Threat or treat: Exposure assessment and risk characterisation of chemical contaminants in soft drinks and chocolate bars in various Polish population age groups

In the frame of the European Food Risk Assessment (EU-FORA) fellowship programme, two studies on chemical contaminants in food matrices were carried out in Warsaw, Poland, at the Department of Food Safety and Chemical Analysis, Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology. The first study addressed health concerns about the dietary exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) contamination due to consumption of soft drink by Polish population. BPA is an organic additive used in the production of epoxy resins and polycarbonate plastics and because of this it is used in the internal coating of cans and in plastic bottle production. Depending on several factors, BPA can migrate from these materials to the soft drink and so, it can be ingested by consumers causing hormonal and reproductive disorders. To estimate the Polish population exposure to BPA, several soft drinks belonging to different brands were purchased from a supermarket in the city of Warsaw and analysed. The result of the analysis highlight that mean BPA exposure in the Polish population exceeds the tolerable daily intake proposed by the EFSA scientific opinion, raising health concerns. On the other hand, the second study, focused on cadmium exposure due to chocolate consumption by Polish population, did not raise any health concern. Cadmium is a heavy metal that naturally occurs in its inorganic form in the environment and its presence in chocolate derives only from the cocoa beans and not from contamination during processing. Its accumulation in the human body can create several adverse effects, including renal dysfunction and failure. To estimate the Polish population exposure to cadmium, several chocolate bars were purchased from a supermarket in the city of Warsaw and analysed. The results of the analysis show that cadmium exposure in the Polish population does not exceed the tolerable weekly intake proposed by the EFSA scientific opinion.

Novel Antibacterial Metals as Food Contact Materials: A Review

Food contamination caused by microorganisms is a significant issue in the food field that not only affects the shelf life of food, but also threatens human health, causing huge economic losses. Considering that the materials in direct or indirect contact with food are important carriers and vectors of microorganisms, the development of antibacterial food contact materials is an important coping strategy. However, different antibacterial agents, manufacturing methods, and material characteristics have brought great challenges to the antibacterial effectiveness, durability, and component migration associated with the use security of materials. Therefore, this review focused on the most widely used metal-type food contact materials and comprehensively presents the research progress regarding antibacterial food contact materials, hoping to provide references for exploring novel antibacterial food contact materials.

Food Thermal Labels are a Source of Dietary Exposure to Bisphenol S and Other Color Developers

To test the hypothesis that migration from the thermal labels on plastic film packaging is a major source of exposure to bisphenols and alternative color developers in food, we analyzed 140 packaging materials from packaged fresh food purchased in North America. No bisphenol A (BPA) was detected in either the packaging samples or thermal labels. However, significant amounts of bisphenol S (BPS) and alternative color developers (up to 214 μg/cm²) were present in thermal labels; their relative occurrence varied among stores. In a controlled experiment, we wrapped fish in film with a thermal label for 5 days at 4 °C. The fish in contact with the label contained BPS (≤1140 ng/g wet weight [ww]), 4-hydroxyphenyl 4-isoprooxyphenylsulfone (D-8) (≤230 ng/g ww), bis(2-chloroethyl)ether-4,4'-dihydroxydiphenyl sulfone monomer (D-90) (≤3.41 ng/g ww), and/or Pergafast-201 (≤1.87 ng/g ww). The corresponding film samples were then tested using migration cells for 10 days; significantly higher BPS migration was observed systematically from the films with thermal labels compared to plain films. This study provides evidence, for the first time, that BPS and alternative thermal label color developers migrate from packaging materials into food. Further, BPS migration significantly exceeded the European Union Specific Migration Limit (50 ng/g ww), suggesting that further risk assessment studies are warranted.

