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Adlhoch C, Alm E, Enkirch T, Lamb F, Melidou A, Willgert K, Marangon S, Monne I, Stegeman JA, Delacourt R, Baldinelli F, Broglia A. Drivers for a pandemic due to avian influenza and options for One Health mitigation measures. EFSA J 2024; 22:e8735. [PMID: 38576537 PMCID: PMC10988447 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2024.8735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Avian influenza viruses (AIV) remain prevalent among wild bird populations in the European Union and European Economic Area (EU/EEA), leading to significant illness in and death of birds. Transmission between bird and mammal species has been observed, particularly in fur animal farms, where outbreaks have been reported. While transmission from infected birds to humans is rare, there have been instances of exposure to these viruses since 2020 without any symptomatic infections reported in the EU/EEA. However, these viruses continue to evolve globally, and with the migration of wild birds, new strains carrying potential mutations for mammalian adaptation could be selected. If avian A(H5N1) influenza viruses acquire the ability to spread efficiently among humans, large-scale transmission could occur due to the lack of immune defences against H5 viruses in humans. The emergence of AIV capable of infecting mammals, including humans, can be facilitated by various drivers. Some intrinsic drivers are related to virus characteristics or host susceptibility. Other drivers are extrinsic and may increase exposure of mammals and humans to AIV thereby stimulating mutation and adaptation to mammals. Extrinsic drivers include the ecology of host species, such as including wildlife, human activities like farming practices and the use of natural resources, climatic and environmental factors. One Health measures to mitigate the risk of AIV adapting to mammals and humans focus on limiting exposure and preventing spread. Key options for actions include enhancing surveillance targeting humans and animals, ensuring access to rapid diagnostics, promoting collaboration between animal and human sectors, and implementing preventive measures such as vaccination. Effective communication to different involved target audiences should be emphasised, as well as strengthening veterinary infrastructure, enforcing biosecurity measures at farms, and reducing wildlife contact with domestic animals. Careful planning of poultry and fur animal farming, especially in areas with high waterfowl density, is highlighted for effective risk reduction.
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Ospina-Jimenez AF, Gomez AP, Rincon-Monroy MA, Ortiz L, Perez DR, Peña M, Ramirez-Nieto G. Sequence-Based Antigenic Analyses of H1 Swine Influenza A Viruses from Colombia (2008-2021) Reveals Temporal and Geographical Antigenic Variations. Viruses 2023; 15:2030. [PMID: 37896808 PMCID: PMC10612065 DOI: 10.3390/v15102030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Swine influenza is a respiratory disease that affects the pork industry and is a public health threat. It is caused by type A influenza virus (FLUAV), which continuously undergoes genetic and antigenic variations. A large amount of information regarding FLUAV in pigs is available worldwide, but it is limited in Latin America. The HA sequences of H1 subtype FLUAV-positive samples obtained from pigs in Colombia between 2008-2021 were analyzed using sequence-based antigenic cartography and N-Glycosylation analyses. Of the 12 predicted global antigenic groups, Colombia contained five: four corresponding to pandemic strains and one to the classical swine H1N1 clade. Circulation of these clusters was observed in some regions during specific years. Ca2 was the immunodominant epitope among Colombian viruses. The counts of N-Glycosylation motifs were associated with the antigenic cluster ranging from three to five. The results show for the first time the existence of antigenic diversity of FLUAV in Colombia and highlight the impact of spatial and temporal factors on this diversity. This study provides information about FLUAV variability in pigs under natural conditions in the absence of vaccination and emphasizes the need for surveillance of its phylogenetic and antigenic characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andres F. Ospina-Jimenez
- Grupo de Investigación en Microbiología y Epidemiología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y de Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá 111321, Colombia; (A.F.O.-J.); (A.P.G.); (M.A.R.-M.)
| | - Arlen P. Gomez
- Grupo de Investigación en Microbiología y Epidemiología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y de Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá 111321, Colombia; (A.F.O.-J.); (A.P.G.); (M.A.R.-M.)
| | - Maria A. Rincon-Monroy
- Grupo de Investigación en Microbiología y Epidemiología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y de Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá 111321, Colombia; (A.F.O.-J.); (A.P.G.); (M.A.R.-M.)
