Practices and perceptions of strength and conditioning training in female golf: A cross-sectional survey study of high-level amateur players

This study aims to ascertain an in-depth understanding of current practices and perceptions of S&C training in high-level amateur female golfers. A cross-sectional, explorative survey study was constructed which asked questions relating to four key areas: i) general participant information, ii) current strength and conditioning (S&C) practices, iii) the perceived influence of S&C training on golf performance, and iv) knowledge and awareness of S&C. Results showed that the majority of female players had participated in some form of S&C training in the past, with the majority believing that clubhead speed and carry distance were the primary golfing metrics which could be positively impacted. More specifically, 91-97% of the players "Strongly agreed" or "Agreed" that the key physical characteristics for golf were strength and power for the lower and upper body, and flexibility. Interestingly, 58% of the players believed that S&C training should mimic the movement of the golf swing, which based off current evidence, is not how drive metrics and ultimately shots gained, can be maximised. This survey study provides useful information relating to the practices and perceptions of S&C training in high-level female amateur players and areas where education may be able to further advance player understanding of physical preparation.

Advancing a grounded theory of parental support in competitive girls' golf

Parental support in youth sport has been associated with positive athlete outcomes, such as sport enjoyment and continued participation. Although research has demonstrated the significant and influential role parents fulfil in the youth sport context, there remains a dearth of theoretical frameworks detailing parental support in youth sport and an absence of empirical research examining parental support across athlete development stages and sports. The present study sought to examine athletes' perceptions of parental support, with a view to advancing a grounded theory of parental support in youth golf. Fourteen online synchronous focus groups were conducted with an international sample (Australia, Canada, England, Finland, Ireland, New Zealand, Scotland) of 61 girls, in the specialising (n = 27) and investment stages (n = 34) of athlete development. Data were analysed in three phases: open-coding, axial coding, and theoretical integration. The substantive grounded theory is constructed on the core category of 'Individual Parental Support Preferences'. This core category is underpinned by four sub-categories of parental support which were evident across development stages: instrumental, informational, emotional, and autonomy support, and is influenced by a host of athlete (e.g., athletes' performance), parent (e.g., parents' knowledge), and contextual characteristics (e.g., location). Unconditional parental support is an important aspect of emotional support, however the concept of adopting a person-first approach to sport parenting is novel. These results provide a rich and novel insight of parental support in girls' golf, advancing a grounded theoretical understanding of parental support mechanisms in a youth sport context.

Alcohol Use as a Function of Physical Activity and Golfing Motives in a National Sample of United States Golfers

Alcohol and physical inactivity are risk factors for a variety of cancer types. However, alcohol use often co-occurs with physical activity (PA), which could mitigate the cancer-prevention benefits of PA. Alcohol is integrated into the culture of one of the most popular physical activities for adults in the United States (U.S.), golf. This study examined how alcohol use was associated with total PA, golf-specific PA, and motives for golfing in a national sample of golfers in the U.S. Adult golfers (n = 338; 51% male, 81% White, 46 ± 14.4 years) self-reported alcohol use, golfing behavior and motives, and PA. Most (84%) golfers consumed alcohol, averaging 7.91 servings/week. Golf participation, including days/week, holes/week, and practice hours/week, was not associated with alcohol use. Golfers with stronger social motives were 60% more likely to consume alcohol. Weekly walking (incident risk ratio (IRR) = 7.30), moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA; IRR = 5.04), and total PA (IRR = 4.14) were associated with more alcohol servings/week. Golfers' alcohol use may be higher than the general adult population in the U.S. and contributes 775 extra kilocalories/week, a surplus that may offset PA-related energy expenditure and cancer-protective effects. Alcohol use interventions targeting golfers may facilitate weight loss and reduce cancer risk, especially for golfers motivated by social status.

The Effect of Gradual Self-Control of Task Difficulty and Feedback on Learning Golf Putting

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the effect of gradual self-control of task difficulty and feedback on accuracy and movement pattern of the golf putting sport skill. Method: Sixty students were quasi-randomly assigned to four groups under a varying combination of the two factors of task difficulty control (self-controlled or yoked) and feedback control (self-controlled or yoked). The participants in the two groups (dual-factor gradual self-control and self-controlled task difficulty group) that granted control over task difficulty in the acquisition phase were told they could choose any of the pre-set distances from the target. All groups were given 100% feedback in the first half of the acquisition phase, but the participants in the two groups (dual-factor gradual self-control group and self-controlled feedback) that could control their feedback were told that in the second half of the acquisition phase they would be able to ask for feedback when needed. The practice schedule of each member of the dual-factor gradual self-control group was used as a basis to plan the practice of predetermined distances and feedback presentation to the corresponding participants in the yoked conditions. Results: ANOVA with repeated measures showed that the practice method involving gradual self-control of two factors had a positive impact on accuracy and movement pattern of golf putting in the retention and transfer tests compared to other methods (p_s < .05). Conclusion: The advantages of self-control practice presumably come from better adjustment of challenge points by the learner in the course of the practice.

