Psychosocial Factors Associated With Time to Recovery After Concussion in Adolescent Ice Hockey Players

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association between psychosocial factors and physician clearance to return to play (RTP) in youth ice hockey players after sport-related concussion.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study, Safe to Play (2013-2018).

SETTING

Youth hockey leagues in Alberta and British Columbia, Canada.

PARTICIPANTS

Three hundred fifty-three ice hockey players (aged 11-18 years) who sustained a total of 397 physician-diagnosed concussions.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

Psychosocial variables.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Players and parents completed psychosocial questionnaires preinjury. Players with a suspected concussion were referred for a study physician visit, during which they completed the Sport Concussion Assessment Tool (SCAT3/SCAT5) and single question ratings of distress and expectations of recovery. Time to recovery (TTR) was measured as days between concussion and physician clearance to RTP. Accelerated failure time models estimated the association of psychosocial factors with TTR, summarized with time ratios (TRs). Covariates included age, sex, body checking policy, days from concussion to the initial physician visit, and symptom severity at the initial physician visit.

RESULTS

Self-report of increased peer-related problems on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (TR, 1.10 [95% CI, 1.02-1.19]), higher ratings of distress about concussion outcomes by participants (TR, 1.06 [95% CI, 1.01-1.11]) and parents (TR, 1.05 [95% CI, 1.01-1.09]), and higher parent ratings of distress about their child's well-being at the time of injury (TR, 1.06 [95% CI, 1.02-1.09]) were associated with longer recovery.

CONCLUSIONS

Greater pre-existing peer-related problems and acute distress about concussion outcomes and youth well-being predicted longer TTR. Treatment targeting these psychosocial factors after concussion may promote recovery.

"Beyond the Rink": A Multilevel Analysis of Social Identity Behaviors Captured Using the Electronically Activated Recorder

This study used ecological sampling methods to examine associations between youth athletes' experiences receiving and engaging in behaviors indicative of in-group ties, cognitive centrality, and in-group affect (i.e., social identity) during a 3-day competitive ice hockey tournament. Forty-five youth (Mage = 12.39 years; SDage = 1.14 years; 94% male) from nine teams wore an electronically activated recorder that captured brief (50-s) audio observations throughout the tournament. Participants also completed daily diary questionnaires for each day of competition. Multilevel structural equation modeling demonstrated that athletes were more likely to engage in behaviors indicative of in-group affect and cognitive centrality on days when they received as higher-than-average frequency of behaviors indicative of cognitive centrality from teammates, coaches, and parents. The findings suggest that when team members interact in ways that demonstrate they are thinking about their team, they influence fellow members to behave in ways that promote a sense of "us."

The absence of fans removes the home advantage associated with penalties called by National Hockey League referees

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a major impact on professional sports, notably, forcing the National Hockey League to hold its 2020 playoffs in empty arenas. This provided an unprecedented opportunity to study how crowds may influence penalties awarded by referees in an ecological context. Using data from playoff games played during the COVID-19 pandemic and the previous 5 years (n = 547), we estimate the number of penalties called by referees depending on whether or not spectators were present. The results show an interaction between a team’s status (home; away) and the presence or absence of crowds. Post-hoc analyses reveal that referees awarded significantly more penalties to the away team compared to the home team when there is a crowd present. However, when there are no spectators, the number of penalties awarded to the away and home teams are not significantly different. In order to generalize these results, we took advantage of the extension of the pandemic and the unusual game setting it provided to observe the behavior of referees during the 2020–2021 regular season. Again, using data from the National Hockey League (n = 1639), but also expanding our sample to include Canadian Hockey League games (n = 1709), we also find that the advantage given to the home team by referees when in front of a crowd fades in the absence of spectators. These findings provide new evidence suggesting that social pressure does have an impact on referees’ decision-making, thus contributing to explain the phenomenon of home advantage in professional ice hockey.