- National Veterinary Diagnostics Laboratory, Colombian Agricultural Institute (ICA), Bogotá 110931, Colombia
| | - Lucia Ortiz
- Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA; (L.O.); (D.R.P.)
| | - Daniel R. Perez
- Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA; (L.O.); (D.R.P.)
| | - Mario Peña
- Asociación Colombiana de Porcicultores Porkcolombia—FNP, Bogotá 111311, Colombia;
| | - Gloria Ramirez-Nieto
- Grupo de Investigación en Microbiología y Epidemiología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y de Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá 111321, Colombia; (A.F.O.-J.); (A.P.G.); (M.A.R.-M.)
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3
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Breithaupt A, Sick F, Golender N, Beer M, Wernike K. Characterization of experimental Shuni virus infection in the mouse. Vet Pathol 2023; 60:341-351. [PMID: 36803054 DOI: 10.1177/03009858231155402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2023]
Abstract
Shuni virus (SHUV), an orthobunyavirus of the Simbu serogroup, was initially isolated in Nigeria in the 1960s, further detected in other African countries and in the Middle East, and is now endemic in Israel. Transmitted by blood-sucking insects, SHUV infection is associated with neurological disease in cattle and horses, and with abortion, stillbirth, or the birth of malformed offspring in ruminants. Surveillance studies also indicated a zoonotic potential. This study aimed to test the susceptibility of the well-characterized interferon (IFN)-α/β receptor knock-out mouse model (Ifnar-/-), to identify target cells, and to describe the neuropathological features. Ifnar-/-mice were subcutaneously infected with two different SHUV strains, including a strain isolated from the brain of a heifer showing neurological signs. The second strain represented a natural deletion mutant exhibiting a loss of function of the S-segment-encoded nonstructural protein NSs, which counteracts the host's IFN response. Here it is shown that Ifnar-/-mice are susceptible to both SHUV strains and can develop fatal disease. Histological examination confirmed meningoencephalomyelitis in mice as described in cattle with natural and experimental infections. RNA in situ hybridization was applied using RNA Scope™ for SHUV detection. Target cells identified included neurons and astrocytes, as well as macrophages in the spleen and gut-associated lymphoid tissue. Thus, this mouse model is particularly beneficial for the evaluation of virulence determinants in the pathogenesis of SHUV infection in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Franziska Sick
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | | | - Martin Beer
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Kerstin Wernike
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
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Birkhead M, Grayson W, Grobbelaar A, Msimang V, Moolla N, Mathee A, Blumberg L, Marshall T, Morobadi D, Popara M, Weyer J. Tanapox, South Africa, 2022. Emerg Infect Dis 2023; 29:1206-1209. [PMID: 37022936 DOI: 10.3201/eid2906.230326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Tanapox is a rarely diagnosed zoonosis known to be endemic to equatorial Africa. All previously reported human cases were acquired within 10° north or south of the Equator, most recently 19 years ago. We describe a human case of tanapox in South Africa (24° south of the Equator). Expanded surveillance for this pathogen is warranted.
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Vega-Rodriguez W, Ly H. Emerging Pteropine orthoreoviruses and their potential impact on public health. J Med Virol 2023; 95:e28588. [PMID: 36799254 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.28588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
A group of viruses, collectively known as Pteropine orthoreoviruses (PRVs), have recently been found in fruit bats and humans in Southeast Asia, Australia, and some African countries. This article intends to briefly discuss what is known about these viruses and their potential significance in public health and to advocate for increased surveillance of these zoonotic viruses to prevent potential future disease outbreaks, as well as to highlight a recent publication on this topic that was selected as an editor's choice article in the Journal of Medical Virology 1 . This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Widaliz Vega-Rodriguez
- Department of Veterinary & Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
| | - Hinh Ly
- Department of Veterinary & Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
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6
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Tee KK, Chan PQ, Loh AMK, Singh S, Teo CH, Iyadorai T, Chook JB, Ng KT, Takebe Y, Chan KG, Sam IC, Voon K. Surveillance, isolation and genomic characterization of Pteropine orthoreovirus of probable bat origin among patients with acute respiratory infection in Malaysia. J Med Virol 2023; 95:e28520. [PMID: 36691929 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.28520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Pteropine orthoreovirus (PRV), an emerging bat-borne virus, has been linked to cases of acute respiratory infections (ARI) in humans. The prevalence, epidemiology and genomic diversity of PRV among ARI of unknown origin were studied. Among 632 urban outpatients tested negative for all known respiratory viruses, 2.2% were PRV-positive. Patients mainly presented with moderate to severe forms of cough, sore throat and muscle ache, but rarely with fever. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that over 90% of patients infected with the Melaka virus (MelV)-like PRV, while one patient infected with the Pulau virus previously found only in fruit bats. Human oral keratinocytes and nasopharyngeal epithelial cells were susceptible to clinical isolates of PRV, including the newly isolated MelV-like 12MYKLU1034. Whole genome sequence of 12MYKLU1034 using Nanopore technique revealed a novel reassortant strain. Evolutionary analysis of the global PRV strains suggests the continuous evolution of PRV through genetic reassortment among PRV strains circulating in human, bats and non-human primate hosts, creating a spectrum of reassortant lineages with complex evolutionary characteristics. In summary, the role of PRV as a common etiologic agent of ARI is evident. Continuous monitoring of PRV prevalence, pathogenicity and diversity among human and animal hosts is important to trace the emergence of novel reassortants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kok Keng Tee