Interlaboratory Study to Evaluate a Testing Protocol for the Safety of Food Packaging Coatings

According to European regulations, migration from food packaging must be safe. However, currently, there is no consensus on how to evaluate its safety, especially for non-intentionally added substances (NIAS). The intensive and laborious approach, involving identification and then quantification of all migrating substances followed by a toxicological evaluation, is not practical or feasible. In alignment with the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) and the European Union (EU) guidelines on packaging materials, efforts are focused on combining data from analytics, bioassays and in silico toxicology approaches for the risk assessment of packaging materials. Advancement of non-targeted screening approaches using both analytical methods and in vitro bioassays is key. A protocol was developed for the chemical and biological screening of migrants from coated metal packaging materials. This protocol includes guidance on sample preparation, migrant simulation, chemical analysis using liquid chromatography (LC-MS) and validated bioassays covering endocrine activity, genotoxicity and metabolism-related targets. An inter-laboratory study was set-up to evaluate the consistency in biological activity and analytical results generated between three independent laboratories applying the developed protocol and guidance. Coated packaging metal panels were used in this case study. In general, the inter-laboratory chemical analysis and bioassay results displayed acceptable consistency between laboratories, but technical differences led to different data interpretations (e.g., cytotoxicity, cell passages, chemical analysis). The study observations with the greatest impact on the quality of the data and ultimately resulting in discrepancies in the results are given and suggestions for improvement of the protocol are made (e.g., sample preparation, chemical analysis approaches). Finally, there was agreement on the need for an aligned protocol to be utilized by qualified laboratories for chemical and biological analyses, following best practices and guidance for packaging safety assessment of intentionally added substances (IAS) and NIAS to avoid inconsistency in data and the final interpretation.

Migration Modeling as a Valuable Tool for Exposure Assessment and Risk Characterization of Polyethylene Terephthalate Oligomers

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is one of the most widely used food contact materials due to its excellent mechanical properties and recyclability. Migration of substances from PET and assessment of compliance are usually determined by experimental testing, which can be challenging depending on the migrants of interest. Low concentrations and missing reference standards, among other factors, have led to inadequate investigation of the migration potential of PET oligomers. Migration modeling can overcome such limitations and is therefore a suitable starting point for exposure and risk assessment. In this study, the activation energy-based (E_A) model and the A_P model were used to systematically evaluate the migration potential of 52 PET oligomers for 12 different application scenarios. Modeling parameters and conditions were evaluated to investigate their impact and relevance on the assessment of realistic exposures. Obtained results were compared with safety thresholds known from the concept of toxicological thresholds of concern. This allowed the evaluation and identification of oligomers and/or applications where migration or exposure levels may be associated with a potential risk because they exceed these safety thresholds. Overall, this study demonstrated that migration modeling can be a high-throughput, fast, flexible, and suitable approach for comprehensive exposure assessment.

Antibacterial Capability of MXene (Ti3C2Tx) to Produce PLA Active Contact Surfaces for Food Packaging Applications

The globalization of the market and the increase of the global population that requires a higher demand of food products superimposes a big challenge to ensure food safety. In this sense, a common strategy to extend the shelf life and save life of food products is by avoiding bacterial contamination. For this, the development of antibacterial contact surfaces is an urgent need to fulfil the above-mentioned strategy. In this work, the role of MXene (Ti₃C₂T_x) in providing antibacterial contact surfaces was studied through the creation of composite films from polylactic acid (PLA), as the chosen polymeric matrix. The developed PLA/MXene films maintained the thermal and mechanical properties of PLA and also presented the attractive antibacterial properties of MXene. The composites' behaviour against two representative foodborne bacteria was studied: Listeria mono-cytogenes and Salmonella enterica (representing Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, respectively). The composites prevented bacterial growth, and in the case of Listeria only 0.5 wt.% of MXene was necessary to reach 99.9999% bactericidal activity (six log reductions), while against Salmonella, 5 wt.% was necessary to achieve 99.999% bactericidal activity (five log reductions). Cy-totoxicity tests with fHDF/TER166 cell line showed that none of the obtained materials were cytotoxic. These results make MXene particles promising candidates for their use as additives into a polymeric matrix, useful to fabricate antibacterial contact surfaces that could prove useful for the food packaging industry.