Adolescent hockey players' predispositions to adopt sport and exercise behaviours: An ecological perspective

Organized sport yields many cognitive, social and physical benefits and is one of the most popular types of physical activity for children and adolescents. Despite the benefits of sports participation, a substantial proportion of adolescents fail to meet Canadian guidelines regarding physical activity. In this regard, it is relevant to understand the mechanisms underlying the adoption of various active behaviours. This study aims to identify the predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors that potentially influence 4 categories of active behaviours using the Youth Physical Activity Promotion model (YPAP). Data was drawn from 416 male adolescent hockey players (Mage = 15.4; SD = 2) who completed a pre-validated questionnaire. Structural equation modeling and interaction analyses were performed to explain the contribution of each determinant. Findings reveal that there are different behavioural patterns based on the type of activity. The interaction between attitudes and environmental factors was a key predictor for each type of behaviour. Perceived competence was associated with more recreational activities, whereas the support of parents and coaches determined involvement in ice hockey. This study refined our understanding of physical activity participation among adolescents already involved in organized sports and emphasized the importance of considering multiple factors surrounding their environment. Several practical recommendations are made to improve young athletes' predisposition to practice physical activity in an organized sports setting.

Off-Ice Agility Provide Motor Transfer to On-Ice Skating Performance and Agility in Adolescent Ice Hockey Players

Agility plays a crucial role in ice hockey training, and it can be developed directly on the ice or by additional off-ice training. Since the effectiveness of on-ice and off-ice training on players' agility have not been previously described, the purpose of this research is to compare the effects of on-ice and off-ice agility training on skating performance. Fourteen ice hockey players performed agility training on-ice for 4 weeks and off-ice for 4 weeks in a crossover design; they were tested before the agility program, after the first month and after finishing both training programs. The players were randomly assigned into one of two groups (n = 7 in each group), either performing the on-ice training protocol first (Ice1) followed by the off-ice agility training or performing the off-ice protocol first and the on-ice training second (Ice2). The test battery included straight sprints to 6.1 m and 35 m and the S corner test, test with break, weave agility with puck test and reactive agility test. The magnitude based decision showed the effect of agility training in both groups in the weave agility (Ice1, 2.9±2.8% likely improvement; Ice2, 3.1±2.5% possible improvement) and reactive agility tests (Ice1, 3.1 ±2.5% likely improvement; Ice2, 1.7±2.1% possible improvement), where the Ice1 protocol resulted in a likely positive change and Ice2 resulted in a possible positive change. The comparison of the training effect resulted in a possibly harmful change of performance in Ice2 protocol (-0.5 ± 8.9%) compared to Ice1 protocol (-1.0 ± 5.1%). On-ice training is more effective in the development of specific types of agility in adolescent U16 players. However, there is evidence that off-ice agility have motor transfer to on-ice agility. Therefore, we recommend developing on-ice agility with additional off-ice agility training during the ice hockey season.

Creating Appropriate Training Environments to Improve Technical, Decision-Making, and Physical Skills in Field Hockey

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of eight different small-sided games (SSG) on physical, technical, and decision-making demands of training environments in U14 field hockey.

METHODS

A total of 13 participants played eight different training games consisting of two 7.5-minute halves, where number of players (three per side or six per side) and/or field characteristics (normal game, cage hockey game, possession game, and two-goals game) was manipulated. Match performance was determined by using notational analysis, and physical demands were determined by using GPS analyses.

RESULTS

Findings revealed that lowering the number of players increased the number of technical actions performed per player and the physical demands of the SSG. Findings of the field characteristics manipulation revealed that the possession game forced players to control the ball more as a team, which resulted in more passes (+4.82 passes) and fewer dribbles (-1.48 dribbles) and tackles (-0.69 tackles) compared to the normal game. The two-goals game led to players scoring more goals (+0.61 goals) compared to the normal game, while the cage hockey game increased passing (+1.46 passes) and physical demands (+7.32 meters per minute) compared to the normal game.

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded from these findings that coaches and trainers are able to promote a change in playing behavior, and in turn the development of skills, by manipulating specific constraints of the training environment.

Physical activity and concussion risk in youth ice hockey players: pooled prospective injury surveillance cohorts from Canada

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between meeting physical activity (PA) volume recommendations and concussion rates in male ice hockey players aged 11-17 years.