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.,Department of Medical Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.,Special Resource Centre, Institute for Medical Research, Ministry of Health, Shah Alam, Malaysia
| | - Po Qhuan Chan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Alson Mun-Khin Loh
- School of Medicine, Pathology Division, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Sarbhan Singh
- Special Resource Centre, Institute for Medical Research, Ministry of Health, Shah Alam, Malaysia
| | - Chee How Teo
- Centre for Research in Biotechnology for Agriculture (CEBAR), Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Thevambiga Iyadorai
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Jack Bee Chook
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Kim Tien Ng
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yutaka Takebe
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.,AIDS Research Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kok Gan Chan
- Division of Genetics and Molecular Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.,International Genome Centre, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - I-Ching Sam
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kenny Voon
- School of Medicine, Pathology Division, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.,School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Malaysia
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Thakur CK, Adhikari JB, Gupta N, Ghimire P, Dhimal M. Is the emergence of the zoonotic Langya virus amidst COVID-19 and monkeypox a cause for concern? Future Virol 2023; 18:5-7. [PMID: 36864889 PMCID: PMC9969665 DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2022-0175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Chandan Kumar Thakur
- Nepal Health Research Council, Ramshah Path, Kathmandu, Nepal,Author for correspondence: Tel.: +977 98 4753 2311;
| | - Jog Bahadur Adhikari
- Department of Surgery, Patan Academy of Health Sciences, Lagankhel, Lalitpur, Nepal
| | - Nitin Gupta
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
| | - Prakash Ghimire
- Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Meghnath Dhimal
- Nepal Health Research Council, Ramshah Path, Kathmandu, Nepal
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Ahmed A, Safdar M, Sardar S, Yousaf S, Farooq F, Raza A, Shahid M, Malik K, Afzal S. Modern vaccine strategies for emerging zoonotic viruses. Expert Rev Vaccines 2022; 21:1711-1725. [PMID: 36384000 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2022.2148660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The significant increase in the emergence of notable zoonotic viruses in the previous decades has become a serious concern to global public health. Ninety-nine percent of infectious diseases have originated from zoonotic viruses with immense potential for dissemination, infecting the susceptible population completely lacking herd immunity. AREAS COVERED Zoonotic viruses appear in the last two decades as a major health threat either newly evolved or previously present with elevated prevalence in the last few years are selected to explain their current prophylactic measures. In this review, modern generation vaccines including viral vector vaccines, mRNA vaccines, DNA vaccines, synthetic vaccines, virus-like particles, and plant-based vaccines are discussed with their benefits and challenges. Moreover, the traditional vaccines and their efficacy are also compared with the latest vaccines. EXPERT OPINION The emergence and reemergence of viruses that constantly mutate themselves have greatly increased the chance of transmission and immune escape mechanisms in humans. Therefore, the only possible solution to prevent viral infection is the use of vaccines with improved safety profile and efficacy, which becomes the basis of modern generation vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atif Ahmed
- Division of Molecular Virology and Infectious Diseases, Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Safdar
- Division of Molecular Virology and Infectious Diseases, Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Samran Sardar
- Division of Molecular Virology and Infectious Diseases, Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Sahar Yousaf
- Division of Molecular Virology and Infectious Diseases, Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Fiza Farooq
- Division of Molecular Virology and Infectious Diseases, Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Ali Raza
- Division of Molecular Virology and Infectious Diseases, Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Shahid
- Division of Molecular Virology and Infectious Diseases, Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Kausar Malik
- Division of Molecular Virology and Infectious Diseases, Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Samia Afzal
- Division of Molecular Virology and Infectious Diseases, Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