Incorporation of Metabolic Activation in the HPTLC-SOS-Umu-C Bioassay to Detect Low Levels of Genotoxic Chemicals in Food Contact Materials

The safety evaluation of food contact materials requires excluding mutagenicity and genotoxicity in migrates. Testing the migrates using in vitro bioassays has been proposed to address this challenge. To be fit for that purpose, bioassays must be capable of detecting very low, safety relevant concentrations of DNA-damaging substances. There is currently no bioassay compatible with such qualifications. High-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC), coupled with the planar SOS Umu-C (p-Umu-C) bioassay, was suggested as a promising rapid test (~6 h) to detect the presence of low levels of mutagens/genotoxins in complex mixtures. The current study aimed at incorporating metabolic activation in this assay and testing it with a set of standard mutagens (4-nitroquinoline-N-oxide, aflatoxin B1, mitomycin C, benzo(a)pyrene, N-ethyl nitrourea, 2-nitrofluorene, 7,12-dimethylbenzanthracene, 2-aminoanthracene and methyl methanesulfonate). An effective bioactivation protocol was developed. All tested mutagens could be detected at low concentrations (0.016 to 230 ng/band, according to substances). The calculated limits of biological detection were found to be up to 1400-fold lower than those obtained with the Ames assay. These limits are lower than the values calculated to ensure a negligeable carcinogenic risk of 10^-5. They are all compatible with the threshold of toxicological concern for chemicals with alerts for mutagenicity (150 ng/person). They cannot be achieved by any other currently available test procedures. The p-Umu-C bioassay may become instrumental in the genotoxicity testing of complex mixtures such as food packaging, foods, and environmental samples.

Assessing Chemical Migration from Plastic Food Packaging into Food Simulant by Gas and Liquid Chromatography with High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry

Some components of plastic food packaging can migrate into food, and whereas migration studies of known components are required and relatively straightforward, identification of nonintentionally added substances (NIAS; unknowns) is challenging yet imperative to better characterizing food safety. To this aim, migration was investigated across 24 unique plastic food packaging products including plastic wrap, storage bags, vacuum bags, and meat trays. Gas and liquid chromatography separation systems coupled with Orbitrap mass analyzers were used for comprehensive nontargeted screening of migrants. Tentative identifications of features were assigned by searching commercial databases (e.g., NIST, MZCloud, ChemSpider, Extractables and Leachables) and filtering results based on mass accuracy, retention time indices, and mass spectral patterns. Several migrants showed elevated levels in specific food packaging types, particularly meat trays and plastic wrap, and varying degrees of migration over the 10 days. Eleven putative migrants are listed as substances of potential concern or priority hazardous substances. Additionally, migration amounts of an Irgafos 168 degradation product determined by semiquantitation exceeded proposed theoretical maximum migration values.

Chemical contaminants in canned food and can-packaged food: a review

Canning, as a preservation technique, is widely used to extend the shelf life as well as to maintain the quality of perishable foods. During the canning process, most of the microorganisms are killed, reducing their impact on food quality and safety. However, the presence of a range of undesirable chemical contaminants has been reported in canned foods and in relation to the canning process. The present review provides an overview of these chemical contaminants, including metals, polymeric contaminants and biogenic amine contaminants. They have various origins, including migration from the can materials, formation during the canning process, or contamination during steps required prior to canning (e.g. the disinfection step). Some other can-packaged foods (e.g. beverages or milk powder), which are not canned foods by definition, were also discussed in this review, as they have been frequently studied simultaneously with canned foods in terms of contamination. The occurrence of these contaminants, the analytical techniques involved, and the factors influencing the presence of these contaminants in canned food and can-packaged food are summarized and discussed.

Time-Course Study of the Antibacterial Activity of an Amorphous SiOxCyHz Coating Certified for Food Contact

One of the most-used food contact materials is stainless steel (AISI 304L or AISI 316L), owing to its high mechanical strength, cleanability, and corrosion resistance. However, due to the presence of minimal crevices, stainless-steel is subject to microbial contamination with consequent significant reverb on health and industry costs due to the lack of effective reliability of sanitizing agents and procedures. In this study, we evaluated the noncytotoxic effect of an amorphous SiO_xC_yH_z coating deposited on stainless-steel disks and performed a time-course evaluation for four Gram-negative bacteria and four Gram-positive bacteria. A low cytotoxicity of the SiO_xC_yH_z coating was observed; moreover, except for some samples, a five-logarithm decrease was visible after 1 h on coated surfaces without any sanitizing treatment and inoculated with Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Conversely, a complete bacterial removal was observed after 30 s⁻¹ min application of alcohol and already after 15 s under UVC irradiation against both bacterial groups. Moreover, coating deposition changed the wetting behaviors of treated samples, with contact angles increasing from 90.25° to 113.73°, realizing a transformation from hydrophilicity to hydrophobicity, with tremendous repercussions in various technological applications, including the food industry.