Golf as Therapy for Individuals With Mental Health or Substance Use Disorders

The current study was undertaken to explore the experiences of individuals with mental health problems or substance use when introduced to systematic golf activities. The study examined the perceived impact of golf activities on participants' physical and mental health, social contact, and daily activities, as well as their overall evaluation of involvement in a Golf as Therapy group. This qualitative, cross-sectional study gathered data from 12 individual interviews. Qualitative content analysis based on the information from meaning units, subcategories, categories, and themes determined the interpretation of manifest and latent concepts. The findings revealed a positive influence on health and social well-being in addition to positive changes in daily activities. The main theme that arose from the data was Shaping a New Direction in Life, elaborated by the categories of ameliorated physical fitness, creation of a social meeting place, improved focus and concentration, practical help and support, and reduced mental symptom burden. [Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 57(10), 44-51.].

"The Thrill of Victory . . . and the Agony of Defeat": Passion and Emotional Reactions to Success and Failure Among Recreational Golfers

The dualistic model of passion proposes two distinct forms of passion: obsessive (OP) and harmonious (HP). The purpose of this research was to test if emotional reactivity following athletic successes and failures was related to one's levels of HP and OP for sport. The authors recruited recreational golfers (N = 115) to report how they typically felt after they experienced successes and failures on the golf course. Results of multilevel modeling analyses supported the hypotheses and revealed that OP moderated the effects of success and failure on both positive and negative affect: OP was associated with higher levels of positive affect following success, as well as higher levels of negative affect following failure. These results suggest that OP, but not HP, is associated with greater emotional reactivity to the experience of success and failure in sport.

Individual Differences Influencing Immediate Effects of Internal and External Focus Instructions on Children's Motor Performance

PURPOSE

A large pool of evidence supports the beneficial effect of an external focus of attention on motor skill performance in adults. In children, this effect has been studied less and results are inconclusive. Importantly, individual differences are often not taken into account. We investigated the role of working memory, conscious motor control, and task-specific focus preferences on performance with an internal and external focus of attention in children.

METHODS

Twenty-five children practiced a golf putting task in both an internal focus condition and external focus condition. Performance was defined as the average distance toward the hole in 3 blocks of 10 trials. Task-specific focus preference was determined by asking how much effort it took to apply the instruction in each condition. In addition, working memory capacity and conscious motor control were assessed.

RESULTS

Children improved performance in both the internal focus condition and external focus condition (ŋ_p² = .47), with no difference between conditions (ŋ_p² = .01). Task-specific focus preference was the only factor moderately related to the difference between performance with an internal focus and performance with an external focus (r = .56), indicating better performance for the preferred instruction in Block 3.

CONCLUSION

Children can benefit from instruction with both an internal and external focus of attention to improve short-term motor performance. Individual, task-specific focus preference influenced the effect of the instructions, with children performing better with their preferred focus. The results highlight that individual differences are a key factor in the effectiveness in children's motor performance. The precise mechanisms underpinning this effect warrant further research.

Examination of Hole-to-Hole Streakiness on the PGA Tour

A study investigated streakiness among professional golfers. Hole-to-hole scores within 747 tournaments from a randomly chosen group of 35 players on the 1997 PGA Tour were analyzed. Contingency analyses gave no evidence for streakiness. Players were just as likely to score par or better following an above par hole as to make a par or better following a par or better hole. These results are consistent with those found for individual players in baseball and basketball.

Can an Athlete Be Taught to Cope More Effectively? The Experiences of an International-Level Adolescent Golfer during a Training Program for Coping

The purpose of this descriptive paper was to examine the experiences of an internationally ranked golfer during a training program for coping. A 16-yr.-old male English golfer maintained an audio diary for seven competitive rounds over 21 days. He answered the same five questions after each competitive round concerning his experiences of stress and coping. The training program for coping was based upon the previous research of Nicholls and colleagues with adolescent golfers at the international level. The training program reduced the number of ineffective coping strategies that the participant used.

An Analysis of Streaky Performance on the LPGA Tour

A study investigated the occurrence of streakiness among professional golfers on the LPGA Tour. For players, individually or as a group, the findings showed a significant tendency for players' par or better rounds to occur together and for players' above par rounds to occur together. However, the observed streakiness in players' scores was related to the difficulty of golf courses rather than to any inherent disposition of players' performances to be streaky. The results replicated those findings found on the PGA Tour and Senior PGA Tour.

Effects of Reducing Frequency of Intrinsic Knowledge of Results on the Learning of a Motor Skill

The guidance hypothesis suggests too much knowledge of results during skill acquisition can be detrimental to long-term performance. Possibly, the learner becomes dependent on augmented KR and is unable to use intrinsic feedback. This study examined this hypothesis with three groups performing a golf putting task. One group received continuous KR about ball path and final location; the other groups were deprived of specific KR on 50% or 100% of the acquisition trials. As expected, the continuous KR group performed better during acquisition, but the KR-deprived groups performed better on delayed retention trials, especially when KR was absent.