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9
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Pakbin B, Rossen JWA, Brück WM, Montazeri N, Allahyari S, Dibazar SP, Abdolvahabi R, Mahmoudi R, Peymani A, Samimi R. Prevalence of foodborne and zoonotic viral pathogens in raw cow milk samples. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2022; 369:6815774. [PMID: 36352488 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnac108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Foodborne and zoonotic viral pathogens are responsible for substantial morbidity and mortality worldwide. These viruses can be transmitted through foods such as dairy products to humans and cause several acute and chronic diseases. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and profile of different foodborne and zoonotic viruses in raw cow milk samples. We collected 492 raw cow milk samples from local dairy markets in Qazvin, Iran. Then we evaluated the presence of hepatitis A virus, noroviruses, rotavirus, astrovirus, bovine leukaemia virus (BLV) and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in samples using conventional and nested reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction methods. We found that 34.95, 7.72, 25.81, 14.63, 66.86, 12.80 and 21.34% of raw milk samples were contaminated with norovirus GI, norovirus GII, hepatitis A virus, rotavirus, astrovirus, BLV and TBEV viruses, respectively. Interestingly, the samples collected from the city's south area revealed a higher prevalence of foodborne and zoonotic viruses. Astrovirus and its combination with norovirus GI were the most prevalent virus profiles. Also, the highest correlations were observed among the presence of rotavirus and hepatitis A viruses (0.36) and TBEV and norovirus GII (0.31). Considering the prevalence rate and virus profiles of different foodborne and zoonotic viruses in raw milk samples, hygiene practices and the pasteurization process are strongly suggested to be conducted throughout the cow milk production chain and in dairy industries to prevent infections with these pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babak Pakbin
- Medical Microbiology Research Center, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin 15315-3419, Iran
| | - John W A Rossen
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Isala Hospital, 8025 AB Zwolle, the Netherlands.,Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713 GZ Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Wolfram Manuel Brück
- Institute for Life Technologies, University of Applied Sciences Western Switzerland Valais-Wallis, 1950 Sion 2, Switzerland
| | - Naim Montazeri
- Food Science and Human Nutrition Department, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Samaneh Allahyari
- Medical Microbiology Research Center, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin 15315-3419, Iran
| | | | - Razieh Abdolvahabi
- Medical Microbiology Research Center, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin 15315-3419, Iran
| | - Razzagh Mahmoudi
- Medical Microbiology Research Center, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin 15315-3419, Iran
| | - Amir Peymani
- Medical Microbiology Research Center, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin 15315-3419, Iran
| | - Rasoul Samimi
- Medical Microbiology Research Center, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin 15315-3419, Iran
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10
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Khan SA, Imtiaz MA, Islam MM, Tanzin AZ, Islam A, Hassan MM. Major bat-borne zoonotic viral epidemics in Asia and Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Vet Med Sci 2022; 8:1787-1801. [PMID: 35537080 PMCID: PMC9297750 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Bats are the natural reservoir host for many pathogenic and non‐pathogenic viruses, potentially spilling over to humans and domestic animals directly or via an intermediate host. The ongoing COVID‐19 pandemic is the continuation of virus spillover events that have taken place over the last few decades, particularly in Asia and Africa. Therefore, these bat‐associated epidemics provide a significant number of hints, including respiratory cellular tropism, more intense susceptibility to these cell types, and overall likely to become a pandemic for the next spillover. In this systematic review, we analysed data to insight, through bat‐originated spillover in Asia and Africa. We used STATA/IC‐13 software for descriptive statistics and meta‐analysis. The random effect of meta‐analysis showed that the pooled estimates of case fatality rates of bat‐originated viral zoonotic diseases were higher in Africa (61.06%, 95%CI: 50.26 to 71.85, l2% = 97.3, p < 0.001). Moreover, estimates of case fatality rates were higher in Ebola (61.06%; 95%CI: 50.26 to 71.85, l2% = 97.3, p < 0.001) followed by Nipah (55.19%; 95%CI: 39.29 to 71.09, l2% = 94.2, p < 0.001), MERS (18.49%; 95%CI: 8.19 to 28.76, l2% = 95.4, p < 0.001) and SARS (10.86%; 95%CI: 6.02 to 15.71, l2% = 85.7, p < 0.001) with the overall case fatality rates of 29.86 (95%CI: 29.97 to 48.58, l2% = 99.0, p < 0.001). Bat‐originated viruses have caused several outbreaks of deadly diseases, including Nipah, Ebola, SARS and MERS in Asia and Africa in a sequential fashion. Nipah virus emerged first in Malaysia, but later, periodic outbreaks were noticed in Bangladesh and India. Similarly, the Ebola virus was detected in the African continent with neurological disorders in humans, like Nipah, seen in the Asian region. Two important coronaviruses, MERS and SARS, were introduced, both with the potential to infect respiratory passages. This paper explores the dimension of spillover events within and/or between bat–human and the epidemiological risk factors, which may lead to another pandemic occurring. Further, these processes enhance the bat‐originated virus, which utilises an intermediate host to jump into human species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahneaz Ali Khan