DESIGN

Pooled prospective injury surveillance cohort data from the 2011-2012, 2013-2014 and 2014-2015 youth ice hockey seasons.

PARTICIPANTS

Male Alberta-based Pee Wee (aged 11-12 years), Bantam (aged 13-14 years) and Midget (aged 15-17 years) ice hockey players participating in any of the three cohorts were eligible (n=1726). A total of 1208 players were included after the exclusion criteria were applied (ie, players with new/unhealed injuries within 6 weeks of study entry, missing 6-week PA history questionnaires, missing game and/or practice participation exposure hours, players who sustained concussions when no participation exposure hours were collected).

OUTCOME MEASURES

Dependent variable: medically diagnosed concussion. Independent variable: whether or not players' self-reported history of PA (ie, hours of physical education and extracurricular sport participation) met the Canadian Society of Exercise Physiology and Public Health Agency of Canada recommendation of one hour daily during the 6 weeks prior to study entry (ie, 42 hours or more).

RESULTS

The PA volume recommendations were met by 65.05% of players who subsequently sustained concussions, and 75.34% of players who did not sustain concussions. The concussion incidence rate ratios (IRR) reflect higher concussion rates in players who did not meet the PA volume recommendations vs. players who met the PA volume recommendations among Pee Wee players (IRR 2.94 95% CI 1.30 to 6.64), Bantam players (IRR 2.18, 95% CI 1.21 to 3.93) and non-elite players aged 11-14 years (IRR 2.45, 95% CI 1.33 to 4.51).

CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE

The concussion rate of players who did not meet the Canadian PA volume recommendations was more than twice the concussion rate of players who met recommendations among male Pee Wee players, Bantam players and non-elite level players. Further exploration of the impact of public health PA recommendations in a sport injury prevention context is warranted.

Reducing injury risk from body checking in boys' youth ice hockey

Ice hockey is an increasingly popular sport that allows intentional collision in the form of body checking for males but not for females. There is a two- to threefold increased risk of all injury, severe injury, and concussion related to body checking at all levels of boys' youth ice hockey. The American Academy of Pediatrics reinforces the importance of stringent enforcement of rules to protect player safety as well as educational interventions to decrease unsafe tactics. To promote ice hockey as a lifelong recreational pursuit for boys, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends the expansion of nonchecking programs and the restriction of body checking to elite levels of boys' youth ice hockey, starting no earlier than 15 years of age.

Does priming really put the gloss on performance?

Priming has recently emerged in the literature as offering advantages in the preparation for skilled performance. Accordingly, the current study tested the efficacy of imagery against a priming paradigm as a means of enhancing motor performance: in essence, contrasting a preparation technique primarily under the conscious control of the performer to an unconscious technique promoting automaticity. The imagery intervention was guided by the PETTLEP model, while the priming intervention took the form of a scrambled sentence task. Eighteen skilled field-hockey players performed a dribbling task under imagery, priming, skill-focus, and control conditions. Results revealed a significant improvement in speed and technical accuracy for the imagery condition as opposed to the skill-focus, control, and priming conditions. In addition, there were no significant differences in performance times or technical accuracy between the priming and control conditions. The study provides further support for the efficacy of imagery to elicit enhanced motor skill performance but questions the emerging emphasis on priming as an effective tool in preparation for physical tasks.

Influence of viewing professional ice hockey on youth hockey injuries

INTRODUCTION

Most televised National Hockey League (NHL) games include violent body checks, illegal hits and fights. We postulated that minor league players imitated these behaviours and that not seeing these games would reduce the rate of injuries among younger hockey players.

METHODS

Using a quasi-experimental design, we compared 7 years of televised NHL matches (2002-2009) with the year of the NHL lock-out (2004/2005). Data from the Canadian Hospitals Injury Reporting and Prevention Program (CHIRPP) were used to identify the injuries and to ascertain whether they were due to intentional contact and illegal acts including fights.