[Simultaneous determination of eight additives in polyethylene food contact materials by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography]

食品接触材料中添加剂残留量的测定为食品接触材料从源头进行安全监管具有重要意义。然而目前的大多数研究只针对食品接触材料中有害物迁移量的测定,对于食品接触材料中有害物含量的测定方法仅局限于残留单体、低聚体、重金属,以及邻苯二甲酸酯类、双酚类化合物等环境污染物,对食品接触材料中添加剂残留量的测定较少。该研究系统地优化了样品前处理过程及仪器分析中影响8种添加剂分析准确度与响应灵敏度的各主要因素,建立了超高效液相色谱同时测定聚乙烯材料中8种添加剂的定量分析方法。聚乙烯样品冷冻研磨后,取2.0 g样品采用甲苯作为萃取溶剂,80 ℃, 10.34~11.72 MPa (1500~1700 psi)下对其进行加速溶剂萃取,取10 mL上清液,氮气吹干后用10 mL初始流动相(甲醇-水,7∶3, v/v)定容。采用ACQUITY UPLC BEH C₈色谱柱(100 mm×2.1 mm, 1.7 μm)进行分离,柱温30 ℃,进样量5 μL,以乙腈和水作为流动相进行梯度洗脱,流速0.3 mL/min,二极管阵列检测器(DAD)在210~400 nm范围内扫描,230、250、280、330 nm监测,外标法定量。8种目标物在0.2~10 μg/mL质量浓度范围内线性关系良好,相关系数(R²)>0.999。空白聚乙烯样品添加含量为0.05%时,加标回收率在83.8%~103.4%之间,RSD在0.14%~7.86%之间。对于含量为0.2%~0.9%之间的质控样品,8种目标物的平均回收率在63.5%~118.5%之间,RSD在4.61%~15.6%之间。8种目标物的定量限为0.02%。应用该方法测定10份市售聚乙烯食品包装袋和手套,其中6份样品均检测出含有亚磷酸三(2,4-二叔丁苯基)酯(抗氧剂168),含量为0.02%~0.07%,均小于GB 9685-2016规定的聚乙烯类食品接触材料中抗氧剂168的最大使用量(0.2%)。该方法能够满足聚乙烯类产品中8种添加剂的分析要求,可用于食品接触材料风险监测。

Chloropropanols (3-MCPD, 1,3-DCP) from food contact materials: GC-MS method improvement, market survey and investigations on the effect of hot water extraction

The chloropropanols, monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol (1,3-DCP) are potential contaminants that may be found in food contact materials (FCM) from paper and paperboard that have been treated with certain wet-strength resins. They can migrate from the paper matrix to aqueous food and beverages and, due to their potentially carcinogenic properties, are of increasing interest in quality assurance or official controls of paper-based FCM. We hereby describe an improved method for the analysis of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP in water extracts of FCM making use of 1-chloro-3-methoxy-2-propanol (CMP) as a novel internal standard. The LOD and LOQ were determined to be 0.4 µg/L and 1.2 µg/L for both analytes, making the method appropriate for the quantification of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP below the current legal limits. The method was applied to an extensive market survey of food contact articles made from paper and paperboard including 674 samples. The survey revealed that a high percentage of the products available on the market (e.g., up to 55% of the analysed drinking straws) exceed the BfR limits with values of up to 327 µg/L 3-MCPD and 20 µg/L 1,3-DCP detected in the cold water extract. Remarkable differences were observed concerning the release of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP from different kinds of paper-based FCM products, with drinking straws, cupcake cases, bagasse bowls and kitchen rolls showing particularly high rates (>10%) of non-conformity with the legal limits. A number of samples with especially high concentrations were additionally analysed by hot water extraction, which surprisingly yielded considerably lower results for the release of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP than cold water extraction. The results indicate that cold water extraction is the most sensitive method to detect the migration and control the risk of exposure to 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP.