Emotions and Golf Performance

A multiple case study investigation is reported in which emotions and performance were assessed within the probabilistic individual zone of optimal functioning (IZOF) model (Kamata, Tenenbaum,& Hanin, 2002) to develop idiosyncratic emotion-performance profiles. These profiles were incorporated into a psychological skills training (PST) intervention, with a focus on three emotional dimensions, that is, arousal, pleasantness, and functionality, and several psychological strategies employed during practice and competition. Two female varsity golfers at a major Division I university in the Southeast participated in the case study during the Spring 2002 season. The PST intervention resulted in enhanced emotional self-regulation skills and improved golf performance. Directions for future research into the IZOF model and implications for practical application of the model are discussed.

Improving performance by anchoring movement and "nerves"

Golf's governing bodies' recent decision to ban all putting styles "anchoring one end of the club against the body" bridges an important practical problem with psychological theory. We report the first experiment testing whether anchoring provides technical and/or psychological advantage in competitive performance. Many "greats" of professional golf from Arnold Palmer and Jack Nicklaus to Tiger Woods have argued against anchoring, believing that it takes "nerves" out of competitive performance and therefore artificially levels the playing field. To shed more light on the issue, we tested participants' performance with anchored and unanchored putters under low and high pressure when controlling for the putter length. We found no statistically significant evidence for a technical advantage due to anchoring but a clear psychological advantage: participants who anchored their putters significantly outperformed unanchored counterparts under high, but not low, pressure. Results provide tentative evidence for the ban's justification from a competitive standpoint. However, before any definite conclusions can be made, more research is needed when using high-level golfers.

Direct and Conceptual Replications of Burgmer & Englich (2012): Power May Have Little to No Effect on Motor Performance

Burgmer and Englich (2012) have reported that manipulating feelings of power can substantially improve performance on two motor tasks: golf and darts. We conducted two high-powered direct replications of the effects of power on golf, two online conceptual replications using mirror-tracing as a performance measure, and an additional conceptual replication using a cognitive performance measure (word-search). Overall, we found little to no effect of power on motor skill (d = 0.09, 95% CI[-0.07, 0.22], n = 603). We varied task difficulty, re-analyzed data without participants showing weak responses on manipulation checks, and tried adjusting performance scores for age, gender, and initial task skill. None of these secondary analyses revealed a strong effect of power on performance. A meta-analysis integrating our data with Burgmer & Englich leaves open the possibility that manipulating power could provide a modest boost in motor skill (d = 0.19, 95% CI [0.001, 0.38], n = 685). Unfortunately, the pattern of performance changes we observed was unrelated to group differences in perceived and rated power, suggesting that what motor effects do occur with this protocol may not be directly related to the construct of power. [Burgmer, P., &Englich, B. (2012). Bullseye!: How Power Improves Motor Performance. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 4(2), 224-232.].

Changes in task self-efficacy and emotion across competitive performances in golf

This research aimed to investigate (a) the effect of golfers' perceptions of coach motivation efficacy on golfers' precompetition task self-efficacy, (b) the effect of performance on pre-to-postround changes in self-efficacy, (c) the effect of pre-to-postround changes in self-efficacy on pre-to-postround changes in affect and emotion, and (d) whether any effects of performance on pre-to-postcompetition changes in affect and emotion were mediated by pre-to-postcompetition changes in self-efficacy. In Study 1, a scale measuring golf self-efficacy was developed and validated using data from 197 golfers. In Study 2, 200 golfers completed this measure alongside measures of coach motivation efficacy, and positive and negative affect before a golf competition; all measures (except coach motivation efficacy) were again completed following the competition. Structural equation modeling showed that coach motivation efficacy positively predicted precompetition self-efficacy, performance positively predicted pre-to-postcompetition changes in self-efficacy, which had positive and negative effects, respectively, on pre-to-postcompetition changes in positive and negative affect; mediation analyses demonstrated that pre-to-postcompetition changes in self-efficacy mediated effects of performance on pre-to-postcompetition changes in positive and negative affect. In Study 3, the Study-2 procedures were replicated with a separate sample of 212 golfers, except measures of excitement, concentration disruption, somatic anxiety, and worry replaced those for positive and negative affect. Structural analyses showed the findings from Study 2 were largely replicated when specific emotions were investigated in place of general indices of affect. This investigation makes novel contributions regarding the potential importance of perceptions of coach efficacy for golfers' own efficacy beliefs, and the role personal efficacy beliefs may play in facilitating the effects of performance on affective outcomes.

Reappraising Threat: How to Optimize Performance Under Pressure

Competitive situations often hinge on one pressurized moment. In these situations, individuals' psychophysiological states determine performance, with a challenge state associated with better performance than a threat state. But what can be done if an individual experiences a threat state? This study examined one potential solution: arousal reappraisal. Fifty participants received either arousal reappraisal or control instructions before performing a pressurized, single-trial, motor task. Although both groups initially displayed cardiovascular responses consistent with a threat state, the reappraisal group displayed a cardiovascular response more reflective of a challenge state (relatively higher cardiac output and/or lower total peripheral resistance) after the reappraisal manipulation. Furthermore, despite performing similarly at baseline, the reappraisal group outperformed the control group during the pressurized task. The results demonstrate that encouraging individuals to interpret heightened physiological arousal as a tool that can help maximize performance can result in more adaptive cardiovascular responses and motor performance under pressure.