RESULTS

We found no significant differences in the proportions of all injuries and those involving intentional contact, violations or illegal acts among male minor league hockey players during the year when professional players were locked out and the years before and after the lock-out.

CONCLUSION

We concluded that not seeing televised NHL violence may not reduce injuries, although a possible effect may have been obscured because there was a striking increase in attendance at equally violent minor league games during the lock-out.

Working memory capacity as controlled attention in tactical decision making

The controlled attention theory of working memory capacity (WMC, Engle 2002) suggests that WMC represents a domain free limitation in the ability to control attention and is predictive of an individual's capability of staying focused, avoiding distraction and impulsive errors. In the present paper we test the predictive power of WMC in computer-based sport decision-making tasks. Experiment 1 demonstrated that high-WMC athletes were better able at focusing their attention on tactical decision making while blocking out irrelevant auditory distraction. Experiment 2 showed that high-WMC athletes were more successful at adapting their tactical decision making according to the situation instead of relying on prepotent inappropriate decisions. The present results provide additional but also unique support for the controlled attention theory of WMC by demonstrating that WMC is predictive of controlling attention in complex settings among different modalities and highlight the importance of working memory in tactical decision making.

Self-presentation origins of choking: evidence from separate pressure manipulations

Whether self-presentation is involved in the choking process remains unknown. The purpose of the current study was to determine the role of self-presentation concerns on the frequency of choking within the context of a recently proposed self-presentation model. Experienced field hockey players (N = 45) were randomly assigned to one of five groups (i.e., performance-contingent monetary incentive, video camera placebo, video camera self-presentation, audience, or combined pressure), before taking penalty strokes in low- and high-pressure phases. Results indicated that groups exposed to self-presentation manipulations experienced choking, whereas those receiving motivational pressure treatments decreased anxiety and increased performance under pressure. Furthermore, cognitive state anxiety mediated the relationship between the self-presentation group and performance. These findings provide quantitative support for the proposed self-presentation model of choking, while also holding implications for anxiety manipulations in future sport psychology research.

Priming as a means of preventing skill failure under pressure

The present study examined the effectiveness of a priming paradigm in alleviating skill failure under stress. The priming intervention took the form of a scrambled sentence task. Experiment 1: Thirty-four skilled field-hockey players performed a dribbling task in low- and high-pressure situations under single task, skill-focused, and priming conditions. Results revealed a significant increase in performance time from low to high pressure. In addition, performance in the priming condition was significantly better than in the control and skill-focused conditions. Experiment 2: Thirty skilled field-hockey players completed the same dribbling task as in Experiment 1; however, in addition to the control and skill-focused conditions, participants were allocated to either a positive, neutral, or negative priming condition. Results revealed significant improvements in performance time from the skill focus to the control to the priming condition for the positive and neutral groups. For the negative group, times were significantly slower in the priming condition. Results are discussed in terms of utilizing priming in a sporting context.

Lesbian erotics at women's hockey: fans, flashing, and the Booby Orrs

This article analyzes a public breast flashing event that occurred during the women's ice hockey tournament at the OutGames/Western Cup Lesbigay athletic event in 2007. Employing a postfoundational perspective, I first contextualize the ice hockey subculture of the team called the Booby Orrs, outlining some of our history, norms, and context. I then tell the particular story that leads to our fans flashing their breasts as we finally scored some goals. I end with my analysis of this event: how a public nude display of sexualized women's breasts in a lesbian-coded public space prompted a resistant sporting moment, at least contingently.

Mouthguards in the American Hockey League [AHL]

PURPOSE

To examine the orofacial injuries and attitudes toward mouthguards reported by professional ice hockey players of the American Hockey League [AHL].

METHODS

A survey was created and sent to the certified athletic trainers [ATC] of 23 AHL teams. A total of 25 questions were posed regarding age, position, orofacial injury, frequency of prophylaxis by a dental hygienist and methods to clean a mouthguard. The influence and responsibility of professional athletes as role models was also explored.

