and ‘Galine’ (higher than threefold increase) than in ‘Adriatica’ and ‘Black Beauty’ (less than twofold increase). Furthermore, ‘Bonica’ and ‘Galine’ displayed higher non-enzyme scavenging activity (AsA and GSH) compared to ‘Adriatica’ and ‘Black Beauty’ under associated stress. Under stressful conditions, nutrient uptake was affected in all eggplant cultivars; however, the root, stem, and leaf N, P, and K contents, in ‘Adriatica’ and ‘Black Beauty’ were lower than in ‘Bonica’ and ‘Galine’, thereby showing less capacity in accumulating nutrients. The coexistence of drought and heat stresses caused more damage on eggplant varieties than the single appearance of drought or heat stress separately. ‘Bonica’ and ‘Galine’ showed better distinguished performance compared to ‘Adriatica’ and ‘Black Beauty’. The superiority of ‘Bonica’ and ‘Galine’ in terms of tolerance to heat and drought stresses was induced by more effective antioxidant scavenging potential, enhanced osmolyte piling-up, and prominent ability in keeping higher photosynthetic efficiency and nutrient equilibrium compared with ‘Adriatica’ and ‘Black Beauty’.

Positive effects of applying endophytic bacteria in eggplant-Sedum intercropping system on Cd phytoremediation and vegetable production in cadmium polluted greenhouse

The combination of intercropping and phytoremediation in the remediation of cadmium contaminated soil is an emerging model in recent years, but the results of previous studies are inconsistent. In the field experiment, eggplant was intercropped with hyperaccumulator Sedum alfredii Hance (inoculated or not inoculated with endophytic bacteria) to study the effects of intercropping on vegetable safety production, phytoremediation efficiency of hyperaccumulator and variation of soil available nutrients. The results showed that the intercropping treatment had a negative effect on the growth of eggplant and Sedum, but endophyte SaMR12 alleviated the inhibition of intercropping on plant growth. Intercropping treatment increases the Cd concentration in edible part of eggplant to 1.34 mg/kg compared with eggplant monoculture (1.19 mg/kg). While the application of SaMR12 reduces the Cd concentration of eggplant fruit to 0.95 mg/kg and significantly promotes the Cd uptake by Sedum. What's more surprising is that compared with eggplant monocropping, the content of soil available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the treatment of intercropping with inoculated Sedum increased significantly. And according to the correlation analysis of various indexes of plants and soil, the Cd content of eggplant is negatively correlated with the available phosphorus and potassium in the soil, while the Cd content of Sedum is positively correlated with it, which suggested that the application of phosphorus and potassium fertilizers in this experimental site was beneficial to reduce Cd content in eggplant and improve Cd phytoextraction of Sedum. Therefore, in the daily production of moderately Cd-contaminated soil, intercropping eggplant with Sedum inoculated with endophytic bacteria is an excellent Phytoextraction Coupled with Agro-safe-production (PCA) pattern.

Salt Stress Induced Changes in Photosynthesis and Metabolic Profiles of One Tolerant ('Bonica') and One Sensitive ('Black Beauty') Eggplant Cultivars (Solanum melongena L.)

The impact of salinity on the physiological and biochemical parameters of tolerant (‘Bonica’) and susceptible (‘Black Beauty’) eggplant varieties (Solanum melongena L.) was determined. The results revealed that the increase in salinity contributes to a significant decline in net photosynthesis (An) in both varieties; however, at the highest salt concentration (160 mM NaCl), the decrease in photorespiration (Rl) was less pronounced in the tolerant cultivar ‘Bonica’. Stomatal conductance (gs) was significantly reduced in ‘Black Beauty’ following exposure to 40 mM NaCl. However, gs of ‘Bonica’ was only substantially reduced at the highest level of NaCl (160 mM). In addition, a significant decrease in Chla, Chlb, total Chl, Chla/b and carotenoids (p > 0.05) was found in ‘Black Beauty’, and soluble carbohydrates accumulation and electrolyte leakage (EL) were more pronounced in ‘Black Beauty’ than in ‘Bonica’. The total phenols increase in ‘Bonica’ was 65% higher than in ‘Black Beauty’. In ‘Bonica’, the roots displayed the highest enzyme scavenging activity compared to the leaves. Salt stress contributes to a significant augmentation of root catalase and guaiacol peroxidase activities. In ‘Bonica’, the Na concentration was higher in roots than in leaves, whereas in ‘Black Beauty‘, the leaves accumulated more Na. Salt stress significantly boosted the Na/K ratio in ‘Black Beauty’, while no significant change occurred in ‘Bonica’. ACC deaminase activity was significantly higher in ‘Bonica’ than in ‘Black Beauty’.