- Department of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Khulshi, Chattogram, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammed Ashif Imtiaz
- Department of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Khulshi, Chattogram, Bangladesh
| | - Md Mazharul Islam
- Department of Animal Resources, Ministry of Municipality, Doha, Qatar
| | - Abu Zubayer Tanzin
- Department of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Khulshi, Chattogram, Bangladesh
| | - Ariful Islam
- EcoHealth Alliance, New York, New York.,Centre for Integrative Ecology, Deakin University, Geelong Campus, Victoria, Australia
| | - Mohammad Mahmudul Hassan
- Department of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Khulshi, Chattogram, Bangladesh.,Queensland Alliance for One Health Sciences, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
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11
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Grange ZL, Goldstein T, Johnson CK, Anthony S, Gilardi K, Daszak P, Olival KJ, O'Rourke T, Murray S, Olson SH, Togami E, Vidal G, Mazet JAK. Ranking the risk of animal-to-human spillover for newly discovered viruses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2002324118. [PMID: 33822740 PMCID: PMC8053939 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2002324118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The death toll and economic loss resulting from the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic are stark reminders that we are vulnerable to zoonotic viral threats. Strategies are needed to identify and characterize animal viruses that pose the greatest risk of spillover and spread in humans and inform public health interventions. Using expert opinion and scientific evidence, we identified host, viral, and environmental risk factors contributing to zoonotic virus spillover and spread in humans. We then developed a risk ranking framework and interactive web tool, SpillOver, that estimates a risk score for wildlife-origin viruses, creating a comparative risk assessment of viruses with uncharacterized zoonotic spillover potential alongside those already known to be zoonotic. Using data from testing 509,721 samples from 74,635 animals as part of a virus discovery project and public records of virus detections around the world, we ranked the spillover potential of 887 wildlife viruses. Validating the risk assessment, the top 12 were known zoonotic viruses, including SARS-CoV-2. Several newly detected wildlife viruses ranked higher than known zoonotic viruses. Using a scientifically informed process, we capitalized on the recent wealth of virus discovery data to systematically identify and prioritize targets for investigation. The publicly accessible SpillOver platform can be used by policy makers and health scientists to inform research and public health interventions for prevention and rapid control of disease outbreaks. SpillOver is a living, interactive database that can be refined over time to continue to improve the quality and public availability of information on viral threats to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoë L Grange
- One Health Institute and Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616;
| | - Tracey Goldstein
- One Health Institute and Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Christine K Johnson
- One Health Institute and Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Simon Anthony
- One Health Institute and Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
- EcoHealth Alliance, New York, NY 1001
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032
| | - Kirsten Gilardi
- One Health Institute and Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | | | | | | | - Suzan Murray
- Global Health, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC 20008
| | | | - Eri Togami
- One Health Institute and Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Gema Vidal
- One Health Institute and Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Jonna A K Mazet
- One Health Institute and Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616;
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12
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Ali SG, Ansari MA, Alzohairy MA, Almatroudi A, Alomary MN, Alghamdi S, Rehman S, Khan HM. Natural Products and Nutrients against Different Viral Diseases: Prospects in Prevention and Treatment of SARS-CoV-2. Medicina (B Aires) 2021; 57:medicina57020169. [PMID: 33673004 PMCID: PMC7917779 DOI: 10.3390/medicina57020169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused a global pandemic and is posing a serious challenge to mankind. As per the current scenario, there is an urgent need for antiviral that could act as a protective and therapeutic against SARS-CoV-2. Previous studies have shown that SARS-CoV-2 is much similar to the SARS-CoV bat that occurred in 2002-03. Since it is a zoonotic virus, the exact source is still unknown, but it is believed bats may be the primary reservoir of SARS-CoV-2 through which it has been transferred to humans. In this review, we have tried to summarize some of the approaches that could be effective against SARS-CoV-2. Firstly, plants or plant-based products have been effective against different viral diseases, and secondly, plants or plant-based natural products have the minimum adverse effect. We have also highlighted a few vitamins and minerals that could be beneficial against SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed Ghazanfar Ali
- Viral Research Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College A.M.U., Aligarh U.P.202002, India;
- Correspondence: (S.G.A.); (M.N.A.)