LC-MS/MS analysis of BADGE, NOGEs, and their derivatives migrated from food and beverage metal cans

A simple and novel method based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was developed and validated to determine the levels of 10 compounds (bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (BADGE), novolac-glycidyl ethers (NOGEs), and their related compounds) migrated from food and beverage cans into food simulants. Method validation showed acceptable linearity, precision, and accuracy. The detection limits ranged from 0.28 to 14.8 μg L^-1, and the quantification limits ranged from 0.94 to 49.3 μg L^-1. Water, 4% acetic acid, 50% ethanol, and n-heptane were employed as food simulants for the migration tests, and the developed LC-MS/MS method was applied to 104 epoxy-coated beverage and food metal cans. Only BADGE∙2H₂O and BADGE were detected; the levels were below the specific migration limit. Based on the obtained migration results, the estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of BADGE∙2H₂O and BADGE were calculated. Exposure assessments were conducted to compare the EDI with the tolerable daily intake (TDI), with a relatively low percentage of the TDI being reported. NOGE and its related compounds were not detected in the monitored cans. Long-term storage tests were also conducted at 60°C over 30 days. Only BADGE∙2H₂O was detected in all food simulants, except for n-heptane, and the maximum amount detected was 114.6 μg L^-1 in 50% ethanol.

Release of Melamine and Formaldehyde from Melamine-Formaldehyde Plastic Kitchenware

The release of melamine and formaldehyde from kitchenware made of melamine resins is still a matter of great concern. To investigate the migration and release behavior of the monomers from melamine-based food contact materials into food simulants and food stuffs, cooking spoons were tested under so-called hot plate conditions at 100 °C. Release conditions using the real hot plate conditions with 3% acetic acid were compared with conditions in a conventional migration oven and with a release to deionized water. Furthermore, the kinetics of the release were studied using Arrhenius plots giving an activation energy for the release of melamine of 120 kJ/mol. Finally, a correlation between quality of the resins, specifically the kind of bridges between the monomers, and the release of melamine, was confirmed by CP/MAS ¹³C-NMR measurements of the melamine kitchenware. Obviously, the ratio of methylene bridges and dimethylene ether bridges connecting the melamine monomers during the curing process can be directly correlated with the amount of the monomers released into food.

Evaluation of the Suitability of Mammalian In Vitro Assays to Assess the Genotoxic Potential of Food Contact Materials

Background: Non-targeted screening of food contact materials (FCM) for non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) reveals a great number of unknown and unidentified substances present at low concentrations. In the absence of toxicological data, the application of the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) or of EU Regulation 10/2011 requires methods able to fulfill safety threshold criteria. In this review, mammalian in vitro genotoxicity assays are analyzed for their ability to detect DNA-damaging substances at limits of biological detection (LOBD) corresponding to the appropriate safety thresholds. Results: The ability of the assays to detect genotoxic effects varies greatly between substance classes. Especially for direct-acting mutagens, the assays lacked the ability to detect most DNA reactive substances below the threshold of 10 ppb, making them unsuitable to pick up potential genotoxicants present in FCM migrates. However, suitability for the detection of chromosomal damage or investigation of other modes of action makes them a complementary tool as part of a standard test battery aimed at giving additional information to ensure safety. Conclusion: improvements are necessary to comply with regulatory thresholds to consider mammalian genotoxicity in vitro assays to assess FCM safety.

Dialkylketones in Paperboard Food Contact Materials-Method of Analysis in Fatty Foods and Comparative Migration into Liquid Simulants Versus Foodstuffs

Dialkyl diketene dimers are used as sizing agents in the manufacture of paper and board for food contact applications to increase wetting stability. Unbound residues can hydrolyze and decarboxylate into dialkylketones. These non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) have potential to migrate to fatty foods in contact with those packaging materials. In Germany, the Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) established a specific migration limit (SML) of 5 mg/kg for the transfer of these dialkylketones into foodstuffs. In order to investigate the differences between simulants and real foods, an analytical method was optimized for extraction and quantification of dialkylketones in edible oils and fatty foods by gas chromatography coupled with flame ionization detection (GC-FID), and additionally by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), to confirm their identification and to quantify them in case of interferences. Dialkylketones are separated from the extracted fat by alkaline saponification of the triglycerides. Dialkylketones migration from paper-based food contact articles into organic solvents isooctane and dichloromethane, in olive and sunflower oils, and in fatty foods (croissants, Gouda, cheddar cheese, and salami was studied). As a result, it was found that the simulating tests, including the edible oil extraction tests, gave migration values that exceeded the SML largely, while the migration with the food samples were largely below the SML.