Examining Movement-Specific Reinvestment and Performance in Demanding Contexts

Two experiments examined the roles of the dimensions of movement-specific reinvestment (movement self-consciousness and conscious motor processing) on performance under demanding conditions. In Experiment 1, novice golfers practiced a golf putting task and were tested under low- and high-anxiety conditions. Conscious motor processing was not associated with putting proficiency or movement variability; however, movement self-consciousness was positively associated with putting proficiency and appeared to be negatively associated with variability of impact velocity in low-anxiety conditions, but not in high-anxiety conditions. Increased anxiety and effort possibly left few attention resources for movement self-consciousness under high anxiety. In Experiment 2, participants performed a quiet standing task in single- and dual-task conditions. Movement self-consciousness was positively associated with performance when attention demands were low (single task) but not when attention demands were high (dual task). The findings provide insight into the differential influence of the two dimensions of movement-specific reinvestment under demanding conditions.

Preparation for action: psychophysiological activity preceding a motor skill as a function of expertise, performance outcome, and psychological pressure

Knowledge of the psychophysiological responses that characterize optimal motor performance is required to inform biofeedback interventions. This experiment compared cortical, cardiac, muscular, and kinematic activity in 10 experts and 10 novices as they performed golf putts in low- and high-pressure conditions. Results revealed that in the final seconds preceding movement, experts displayed a greater reduction in heart rate and EEG theta, high-alpha, and beta power, when compared to novices. EEG high-alpha power also predicted success, with participants producing less high-alpha power in the seconds preceding putts that were holed compared to those that were missed. Increased pressure had little impact on psychophysiological activity. It was concluded that greater reductions in EEG high-alpha power during preparation for action reflect more resources being devoted to response programming, and could underlie successful accuracy-based performance.

Champ or chump? Challenge and threat states during pressurized competition

The present research examined the immediate impact of challenge and threat states on golf performance in both real competition and a laboratory-based task. In Study 1, 199 experienced golfers reported their evaluations of competition demands and personal coping resources before a golf competition. Evaluating the competition as a challenge (i.e., sufficient resources to cope with demands) was associated with superior performance. In Study 2, 60 experienced golfers randomly received challenge or threat manipulation instructions and then performed a competitive golf-putting task. Challenge and threat states were successfully manipulated and the challenge group outperformed the threat group. Furthermore, the challenge group reported less anxiety, more facilitative interpretations of anxiety, less conscious processing, and displayed longer quiet eye durations. However, these variables failed to mediate the group-performance relationship. These studies demonstrate the importance of considering preperformance psychophysiological states when examining the influence of competitive pressure on motor performance.

Frontal midline theta is a specific indicator of optimal attentional engagement during skilled putting performance

The purpose of this study was to determine whether frontal midline theta activity (Fmθ), an indicator of top-down sustained attention, can be used to distinguish an individual's best and worst golf putting performances during the pre-putt period. Eighteen golfers were recruited and asked to perform 100 putts in a self-paced simulated putting task. We then compared the Fmθ power of each individual's 15 best and worst putts. The results indicated that theta power in the frontal brain region significantly increased in both best and worst putts, compared with other midline regions. Moreover, the Fmθ power significantly decreased for the best putts compared with the worst putts. These findings suggest that Fmθ is a manifestation of sustained attention during a skilled performance and that optimal attentional engagement, as characterized by a lower Fmθ power, is beneficial for successful skilled performance rather than a higher Fmθ power reflecting excessive attentional control.

Coping under pressure: employing emotion regulation strategies to enhance performance under pressure

Performing under high pressure is an emotional experience. Hence, the use of emotion regulation strategies may prove to be highly effective in preventing choking under pressure. Using a golf putting task, we investigated the role of arousal on declined sport performance under pressure (pilot study) and the effectiveness of emotion regulation strategies in alleviating choking under pressure (main study). The pilot study showed that pressure resulted in decreased performance and this effect was partially mediated by increased arousal. The main study, a field study, showed that whereas the choking effect was observed in the control condition, reappraisal and, particularly, distraction were effective emotion regulation strategies in helping people to cope instead of choke under pressure. These findings suggest that interventions that aim to prevent choking under pressure could benefit from including emotion regulation strategies.

Examination of visual information as a mediator of external focus benefits

Attunement to visual information has been suggested to mediate the performance advantage associated with adopting an external focus of attention (e.g., Al-Abood, Bennett, Moreno Hernandez, Ashford, & Davids, 2002; Magill, 1998). We tested this hypothesis by examining the extent to which online visual information underpins the external focus advantage. The study examined skilled golfers on a putting task under one of three attentional focus conditions: control (no instructions), irrelevant (tone counting), and external (movement effect focus), with either full or occluded vision. In addition to task performance, the effect of attentional focus and vision on between-trial movement variability was examined. We found a significant advantage for an external focus of attention in the absence of vision. The results of the movement variability analysis further indicated that external focus was not mediated by the online use of vision. We discuss these findings in the context of traditional cognitive perspectives to external focus effects.