A New MiRNA MiRm0002 in Eggplant Participates in the Regulation of Defense Responses to Verticillium Wilt

Verticillium wilt is a major disease that severely affects eggplant production, and a new eggplant miRNA named miRm0002 identified through high-throughput sequencing was highly induced by Verticillium wilt infection. However, the miRm0002 function was still elusive. In this study, the sequence of the miRm0002 precursor was cloned and transgenic eggplants were constructed. In vivo inoculation test and in vitro fungistatic test showed that overexpressing miRm0002 lines were more resistant to Verticillium dahliae and inhibiting miRm0002 lines were more sensitive, compared to the wild-type (WT) control. Some physiological indicators were selected and the results showed that SOD, POD, and CAT activities were significantly increased in Verticillium wilt-infected overexpressing miRm0002 lines, indicating that the expression of miRm0002 activates the antioxidant system. QRT-PCR assay showed that the transcript expression of miRm0002 candidate target ARF8, a gene encoding auxin response factor was negatively related to miRm0002 in WT as well as transgenic eggplants. However, RLM-RACE mapping and degradome sequencing showed miRm0002 could not cleave the sequence of ARF8. Taken together, these data suggest that miRm0002 plays a positive role in the defense response of eggplant against Verticillium wilt.

[Analysis of differential genes and metabolic pathway related to functional male sterility in eggplant]

Based on observing the cytological characteristics of the flower buds of the functional male sterile line (S13) and the fertile line (F142) in eggplant, it was found that the disintegration period of the annular cell clusters in S13 anther was 2 days later than that of F142, and the cells of stomiun tissue and tapetum in F142 disintegrated on the blooming day, while it did not happen in S13. The comparative transcriptomic analysis showed that there were 1 436 differential expression genes (DEGs) (651 up-regulated and 785 down-regulated) in anthers of F142 and S13 at 8, 5 days before flowering and flowering day. The significance analysis of GO enrichment indicated that there were more unigene clusters involved in single cell biological process, metabolism process and cell process, and more catalytic activity and binding function were involved in molecular functions. Through KEGG annotation we found that the common DEGs were mainly enriched in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, metabolic pathway, protein processing in endoplasmic reticulum, biosynthesis of amino acids, carbon metabolism and plant hormone signal transduction. The fifteen genes co-expression modules were identified from 16 465 selected genes by weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), three of which (Plum2, Royalblue and Bisque4 modules) were highly related to S13 during flower development. KEGG enrichment showed that the specific modules could be enriched in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, photosynthesis, porphyrin and chlorophyll metabolism, α-linolenic acid metabolism, polysaccharide biosynthesis and metabolism, fatty acid degradation and the mutual transformation of pentose and glucuronic acid. These genes might play important roles during flower development of S13. It provided a reference for further study on the mechanism of anther dehiscence in eggplant.

SmCOI1 affects anther dehiscence in a male-sterile Solanum melongena line

Anther indehiscence is an important form of functional male sterility that can facilitate the production of hybrid seed; however, the molecular mechanisms of anther indehiscence-based male sterility have not been thoroughly explored in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). Here, we used two-dimensional gel electrophoresis to compare the protein profiles in the anthers of normally developing (F142) and anther indehiscent (S16) S. melongena plants. Four differentially expressed proteins were identified using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight/time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Of these proteins, the transcript accumulation of the eggplant CORONATINE INSENSITIVE1 (SmCOI1) was significantly downregulated in S16 relative to F142. Phylogenetic analysis showed that SmCOI1 has high amino acid sequence similarity and clustered into the same subgroup as its homologs in other members of the Solanaceae. Subcellular localization analysis showed that SmCOI1 localized to the nucleus. Moreover, reverse-transcription quantitative PCR revealed that the jasmonic acid pathway genes SmJAZ1 and SmOPR3 are upregulated in F142 relative to S16. Protein-protein interaction studies identified a direct interaction between SmCOI1 and SmOPR3, but SmCOI1 failed to interact with SmJAZ1. These findings shed light on the regulatory mechanisms of anther dehiscence in eggplant.