HS-GC/MS method development and exposure assessment of volatile organic compounds from food packaging into food simulants

A simultaneous headspace-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (HS-GC/MS) method was developed and validated to determine the migration of 12 volatile organic compounds (methanol, acetone, methylethylketone, ethylacetate, isopropylalcohol, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, cumene, propylbenzene, and styrene) from food contact materials into food simulants (water, 4% acetic acid, 50% ethanol, and n-heptane). The limits of detection and quantification were 0.007-0.201 mg L^-1 and 0.023-0.668 mg L^-1, respectively. The method was applied to 205 samples of paper/paperboard, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyethylene terephthalate. The estimated daily intake (EDI) was calculated using the migration results. Exposure assessments were carried out to compare the EDI to the tolerable daily intake (TDI); the results indicated that the EDI of styrene represented only a small percentage (8.0%) of the TDI. This analytical method will be a useful tool to examine levels of various volatile compounds migrating from food packaging to food simulants using HS-GC/MS method.

[Establishment of Test Methods for Overall Migration Test into Vegetable Oil Applied to Food Contact Materials Intended for Contact with Oils and Fatty Foods]

The evaporation residue test designated in the Japanese Food Sanitation Act is used to determine the total migration amount of substances that food contact materials release into foods. Vegetable oil would be the most suitable food simulant for oils and fatty foods, but it is difficult to remove by heating due to its high boiling point, so heptane and 20％ ethanol are used as substitute food simulants in the test for plastics and rubbers. The EU has introduced an overall migration test into olive oil for plastics intended to come into contact with oils and fatty foods. This test method is described in European Standard EN1186-2. However, this method has several problems. Therefore, we improved the procedures for weighing samples in a desiccator containing 43％ sulfuric acid, extraction of the absorbed vegetable oil using the soaking method with an internal standard, methyl esterification of vegetable oil using sodium methoxide, and the GC conditions for the determination of vegetable oil. The improved method is simpler and much quicker than the original method, and the harmfulness of the reagents is reduced. It can be applied to both plastics and rubbers. Comparative trials showed that the results obtained with this method and EN1186-2 method are equivalent.

Oligomers in polyethylene furanoate - identification and quantification approach via LC-UV LC-MS response ratio

Polyethylene furanoate polymer is intended to be used as a food contact material. A PEF polymer sample was investigated for its oligomer composition by solvent extraction and using HRLC-MS. The 20 oligomers found were divided into four groups: group I contains cyclic oligomers consisting of furandicarboxylic acid and monoethylene glycol units, group II comprises cyclic oligomers consisting of furandicarboxylic acid, monoethylene glycol units and one diethylene glycol unit, group III are cyclic oligomers were two monoethylene glycol units are substituted by diethylene glycol units and group IV are linear oligomers consisting of furandicarboxylic acid and monoethylene glycol units. Oligomers of group I account for around 87% of the total oligomer content, group II oligomers 12% and group III oligomers 1%. The contribution of group IV oligomers is very small: less than 0.05%. MS-MS experiments showed similar fragmentation patterns for all oligomers. The results of this study demonstrate that oligomers are abundant in the PEF material and are potential migrants to foods that are in contact with the polymer. Oligomers of group I and group II have the same absorption maxima in UV detection which was used to develop a quantification approach for these oligomers using dimethyl 2,5-furandicarboxylate as external standard.

Perfluorinated compounds in food simulants after migration from fluorocarbon resin-coated frying pans, baking utensils, and non-stick baking papers on the Korean market

Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) are used in manufacturing food contact materials, including non-stick cookware coatings and oil- and moisture-resistant paper coatings. The chemical stability of PFCs poses an issue for human safety, as they do not degrade well naturally and hence may accumulate in the body. In terms of food safety, since dietary intake is thought to be a major source of exposure to PFCs, it is necessary to assess the migration of PFCs from food packaging articles to food under typical cooking and storage conditions. An analytical method was developed for assessing the migration of 16 PFCs from food contact materials to food simulants using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The applicability of the method for regular inspection was assessed by monitoring 312 samples. Based on the results of the exposure assessment, all food contact materials deemed to be safe for use, which evaluated migrated concentrations and dietary food intake.