Layered stimulus response training improves motor imagery ability and movement execution

This study aimed to test Lang's bioinformational theory by comparing the effects of layered stimulus and response training (LSRT) with imagery practice on improvements in imagery ability and performance of a motor skill (golf putting) in 24 novices (age, M = 20.13 years; SD = 1.65; 12 female) low in imagery ability. Participants were randomly assigned to a LSRT (introducing stimulus and response propositions to an image in a layered approach), motor imagery (MI) practice, or visual imagery (VI) practice group. Following baseline measures of MI ability and golf putting performance, the LSRT and MI practice groups imaged successfully performing the golf putting task 5 times each day for 4 days whereas the VI practice group imaged the ball rolling into the hole. Only the LSRT group experienced an improvement in kinesthetic MI ability, MI ability of more complex skills, and actual golf putting performance. Results support bioinformational theory by demonstrating that LSRT can facilitate visual and kinesthetic MI ability and reiterate the importance of imagery ability to ensure MI is an effective prime for movement execution.

Putting like a pro: the role of positive contagion in golf performance and perception

Many amateur athletes believe that using a professional athlete's equipment can improve their performance. Such equipment can be said to be affected with positive contagion, which refers to the belief of transference of beneficial properties between animate persons/objects to previously neutral objects. In this experiment, positive contagion was induced by telling participants in one group that a putter previously belonged to a professional golfer. The effect of positive contagion was examined for perception and performance in a golf putting task. Individuals who believed they were using the professional golfer's putter perceived the size of the golf hole to be larger than golfers without such a belief and also had better performance, sinking more putts. These results provide empirical support for anecdotes, which allege that using objects with positive contagion can improve performance, and further suggest perception can be modulated by positive contagion.

Perception and action in golf putting: skill differences reflect calibration

We assessed how golfers cope with the commonly observed systematic overshoot errors in the perception of the direction between the ball and the hole. Experiments 1 and 2, in which participants were required to rotate a pointer such that it pointed to the center of the hole, showed that errors in perceived direction (in degrees of deviation from the perfect aiming line) are destroyed when the head is constrained to move within a plane perpendicular to the green. Experiment 3 compared the errors in perceived direction and putting errors of novice and skilled players. Unlike the perceived direction, putting accuracy (in degrees of deviation from the perfect aiming line) was not affected by head position. Novices did show a rightward putting error, while skilled players did not. We argue that the skill-related differences in putting accuracy reflect a process of recalibration. Implications for aiming in golf are discussed.

The role of effort in influencing the effect of anxiety on performance: Testing the conflicting predictions of processing efficiency theory and the conscious processing hypothesis

The aim of this study was to test the conflicting predictions of processing efficiency theory (PET) and the conscious processing hypothesis (CPH) regarding effort's role in influencing the effects of anxiety on a golf putting task. Mid-handicap golfers made a series of putts to target holes under two counterbalanced conditions designed to manipulate the level of anxiety experienced. The effort exerted on each putting task was assessed though self-report, psychophysiological (heart rate variability) and behavioural (pre-putt time and glances at the target) measures. Performance was assessed by putting error. Results were generally more supportive of the predictions of PET rather than the CPH as performance was maintained for some performers despite increased state anxiety and a reduction in processing efficiency. The findings of this study support previous research suggesting that both theories offer useful theoretical frameworks for examining the relationship between anxiety and performance in sport.

Implicit and explicit control of motor actions: Revisiting some early evidence

Two studies have questioned Masters' (1992) contention that skills acquired in implicit practice conditions are less likely to fail under pressure than those acquired explicitly. The studies produced conflicting results. The aim of the present study was to revisit the designs of both studies in an attempt to clarify the situation. Thirty-two participants were allocated to one of three separate implicit training groups or an explicit training group, and practised putting golf balls. Participants were exposed to an anxiety intervention at two points during practice. Putting performance across practice and anxiety phases were analysed using the number of putts successfully completed as the main dependent variable. We found further evidence for the suggestion that motor skills are robust under pressure when acquired in implicit practice conditions.

Interactive effects of different visual imagery perspectives and narcissism on motor performance

Two studies examined the interactive effects of different visual imagery perspectives and narcissism on motor performance. In both studies participants completed the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI-40: Raskin & Hall, 1979) and were assigned to either an internal visual imagery or external visual imagery group. Participants then performed a motor task (dart throwing in Study 1 and golf putting in Study 2) under conditions of practice, low self-enhancement, and high self-enhancement. Following completion of the respective tasks, participants were categorized into high and low narcissistic groups based on their NPI-40 scores. In both studies, high narcissists using external visual imagery significantly improved performance from the low to the high self-enhancement condition, whereas high narcissists using internal visual imagery did not. Low narcissists remained relatively constant in performance across self-enhancement conditions, regardless of perspective. The results highlight the importance of considering personality characteristics when examining the effects of visual imagery perspectives on performance.