Impact of synthesized metal oxide nanomaterials on seedlings production of three Solanaceae crops

Prospective involvement of metal oxide nanomaterials as a prominent agriculture practice for improving existing crop production directed the present investigation for synthesizing of ZnO and TiO₂ nanomaterials as an attempt to enhance the transplants production of some Solanaceae crops. The morphological characterizations of the prepared nanomaterials indicated that the hydrothermal synthesized ZnO was produced in nanorod structure with an average aspect ratio of 7. However, SEM and TEM micrographs of microwave prepared TiO₂ evident that it has a nanoparticle structure with an average diameter of 43 nm. The BET results confirmed the high specific areas of the two prepared metal oxide nanomaterials. The two synthesized metal oxide nanomaterials were coated in gel and mixed with the seeds of eggplant, pepper and tomato crops at four concentrations 0, 50, 100 and 150 mg/L, whilst the control seeds were germinated in distilled water without gel-coating. The results pointed to the outstanding effect of TiO₂ and ZnO nanoparticles on germination characters and seedlings growth. The maximum transplants lengths, fresh and dry weight were recorded at the level 100 mg/L whatever the crop plant used. Hastening germination operation of nanomaterials-gel coated seedlings compared to control plants may be ascribed to the reduction of mean germination time and coefficient variation of the germination process besides increasing the mean germination rate and the synchrony of germination traits. Overall, better performance of growing transplants has been accredited for nanoparticles-gel coated seedlings more than the control treatments which could be efficient for the safer production of transplants in an innovative way.

Construction of a core collection of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) based on genome-wide SNP and SSR genotypes

A core collection of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) was developed based on a dataset of genome-wide 831 SNP and 50 SSR genotypes analyzed in 893 accessions of eggplant genetic resources collected in the NARO Genebank using the Core Hunter II program. The 893 accessions were collected worldwide, mainly Asia. Genetic variation and population structure among the 893 eggplant accessions were characterized. The genetic diversity of the Asian accessions, especially the South Asian and Southeast Asian accessions, forming the center of diversity in eggplant, was higher than that of the other regions. The resulting core collection, World Eggplant Core (WEC) collection consisted of 100 accessions basically collected from the high genetic diversity countries. Based on the results of the cluster and STRUCTURE analyses with SNP genotypes, the WEC collection was divided into four clusters (S1-S4). Each cluster corresponds to a geographical group as below, S1; the European, American and African countries, S2; the East Asian countries, S3; the Southeast Asian countries, S4; the South Asian and Southeast Asian countries. The genotype and phenotype data of the WEC collection are available from the VegMarks database (https://vegmarks.nivot.affrc.go.jp/resource/), and seed samples are available from the NARO Genebank (https://www.gene.affrc.go.jp/databases-core_collections.php).

Monitoring of Chlorogenic Acid and Antioxidant Capacity of Solanum melongena L. (Eggplant) under Different Heat and Storage Treatments

Solanum melongena L., also known as eggplant, is a widely consumed vegetable and it is well-known for its beneficial antioxidant properties, due to phenolic compounds. In this work, the influence of different cooking procedures on the content of chlorogenic acid was evaluated on eggplant samples of different geographic origin by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). An easy and quick extraction procedure with 50% methanol as the extraction solvent was optimized for the first time by means of a design-of-experiment and applied to heat treated samples of eggplant. The antioxidant capacity of eggplant extracts was also evaluated by using the ABTS assay and it was correlated with the data obtained by the HPLC method. The content of chlorogenic acid was different in each heat-treated eggplant sample and it depended on the temperature applied during the cooking procedure. In particular, an increase of chlorogenic acid content with rising temperature was observed. Conversely, a very high temperature (250 °C) caused a decrease of chlorogenic acid amount. The influence of storage on the content of chlorogenic acid was also monitored. While the level of chlorogenic acid in fresh samples decreased during four weeks of storage, an increase in its content in heat treated eggplant was observed within the same period. Multivariate data analysis was used to classify eggplant samples into different groups, according to the country of origin and heat treatment procedure. This study provides new insights to preserve the antioxidant properties of eggplant phenolics during different thermal and storage treatments in order to highlight their health promoting effects.