| | - Mohammad Azam Ansari
- Department of Epidemic Disease Research, Institutes for Research and Medical Consultations (IRMC), Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia; (M.A.A.); (S.R.)
| | - Mohammad A. Alzohairy
- Department of Medical Laboratories, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Qassim 51431, Saudi Arabia; (M.A.A.); (A.A.)
| | - Ahmad Almatroudi
- Department of Medical Laboratories, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Qassim 51431, Saudi Arabia; (M.A.A.); (A.A.)
| | - Mohammad N. Alomary
- National Centre for Biotechnology, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), P.O. Box 6086, Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia
- Correspondence: (S.G.A.); (M.N.A.)
| | - Saad Alghamdi
- Laboratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah21955, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Suriya Rehman
- Department of Epidemic Disease Research, Institutes for Research and Medical Consultations (IRMC), Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia; (M.A.A.); (S.R.)
| | - Haris M. Khan
- Viral Research Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College A.M.U., Aligarh U.P.202002, India;
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Galili U. Host Synthesized Carbohydrate Antigens on Viral Glycoproteins as "Achilles' Heel" of Viruses Contributing to Anti-Viral Immune Protection. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E6702. [PMID: 32933166 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21186702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The glycans on enveloped viruses are synthesized by host-cell machinery. Some of these glycans on zoonotic viruses of mammalian reservoirs are recognized by human natural antibodies that may protect against such viruses. These antibodies are produced mostly against carbohydrate antigens on gastrointestinal bacteria and fortuitously, they bind to carbohydrate antigens synthesized in other mammals, neutralize and destroy viruses presenting these antigens. Two such antibodies are: anti-Gal binding to α-gal epitopes synthesized in non-primate mammals, lemurs, and New World monkeys, and anti-N-glycolyl neuraminic acid (anti-Neu5Gc) binding to N-glycolyl-neuraminic acid (Neu5Gc) synthesized in apes, Old World monkeys, and many non-primate mammals. Anti-Gal appeared in Old World primates following accidental inactivation of the α1,3galactosyltransferase gene 20–30 million years ago. Anti-Neu5Gc appeared in hominins following the inactivation of the cytidine-monophosphate-N-acetyl-neuraminic acid hydroxylase gene, which led to the loss of Neu5Gc <6 million-years-ago. It is suggested that an epidemic of a lethal virus eliminated ancestral Old World-primates synthesizing α-gal epitopes, whereas few mutated offspring lacking α-gal epitopes and producing anti-Gal survived because anti-Gal destroyed viruses presenting α-gal epitopes, following replication in parental populations. Similarly, anti-Neu5Gc protected few mutated hominins lacking Neu5Gc in lethal virus epidemics that eliminated parental hominins synthesizing Neu5Gc. Since α-gal epitopes are presented on many zoonotic viruses it is suggested that vaccines elevating anti-Gal titers may be of protective significance in areas endemic for such zoonotic viruses. This protection would be during the non-primate mammal to human virus transmission, but not in subsequent human to human transmission where the virus presents human glycans. In addition, production of viral vaccines presenting multiple α-gal epitopes increases their immunogenicity because of effective anti-Gal-mediated targeting of vaccines to antigen presenting cells for extensive uptake of the vaccine by these cells.