RESULTS

A total of 344 surveys of the original 394 surveys [87.3%] were returned. Three hundred twenty-four [82.2%] were acceptable for analysis. All respondents were male, with 74% between the ages of 19 and 25. Almost all players [93.8%] had been advised to wear a mouthguard, with a parent / family member first to advise on their use. Approximately 67.3% of players reported wearing a mouthguard in some capacity. Of those who did not, 31% stopped wearing a mouthguard upon arrival into the AHL. Dental injuries were numerous, occurring within 63.3% of ice hockey players. The most frequently reported injury was chipped teeth. As professional athletes, 88.6% consider themselves role models.

CONCLUSION

It is recommended that mouthguards be mandated within the professional arena as the prevalence of orofacial injuries remains a concern within ice hockey. Emphasis should be placed on educating health professionals of all disciplines who interact with athletes, as well as utilizing the promotional power of professional athletes.

The effects of non-specific and specific concepts on tactical creativity in team ball sports

The main aim of this study was to examine the efficacy of various training approaches in team ball sports for the development of tactical creativity. Altogether, 135 children aged about 7 years took part in a 15-month field-based study. They participated either in non-specific treatment groups, a specific handball, soccer or field hockey group, or a control group. General and game-oriented tactical creativity were chosen as outcome measures. Our analysis of treatment-related effects showed that the non-specific groups displayed improvements in general creativity, whereas the specific groups showed improvements in the game-oriented creativity in which they were trained. Furthermore, clear transfer-related effects were observed. The analysis of group-related effects indicated no differences between the approaches. Only the soccer-specific group performed better in nearly all creative values. In conclusion, a non-specific concept appears to be a promising alternative to traditional specific treatments. This is further substantiated by several pedagogical, psychological, and medical arguments.

Home disadvantage in professional ice hockey

Occurrence of the home field disadvantage in professional ice hockey was examined by analyzing data on penalty shots from 1983-2004. This datum was used as it does not involve physical contact for only the player taking the penalty shot is involved in the outcome. As a result, inhibition of anxiety associated with physical contact should not occur, and diffusion of responsibility would not occur since only the shooter is involved. Analysis indicated the player who took the penalty shot did not make significantly fewer shots at home than in away games. The result did not support hypotheses about roles of physical contact and diffusion of responsibility in accounting for past failures to find the home disadvantage in professional ice hockey.

Pre-competition hormonal and psychological levels of elite hockey players: Relationship to the ‘home advantage’

The home advantage is a robust phenomenon that occurs in the world of amateur and professional sport. Athletic teams have been shown to win significantly more games in their home venue as compared to their opponents' venue. Studies have suggested that the home advantage may be related to familiarity with the facility, increased crowd density and even pre-competition hormonal levels. The present study investigated pre-competition physiological and psychological states of elite hockey players in the home and away venues. Physiological measures included salivary cortisol and testosterone, which were assessed using enzyme immunoassays. In addition, pre-competition psychological states were assessed using the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2. Physiological measures indicated that the players had significantly higher pre-game testosterone when playing in their home venue as compared to their opponents' venue (t(13)=2.29, p=0.04); however, this difference was not due to a pre-game rise in testosterone while competing at home. Furthermore, players showed a trend toward higher pre-game cortisol when playing in their home venue (t(13)=1.96, p=0.07). Psychological measures indicated that players were more self-confident when playing in their home venue (t(13)=2.8, p=0.008) and also had higher somatic (t(13)=2.3, p=0.02) and cognitive anxiety (t(13)=1.87, p=0.04) when playing in their opponents' venue. The present study supports the notion that there are differences in pre-competition hormonal and psychological states that may play a key role in the "home advantage".