Nanocellulose in green food packaging

The development of packaging materials with new functionalities and lower environmental impact is now an urgent need of our society. On one hand, the shelf-life extension of packaged products can be an answer to the exponential increase of worldwide demand for food. On the other hand, uncertainty of crude oil prices and reserves has imposed the necessity to find raw materials to replace oil-derived polymers. Additionally, consumers' awareness toward environmental issues increasingly pushes industries to look with renewed interest to "green" solutions. In response to these issues, numerous polymers have been exploited to develop biodegradable food packaging materials. Although the use of biopolymers has been limited due to their poor mechanical and barrier properties, these can be enhanced by adding reinforcing nanosized components to form nanocomposites. Cellulose is probably the most used and well-known renewable and sustainable raw material. The mechanical properties, reinforcing capabilities, abundance, low density, and biodegradability of nanosized cellulose make it an ideal candidate for polymer nanocomposites processing. Here we review the potential applications of cellulose based nanocomposites in food packaging materials, highlighting the several types of biopolymers with nanocellulose fillers that have been used to form bio-nanocomposite materials. The trends in nanocellulose packaging applications are also addressed.

Determination of Bisphenols and Related Compounds in Honey and Their Migration from Selected Food Contact Materials

This study reports the analysis of nine bisphenols (BPA, BPAF, BPAP, BPB, BPC, BPE, BPF, BPS, and BPZ) and related compounds (4-cumylphenol and dihydroxybenzophenone) in honey and food simulant. After sample preconcentration with Oasis HLB cartridges, analytes were silylated and analyzed by GC-MS. The validated methods with LODs in sub ng g^-1 were applied to 36 honey samples from European and non-European countries and food simulant stored in selected corresponding containers. Honey samples contained BPA, BPAF, BPE, BPF, BPS, and BPZ in amounts up to 107, 53.5, 12.8, 31.6, 302, and 28.4 ng g^-1, respectively. Under simulating conditions, BPA and BPAF were detected in food simulant up to 42.2 and 19.8 ng mL^-1, respectively. In certain cases, the detected bisphenols in honey probably derive from a source other than the final packaging.

Atmospheric pressure gas chromatography coupled to quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometry as a tool for identification of volatile migrants from autoadhesive labels used for direct food contact

Pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSA) are used to manufacture labels that are applied directly on the food. These adhesives could contain not only intentionally added compounds (IAS) to the adhesive formula but also non-intentionally added substances (NIAS), due to the impurities from the raw materials used, decomposition of the initial components or from chemical interactions between them. These compounds could migrate to the food and contaminate it. In this study, gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS/Q) and atmospheric pressure gas chromatography coupled to a quadrupole hyphenated to a time of flight mass spectrometer (APGC-MS/Q-TOF) have been used for identification of unknown compounds and NIAS coming from a PSA. Seven compounds were identified by GC-MS/Q, and other eight compounds remained initially unknown. The structure of these eight new compounds was elucidated by working with the spectra obtained by APGC-MS/Q-TOF. Finally, two different migration studies were carried out. The first one with Tenax as solid food simulant in contact with the paper label containing the adhesive and the second one with isooctane filled in a natural pork intestine where the label containing the adhesive was applied on the external side. The results are shown and discussed.

Survey of volatile substances in kitchen utensils made from acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene and acrylonitrile-styrene resin in Japan

Residual levels of 14 volatile substances, including 1,3-butadiene, acrylonitrile, benzene, ethylbenzene, and styrene, in 30 kitchen utensils made from acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene resin (ABS) and acrylonitrile–styrene resin (AS) such as slicers, picks, cups, and lunch boxes in Japan were simultaneously determined using headspace gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (HS-GC/MS). The maximum residual levels in the ABS and AS samples were found to be 2000 and 2800 μg/g of styrene, respectively. The residual levels of 1,3-butadiene ranged from 0.06 to 1.7 μg/g in ABS, and three of 15 ABS samples exceeded the regulatory limit for this compound as established by the European Union (EU). The residual levels of acrylonitrile ranged from 0.15 to 20 μg/g in ABS and from 19 to 180 μg/g in AS. The levels of this substance in seven ABS and six AS samples exceeded the limit set by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Furthermore, the levels of acrylonitrile in three AS samples exceeded the voluntary standard established by Japanese industries. These results clearly indicate that the residual levels of some volatile compounds are still high in ABS and AS kitchen utensils and further observations are needed.