A Complete Survey of Glycoalkaloids Using LC-FTICR-MS and IRMPD in a Commercial Variety and a Local Landrace of Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) and their Anticholinesterase and Antioxidant Activities

Eggplant contains glycoalkaloids (GAs), a class of nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites of great structural variety that may have both adverse and beneficial biological effects. In this study, we performed a complete survey of GAs and their malonylated form, in two genotypes of eggplants: A commercial cultivated type, Mirabella (Mir), with purple peel and bitter taste and a local landrace, named Melanzana Bianca di Senise (Sen), characterized by white peel with purple strip and a typical sweet aroma. Besides the analysis of their morphological traits, nineteen glycoalkaloids were tentatively identified in eggplant berry extracts based upon LC-ESI-FTICR-MS analysis using retention times, elution orders, high-resolution mass spectra, as well as high-resolution fragmentation by IRMPD. The relative signal intensities (i.e., ion counts) of the GAs identified in Mir and Sen pulp extracts showed as solamargine, and its isomers are the most abundant. In addition, anticholinesterase and antioxidant activities of the extracts were evaluated. Pulp tissue was found to be more active in inhibiting acetylcholinesterase enzyme than peel showing an inhibitory effect higher than 20% for Mir pulp. The identification of new malonylated GAs in eggplant is proposed.

Shoot Induction in White Eggplant (Solanum melongena L. Cv. Bulat Putih) using 6-Benzylaminopurine and Kinetin

Solanum melongena L. commonly known as the eggplant or brinjal comes from the family of Solanaceae, sharing the same ancestor with the tomato and potato. It is an economically important crop worldwide, being well studied for its medicinal properties, nutritional values and its role as an alternative model plant. The eggplant fruit has been previously used for treatments of various diseases such as bronchitis, asthma, arthritis and diabetes as well as its nutritive properties that are beneficial to the human diet. Plant transformation studies on the eggplant have been widely done for the production of transgenic eggplants harbouring genes that are beneficial for optimal plant growth and fruit production. Shoot induction is an essential step required for the successful regeneration of transformed plant tissues and therefore is an essential pre-requisite in Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. The local eggplant cv. Bulat Putih is a local cultivar of eggplant in Malaysia with white and round fruits making it a potential model plant colour pigment accumulation studies in fruit crops. The current work aims to investigate the shoot induction potential of 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and Kinetin from cotyledon explants of eggplant cv. Bulat Putih. Results indicated that both BAP and Kinetin were able to induce the regeneration of callus from cotyledon explants. On the other hand, Kinetin at the concentration of 2.0 mg/L successfully induced shoots at the value of 1.50 ± 0.22 shoots per explant, whereas BAP alone did not trigger any formation of shoots. This study indicated that kinetin alone is sufficient to induce shoots in eggplant cv. Bulat Putih without the presence of BAP.

Cis-Trans Configuration of Coumaric Acid Acylation Affects the Spectral and Colorimetric Properties of Anthocyanins