Conscious processing and the process goal paradox

The three experiments reported here examined the process goal paradox, which has emerged from the literature on goal setting and conscious processing. We predicted that skilled but anxious performers who adopted a global movement focus using holistic process goals would outperform those who used part-oriented process goals. In line with the conscious processing hypothesis, we also predicted that performers using part process goals would experience performance impairment in test compared with baseline conditions. In all three experiments, participants performed motor tasks in baseline and test conditions. Cognitive state anxiety increased in all of the test conditions. The results confirmed our first prediction; however, we failed to find unequivocal evidence to support our second prediction. The consistent pattern of the results lends support to the suggestion that, for skilled athletes who perform under competitive pressure, using a holistic process goal that focuses attention on global aspects of a motor skill is a more effective attentional focus strategy than using a part process goal.

The ups and downs of coping and sport achievement: an episodic process analysis of within-person associations

This study examined the relationship between coping and sport achievement at the within-person level of analysis. Fifty-four golfers completed diary measures of coping, stress, and sport achievement after six consecutive rounds of golf. Results of hierarchical linear modeling revealed golfers' episodic task-oriented coping and disengagement-oriented coping were associated, respectively, with their better and worst levels of subjective and objective achievement. Distraction-oriented coping was not significantly associated with achievement. These results were obtained after accounting for between-subjects differences in ability level and for within-person variations in perceived stress across both practice and competitive golf rounds. These results contribute to an emerging literature on the relationship between coping and sport achievement, and highlight the promises of an episodic process model of sport achievement to understand the transient self-regulatory factors associated with within-person variations in athletic achievement.

Experienced golfers' perspectives on choking under pressure

Although researchers have experimentally examined the mechanisms underlying pressure-induced forms of suboptimal performance, or "choking under pressure," there is a lack of research exploring the personal experience of this phenomenon. In an attempt to fill this void in the literature, this study explored experienced golfers' perceptions of the choking experience within a personal construct psychology (Kelly, 1955/1991) framework. Both male and female golfers participated in either a focus group (n = 12; all males) or one-on-one interview (n = 10; female = 7, male = 3) using experience cycle methodology (Oades & Viney, 2000) to describe their perceptions of the choking experience. Discussions were transcribed verbatim and subsequently analyzed using grounded theory analytical techniques (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Analyses revealed five central categories representing the personal experience of choking under pressure: antecedents, personal investment, choking event, consequences, and learning experiences. The findings reported here suggest that the choking phenomenon, which can involve acute or chronic bouts of suboptimal performance (relative to the performance expectations of the athlete), is a complex process involving the interplay of several cognitive, attentional, emotional, and situational factors. Implications of the findings for a construct definition of choking are discussed, and several applied considerations are offered.

The architecture of the golfer's brain

Background

Several recent studies have shown practice-dependent structural alterations in humans. Cross-sectional studies of intensive practice of specific tasks suggest associated long-term structural adaptations. Playing golf at a high level of performance is one of the most demanding sporting activities. In this study, we report the relationship between a particular level of proficiency in playing golf (indicated by golf handicap level) and specific neuroanatomical features.

Principal Findings

Using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) of grey (GM) and white matter (WM) volumes and fractional anisotropy (FA) measures of the fibre tracts, we identified differences between skilled (professional golfers and golfers with an handicap from 1–14) and less-skilled golfers (golfers with an handicap from 15–36 and non-golfer). Larger GM volumes were found in skilled golfers in a fronto-parietal network including premotor and parietal areas. Skilled golfers revealed smaller WM volume and FA values in the vicinity of the corticospinal tract at the level of the internal and external capsule and in the parietal operculum. However, there was no structural difference within the skilled and less-skilled golfer group.

Conclusion

There is no linear relationship between the anatomical findings and handicap level, amount of practice, and practice hours per year. There was however a strong difference between highly-practiced golfers (at least 800–3,000 hours) and those who have practised less or non-golfers without any golfing practise, thus indicating a step-wise structural and not a linear change.

Beating the bunker: the effect of PETTLEP imagery on golf bunker shot performance

The aim of this study was to compare the effects of physical practice with PETTLEP-based (Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion and Perspective; Holmes & Collins, 2001) imagery and PETTLEP + physical practice interventions on golf bunker shot performance. Thirty-two male county- or international-level golfers were assigned to one of four groups; PETTLEP imagery, physical practice, PETTLEP + physical practice, or control. The PETTLEP imagery group imaged 15 bunker shots, their interventions incorporating PETTLEP components, such as physical, environment, and emotion, twice a week. The physical practice group physically performed their 15 bunker shots twice per week; the PETTLEP + physical practice group performed PETTLEP imagery once per week and physical practice once per week. Each group performed their respective tasks for 6 weeks. Pre- and posttests consisted of 15 bunker shots, with points awarded according to the ball proximity to the pin. All groups improved significantly (p < .01) from pre- to posttest, and the PETTLEP + physical practice group improved more (p < .05) than the PETTLEP and physical practice groups. However, there was no significant difference between the physical practice and PETTLEP groups (p > .05). Findings, therefore, support the effectiveness of PETTLEP in enhancing golf performance, especially when combined with physical practice.