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Reznik SE, Tiwari AK, Ashby CR. Potential Use of Sofosbuvir in the Prophylaxis for Rabies. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:472. [PMID: 32322214 PMCID: PMC7156619 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra E Reznik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, NY, United States.,Departments of Pathology and Obstetrics and Gynecology and Women's Health, Montefiore Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Amit K Tiwari
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United States
| | - Charles R Ashby
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, NY, United States
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Becker DJ, Crowley DE, Washburne AD, Plowright RK. Temporal and spatial limitations in global surveillance for bat filoviruses and henipaviruses. Biol Lett 2019; 15:20190423. [PMID: 31822244 PMCID: PMC6936026 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2019.0423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sampling reservoir hosts over time and space is critical to detect epizootics, predict spillover and design interventions. However, because sampling is logistically difficult and expensive, researchers rarely perform spatio-temporal sampling of many reservoir hosts. Bats are reservoirs of many virulent zoonotic pathogens such as filoviruses and henipaviruses, yet the highly mobile nature of these animals has limited optimal sampling of bat populations. To quantify the frequency of temporal sampling and to characterize the geographical scope of bat virus research, we here collated data on filovirus and henipavirus prevalence and seroprevalence in wild bats. We used a phylogenetically controlled meta-analysis to next assess temporal and spatial variation in bat virus detection estimates. Our analysis shows that only one in four bat virus studies report data longitudinally, that sampling efforts cluster geographically (e.g. filovirus data are available across much of Africa and Asia but are absent from Latin America and Oceania), and that sampling designs and reporting practices may affect some viral detection estimates (e.g. filovirus seroprevalence). Within the limited number of longitudinal bat virus studies, we observed high heterogeneity in viral detection estimates that in turn reflected both spatial and temporal variation. This suggests that spatio-temporal sampling designs are important to understand how zoonotic viruses are maintained and spread within and across wild bat populations, which in turn could help predict and preempt risks of zoonotic viral spillover.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J. Becker
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
- Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Daniel E. Crowley
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | - Alex D. Washburne
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | - Raina K. Plowright
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
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Fawzy M, Helmy YA. The One Health Approach is Necessary for the Control of Rift Valley Fever Infections in Egypt: A Comprehensive Review. Viruses 2019; 11:E139. [PMID: 30736362 DOI: 10.3390/v11020139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Revised: 02/02/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Rift Valley fever (RVF) is an emerging transboundary, mosquito-borne, zoonotic viral disease caused high morbidity and mortality in both human and ruminant populations. It is considered an important threat to both agriculture and public health in African and the Middle Eastern countries including Egypt. Five major RVF epidemics have been reported in Egypt (1977, 1993, 1994, 1997, and 2003). The virus is transmitted in Egypt by different mosquito’s genera such as Aedes, Culex, Anopheles, and Mansonia, leading to abortions in susceptible animal hosts especially sheep, goat, cattle, and buffaloes. Recurrent RVF outbreaks in Egypt have been attributed in part to the lack of routine surveillance for the virus. These periodic epizootics have resulted in severe economic losses. We posit that there is a critical need for new approaches to RVF control that will prevent or at least reduce future morbidity and economic stress. One Health is an integrated approach for the understanding and management of animal, human, and environmental determinants of complex problems such as RVF. Employing the One Health approach, one might engage local communities in surveillance and control of RVF efforts, rather than continuing their current status as passive victims of the periodic RVF incursions. This review focuses upon endemic and epidemic status of RVF in Egypt, the virus vectors and their ecology, transmission dynamics, risk factors, and the ecology of the RVF at the animal/human interface, prevention, and control measures, and the use of environmental and climate data in surveillance systems to predict disease outbreaks.
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Li H. On Zoonotic Viruses and Yale-New Haven Hospital's AIDS Care Program: An Interview with Warren Andiman, MD. Yale J Biol Med 2018; 91:507-512. [PMID: 30588216 PMCID: PMC6302627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Huaqi Li
- To whom all correspondence should be addressed: Huaqi Li;
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Cauchemez S, Nouvellet P, Cori A, Jombart T, Garske T, Clapham H, Moore S, Mills HL, Salje H, Collins C, Rodriquez-Barraquer I, Riley S, Truelove S, Algarni H, Alhakeem R, AlHarbi K, Turkistani A, Aguas RJ, Cummings DA, Van Kerkhove MD, Donnelly CA, Lessler J, Fraser C, Al-Barrak A, Ferguson NM. Unraveling the drivers of MERS-CoV transmission. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:9081-6. [PMID: 27457935 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1519235113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
With more than 1,700 laboratory-confirmed infections, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) remains a significant threat for public health. However, the lack of detailed data on modes of transmission from the animal reservoir and between humans means that the drivers of MERS-CoV epidemics remain poorly characterized. Here, we develop a statistical framework to provide a comprehensive analysis of the transmission patterns underlying the 681 MERS-CoV cases detected in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) between January 2013 and July 2014. We assess how infections from the animal reservoir, the different levels of mixing, and heterogeneities in transmission have contributed to the buildup of MERS-CoV epidemics in KSA. We estimate that 12% [95% credible interval (CI): 9%, 15%] of cases were infected from the reservoir, the rest via human-to-human transmission in clusters (60%; CI: 57%, 63%), within (23%; CI: 20%, 27%), or between (5%; CI: 2%, 8%) regions. The reproduction number at the start of a cluster was 0.45 (CI: 0.33, 0.58) on average, but with large SD (0.53; CI: 0.35, 0.78). It was >1 in 12% (CI: 6%, 18%) of clusters but fell by approximately one-half (47% CI: 34%, 63%) its original value after 10 cases on average. The ongoing exposure of humans to MERS-CoV from the reservoir is of major concern, given the continued risk of substantial outbreaks in health care systems. The approach we present allows the study of infectious disease transmission when data linking cases to each other remain limited and uncertain.