The color expression of anthocyanins can be affected by a variety of environmental factors and structural characteristics. Anthocyanin acylation (type and number of acids) is known to be key, but the influence of acyl isomers (with unique stereochemistries) remains to be explored. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of cis-trans configuration of the acylating group on the spectral and colorimetric properties of anthocyanins. Petunidin-3-rutinoside-5-glucoside (Pt-3-rut-5-glu) and Delphinidin-3-rutinoside-5-glucoside (Dp-3-rut-5-glu) and their cis and trans coumaroylated derivatives were isolated from black goji and eggplant, diluted in pH 1-9 buffers, and analyzed spectrophotometrically (380-700 nm) and colorimetrically (CIELAB) during 72 h of storage (25 °C, dark). The stereochemistry of the acylating group strongly impacted the spectra, color, and stability of the Dp and Pt anthocyanins. Cis acylated pigments exhibited the greatest λmax in all pH, as much as 66 nm greater than their trans counterparts, showing bluer hues. Cis acylation seemed to reduce hydration across pH, increasing color intensity, while trans acylation generally improved color retention over time. Dp-3-cis-p-cou-rut-5-glu exhibited blue hues even in pH 5 (C*ab = 10, hab = 256°) where anthocyanins are typically colorless. Cis or trans double bond configurations of the acylating group affected anthocyanin spectral and stability properties.

IgE response to two new allergen proteins of Solanum melongena L. (eggplant)

A number of allergens from eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) have been previously identified. In this study, we could detect IgE reactivity of two allergic subjects' sera towards two protein bands of molecular mass of about 35 and 15 kDa. As IgE were reactive to both raw and cooked eggplant extracts, a heat-stable nature of these novel allergens is apparent.

Draft genome sequence of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.): the representative solanum species indigenous to the old world

Unlike other important Solanaceae crops such as tomato, potato, chili pepper, and tobacco, all of which originated in South America and are cultivated worldwide, eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is indigenous to the Old World and in this respect it is phylogenetically unique. To broaden our knowledge of the genomic nature of solanaceous plants further, we dissected the eggplant genome and built a draft genome dataset with 33,873 scaffolds termed SME_r2.5.1 that covers 833.1 Mb, ca. 74% of the eggplant genome. Approximately 90% of the gene space was estimated to be covered by SME_r2.5.1 and 85,446 genes were predicted in the genome. Clustering analysis of the predicted genes of eggplant along with the genes of three other solanaceous plants as well as Arabidopsis thaliana revealed that, of the 35,000 clusters generated, 4,018 were exclusively composed of eggplant genes that would perhaps confer eggplant-specific traits. Between eggplant and tomato, 16,573 pairs of genes were deduced to be orthologous, and 9,489 eggplant scaffolds could be mapped onto the tomato genome. Furthermore, 56 conserved synteny blocks were identified between the two species. The detailed comparative analysis of the eggplant and tomato genomes will facilitate our understanding of the genomic architecture of solanaceous plants, which will contribute to cultivation and further utilization of these crops.

Anti-inflammatory lignanamides from the roots of Solanum melongena L

Four new lignanamides, melongenamides A-D (1-4), together with six known ones (5-10), were isolated from the roots of Solanum melongena L. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of 1D and 2D NMR experiments and by comparison of their spectroscopic and physical data with the literature values. Compounds 2-8 exhibited inhibitions of nitric oxide production in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages with IC50 values ranging from 16.2 to 58.5 μM.

Meloidogyne mayaguensis n. sp. (Meloidogynidae), a Root-knot Nematode from Puerto Rico

Meloidogyne mayaguensis n. sp. is described and illustrated from specimens obtained from galled roots of eggplant, Solanum melongena L., from Puerto Rico. The perineal pattern of females is round to ovoid with fine, widely spaced striae. It has occasional breaks of striation laterally and a circular tail tip area lacking striae. The stylet, 15.8 mum long, has reniform knobs that merge gradually with the stylet shaft. Males have a high, rectangular, smooth head region, not set off from the body contour. The labial disc is continuous with the medial lips which do not slope posteriorly. The styler, 22.9 mum long, has large rounded backward sloping knobs; the shaft is of uneven diameter. Mean body length of second-stage juveniles is 453.6 mum. The truncate head region is not annulated, and the rounded, slightly raised labial disc and the crescentic medial lips form dumbbell-shaped lip structures. The stylet, 11.6 mum long, has rounded, posteriorly sloping knobs. The slender tail, 54.4 mum long, gradually tapers to a bluntly pointed tip. Tomato, tobacco, pepper, and watermelon are good hosts; cotton and peanut are not hosts. M. mayaguensis n. sp. reproduces by mitotic parthenogenesis and has a somatic chromosome number of 2n = 44-45. The enzyme patterns are unique among Meloidogyne species.