The yips in golf: multimodal evidence for two subtypes

PURPOSE

To determine whether a model of two subtypes of yips is supported by evidence from a range of physiological, behavioral, and psychological measures.

METHODS

Fifteen golfers who experience yips symptoms while putting (mean age 58.1 yr, SD 13.6 yr), and nine golfers with no yips symptoms (mean age 39.6 yr, SD 19.3 yr) were recruited. Participants completed a golf history questionnaire to determine their playing experience and the nature of any yips symptoms experienced. In experiment 1, participants performed a putting task while electromyographic data were recorded from the forearm flexors and extensors and biceps brachii, bilaterally. The task was performed in two sessions, under low-pressure and high-pressure experimental conditions. The high-pressure condition was intended to increase anxiety through the use of a monetary incentive, video-taping of performance, and the presence of a confederate who provided negative feedback. Participants' state of anxiety was assessed using a questionnaire before each of the experimental sessions. In experiment 2, participants completed a task that required the inhibition of an anticipated response. Their accuracy and ability to inhibit their response was determined.

RESULTS

The golfers who experienced yips could be categorized according to whether they reported mainly movement-related symptoms (Type I) or anxiety-related symptoms (Type II). The Type I group exhibited greater muscle activity during putting and greater errors and less inhibition of the anticipated response task. The Type II group exhibited greater changes in cognitive anxiety and normal performance of the anticipated response task.

CONCLUSION

This study provides evidence in support of two yips subtypes. Type I is related to impaired movement initiation and execution, whereas Type II is related to performance anxiety.

Stressors, social support, and effects upon performance in golf

In this study, we extended the work of Rees and Hardy (2004) by examining the main and stress-buffering effects of social support upon sports performance in a different context, using a different outcome measure, and a specific time-frame. A high-level performance sample of 117 male golfers (mean age 24.8, s = 8.3) completed measures of social support and stressors before competitions. Performance outcome was recorded. Moderated hierarchical regression analyses revealed significant (P < 0.05) main effects for stressors upon performance in 8 of the 11 models tested (R2 = 0.08 - 0.21). Over and above the variance accounted for by stressors, there were significant (P < 0.05) main effects for social support upon performance in all models tested (DeltaR2 = 0.10 - 0.24). In all models, stressors were associated with worse performance, whereas social support was associated with better performance. There were no significant interactions (stress-buffering effects). Main effects for social support upon performance suggest that social support may have aided performance directly, regardless of the level of stress.

On the causal mechanisms of stereotype threat: can skills that don't rely heavily on working memory still be threatened?

Recent work suggests that stereotype threat (ST) harms performance by reducing available working memory capacity. Is this the only mechanism by which ST can occur? Three experiments examined ST's impact on expert golf putting, which is not harmed when working memory is reduced but is hurt when attention is allocated to proceduralized processes that normally run outside working memory. Experiment 1 showed that well learned golf putting is susceptible to ST. Experiments 2 and 3 demonstrated that giving expert golfers a secondary task eliminates ST-induced impairment. Distracting attention away from the stereotype-related behavior eliminates the harmful impact of negative stereotype activation. These results are consistent with explicit monitoring theories of choking under pressure, which suggest that performance degradation can occur when too much attention is allocated to processes that usually run more automatically. Thus, ST alters information processing in multiple ways, inducing performance decrements for different reasons in different tasks.

Assessment of the impact sound in golf putting

The influence of impact sound in putting on players' perceptions of "feel" is explored in this paper. Tests were conducted to investigate the impact sound characteristics of five different ball types using two different putter types. The first test studied the impact sound of purely the ball, while the second test investigated the influence of putter construction and impact location on impact sound for the different ball types. Trends were found between sound spectra peaks in the 2 - 4 kHz range and the compression values of the balls. In addition, frequency content was more dependent on putter type and impact location than on ball construction in the 0 - 2 kHz range. The final test employed a paired comparison technique to investigate players' perceptions of sharpness and loudness of impact sound, ball speed from the clubface and ball hardness. Relationships between the subjective data and the sound characteristics of the balls were then examined. It was found that the ball the players' perceived to have the sharpest and loudest sound, to feel the hardest and to come off the clubface the quickest also had the largest calculated values of loudness and sharpness and had a spectral peak at a higher frequency than the other balls.

An analysis of players' consistency among professional golfers: a longitudinal study

This study followed the performance of individual professional golfers who played from 1997 to 2000 on the Professional Golfers Association Tour (PGA Tour, N=35), Ladies Professional Golfers Association Tour (LPGA Tour, N = 25), and Senior Professional Golfers Association Tour (SPGA Tour, N = 31) and investigated individual players' consistency in round-to-round performance within tournaments. Although the number of players showing consistency for most years exceeded chance expectations, evidence for round-to-round consistency from one year to the next for any player was small. Such evidence suggests that variability in player performance is more the rule than the exception for players on the three American professional tours.