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Abstract
Many of the recently emerging highly virulent zoonotic diseases have a likely bat origin, for example Hendra, Nipah, Ebola and diseases caused by coronaviruses. Presumably because of their long history of coevolution, most of these viruses remain subclinical in bats, but have the potential to cause severe illnesses in domestic and wildlife animals and also humans. Spillovers from bats to humans either happen directly (via contact with infected bats) or indirectly (via intermediate hosts such as domestic or wildlife animals, by consuming food items contaminated by saliva, faeces or urine of bats, or via other environmental sources). Increasing numbers of breakouts of zoonotic viral diseases among humans and livestock have mainly been accounted to human encroachment into natural habitat, as well as agricultural intensification, deforestation and bushmeat consumption. Persecution of bats, including the destruction of their roosts and culling of whole colonies, has led not only to declines of protected bat species, but also to an increase in virus prevalence in some of these populations. Educational efforts are needed in order to prevent future spillovers of bat-borne viruses to humans and livestock, and to further protect bats from unnecessary and counterproductive culling.
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Shaw ML. Henipaviruses employ a multifaceted approach to evade the antiviral interferon response. Viruses 2009; 1:1190-203. [PMID: 21994589 PMCID: PMC3185527 DOI: 10.3390/v1031190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2009] [Revised: 12/02/2009] [Accepted: 12/03/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hendra and Nipah virus, which constitute the genus Henipavirus, are zoonotic paramyxoviruses that have been associated with sporadic outbreaks of severe disease and mortality in humans since their emergence in the late 1990s. Similar to other paramyxoviruses, their ability to evade the host interferon (IFN) response is conferred by the P gene. The henipavirus P gene encodes four proteins; the P, V, W and C proteins, which have all been described to inhibit the antiviral response. Further studies have revealed that these proteins have overlapping but unique properties which enable the virus to block multiple signaling pathways in the IFN response. The best characterized of these is the JAK-STAT signaling pathway which is targeted by the P, V and W proteins via an interaction with the transcription factor STAT1. In addition the V and W proteins can both limit virus-induced induction of IFN but they appear to do this via distinct mechanisms that rely on unique sequences in their C-terminal domains. The ability to generate recombinant Nipah viruses now gives us the opportunity to determine the precise role for each of these proteins and address their contribution to pathogenicity. Additionally, the question of whether these multiple anti-IFN strategies are all active in the different mammalian hosts for henipaviruses, particularly the fruit bat reservoir, warrants further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan L Shaw
- Department of Microbiology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1-212-241-8931
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Ushijima
- Department of Developmental Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
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Abstract
As a natural reservoir of manifold zoonotic viruses, fruit bats have been involved in at least three emerging zoonoses in recent years. This paper aims to introduce the epidemiological characteristics of these diseases emerged in the Australasian region between 1994 and 1999, transmission pathways of the newly discovered viruses and the relationship between the changed entironment of fruit bats and occurrences of these emerging diseases and provide a clue for the epidemiological investigations of SARS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangle Jia
- 1Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100080 Beijing, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- 2Shanxi Agricultural University, 030801 Taigu, China
| | - Tinghe Wu
- 1Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100080 Beijing, China
| | - Shuyi Zhang
- 1Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100080 Beijing, China
| | - Yinan Wang
- 1Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100080 Beijing, China
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