Mental imagery combined with physical practice of approach shots for golf beginners

Recent research on motor skills of golf have pointed to the usefulness of mental imagery. In golf, such training is rarely used as a teaching technique for beginners on the grounds that only top professionals stand to gain from mental imagery. This study tested whether mental imagery combined with physical practice can improve golf performance for the approach shot. 23 volunteer beginners, 8 women and 15 men, M age 23.4 yr. (SD = 3.7), enrolled in the University Physical and Sporting Activities Department, were divided into three groups, using a combination of physical practice of the approach shot plus mental imagery, physical practice only, and a third group engaging in various sporting activities instead of either mental or physical practice of the chip shot. Analysis showed that the beginners' approach shot performance improved most in the group combining physical practice and mental imagery when compared with the group just physically practising the approach shot. It seems mental training can be used effectively to improve performance even with beginners.

Relation of eye dominance with performance and subjective ratings in golf putting

Previous research has discussed the interaction of hand preference, eye dominance, and sport performance. In this study, the relation of eye dominance with performance and subjective ratings in golf putting was investigated. 47 right-handed Japanese students from a college of physical education putted 10 balls to a drawn circle 3 m away, each under right-handed and left-handed stance conditions. Putting performance was measured by the number of successful putts. After putting in each condition, they rated subjective visibility and feelings of hitting. Analyses indicated that right-eyed subjects had significantly better performance using the right-handed stance than the left-handed stance, whereas left-eyed subjects showed the opposite. Most subjective ratings were more positive with right-handed stance for both right-eyed and left-eyed subjects. These findings suggest that eye dominance could have some influence on putting performance of Japanese novice golfers.

The Sport Psychiatrist and Golf

The sport psychiatrist is well-positioned to consult to competitive golfers. The interrupted pace of play in golf provides ample time for the golfer's thoughts to go awry. The sport psychiatrist can work with competitive golfers in refining their strategies for dealing with these myriad distractions and stressors. The authors review pre-performance routine and methods for optimizing focus, and discuss the science behind being "in the zone." The authors also discuss how acute performance failure, or "choking," is best understood as being three separate disorders. The sport psychiatrist's unique role in competitive, professional golf is discussed by employing the concept of a sports mental health continuum and its relation to psychiatric disorders.

Intensity and direction of competitive anxiety as a function of sport type and experience

Using Jones' (1995) model of control, intensity (level) and direction (interpretation) of symptoms associated with competitive trait anxiety were examined as a function of sport type and competitive experience. Participants from gross explosive and fine motor-skill sports (n = 162) completed a trait version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (Martens et al., 1990a) including intensity and direction subscales (Jones & Swain, 1992). Main effects for experience and sport type were reported with gross explosive sports indicating symptoms associated with competitive anxiety as more facilitative to performance than fine motor-skill sports. Experienced performers also reported more-facilitating interpretations of symptoms than their less-experienced counterparts. The findings provide support from a dispositional context to suggest that sport type and the level of competitive experience influence interpretation of symptoms usually experienced in pressure situations. Implementation of activation, relaxation or restructuring interventions contingent upon the nature of the sport is recommended with consideration of the development of confidence-building strategies in less-experienced performers.

Golf science research at the beginning of the twenty-first century

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, there are 30,000 golf courses and 55 million people who play golf worldwide. In the USA alone, the value of golf club memberships sold in the 1990s was US dollar 3.2 billion. Underpinning this significant human activity is a wide variety of people researching and applying science to sustain and develop the game. The 11 golf science disciplines recognized by the World Scientific Congress of Golf have reported 311 papers at four world congresses since 1990. Additionally, scientific papers have been published in discipline-specific peer-reviewed journals, research has been sponsored by the two governing bodies of golf, the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews and the United States Golf Association, and confidential research is undertaken by commercial companies, especially equipment manufacturers. This paper reviews much of this human endeavour and points the way forward for future research into golf.

Effects of focus of attention depend on golfers' skill

In this study, we examined the influence of internal and external attention instructions on the performance of a pitch shot by golfers who were either highly skilled (mean handicap = 4) or low skilled (mean handicap = 26). Ten golfers in each skill group used a 9-iron to pitch a ball as close as possible to an orange pylon, which was located at distances of 10, 15, 20 or 25 m from the golfer. Focus of attention was manipulated within participants (counterbalanced across golfers). Under internal focus of attention instructions, the participants were told to concentrate on the form of the golf swing and to adjust the force of their swing depending on the distance of the shot. For the external focus of attention conditions, the participants were told to concentrate on hitting the ball as close to the target pylon as possible. The most intriguing finding was an interaction of skill with focus of attention instructions for variability in performance. Similar to the findings of Wulf and colleagues, the highly skilled golfers performed better with external attention instructions than with internal focus instructions. In contrast, the low-skill golfers performed better with the internal than with the external focus of attention instructions. These findings are discussed relative to theoretical issues in motor learning and practical issues for golf instruction.