Influence of the ice-hockey environment on taking up snuff: an interview study among young males

In Sweden, snuff-use is an established and accepted phenomenon in society, especially in connection with certain sports. The aim of this qualitative study was to analyze and describe the psychosocial environment influencing young male ice-hockey players into starting to use snuff. The study sample comprised 16 male participants between 15 and 32 years of age strategically selected for being active or having been active as ice-hockey players--snuff-users and non-users alike. A grounded theory design, including in-depth interviews, was used to generate a theory from data and thereby create theoretical concepts explaining social phenomena, human behavior, and process. An interview guide containing different themes was used to cover the study area. Five higher-order categories were developed and labeled: having a role model, residing in a consenting environment, experiencing performance demands, experiencing a sense of community and creating an image. Socialization in and through psychosocial norms of the ice-hockey environment was identified as a core category describing the central meaning of the informants' experiences of snuff in the ice-hockey environment. In the present study, the identified categories that integrate within the environment in which the young people reside and pursue their sports activities have been interpreted as factors enhancing the commencement of snuff-use. We suggest health promotion activities within the ice-hockey environment based on a health psychology model of planned behavior.

Anxiety and burnout in female collegiate ice hockey and soccer athletes

The purpose of this study was to assess whether athletes who perceived their scores on trait anxiety to be debilitative to performance also experienced higher burnout scores. 84 NCAA Division I female ice hockey and soccer athletes, ages 18 to 23 years, volunteered. Participants were given a trait version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 with an added direction scale to collect general perceptions of anxiety. They also completed the Burnout Inventory for Athletes. A one-way multivariate analysis of variance for group anxiety yielded an overall significant effect, with the Facilitative group (n = 40) reporting a lower mean burnout score. Mean intensity of cognitive anxiety was significantly higher for the Debilitative group (n = 44), while mean self-confidence intensity was significantly higher for the Facilitative group.

Intensity and direction of competitive anxiety as a function of goal attainment expectation and competition goal generation

Jones's control model was adopted to investigate differences in the labelling of symptoms associated with pre-competition anxiety and self-confidence as a function of goal attainment expectation and competition goal generation. Team sport performers (N = 96) were divided into outcome, performance and process goal groups. Anxiety intensity and direction, and self-confidence were then examined as a function of goal expectancy (positive or negative) and perceived input into goal production (input or no input). MANOVA and follow-up ANOVA supported the study predictions. Specifically, participants who reported positive expectations of goal achievement and indicated some input into the goal generation process experienced the most facilitative interpretations of cognitive symptoms and greater self-confidence. The results highlight the need to consider how goals are generated when attempting to foster a sense of control and help athletes cope with the psychological demands of competition.

Relation between multidimensional performance characteristics and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players

To determine the relationship between multidimensional performance characteristics and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players, elite youth players (n = 38, mean age 13.2 years, s = 1.26) were compared with sub-elite youth players (n = 88, mean age 14.2 years, s = 1.26) on anthropometric, physiological, technical, tactical and psychological characteristics. Multivariate analyses with performance level and gender as factors, and age as the covariate, showed that the elite youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run), tactical (general tactics; tactics for possession and non-possession of the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (P < 0.05). The most discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball, motivation and performance in a slalom dribble. Age discriminated between the two groups, indicating that the elite youth players were younger than the sub-elite players. In the guidance of young talented players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players, more attention has to be paid to tactical qualities, motivation and specific technical skills.

Gender differences in the pre-competition temporal patterning of anxiety and hormonal responses

AIM

This study examined gender differences in the pre-competition temporal patterning of anxiety and hormonal responses.

METHODS

Six male and 6 female field hockey players completed the modified Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2, including both intensity and direction subscales, and provided saliva and urine samples 24, 2, and 1 hour prior to competition. These samples were analyzed for cortisol, and noradrenaline and adrenaline, respectively.

RESULTS

Two x 3 repeated measures ANOVAs revealed significant gender x time interactions for cognitive and somatic anxiety intensity and adrenaline and noradrenaline, but not cortisol. While males' anxiety and hormonal responses demonstrated no significant changes, significant increases in females' anxiety, and significant decreases in their adrenaline and noradrenaline were observed over time. Moreover, while males' anxiety and hormonal responses mirrored each other, this was not the case for the females with increases in females' cognitive and somatic anxiety intensity levels accompanied by decreases in adrenaline and noradrenaline.

CONCLUSIONS

Although this study has extended this line of research by adopting a psycho-physiological approach and measuring anxiety intensity and direction in male and female athletes, replication is required with larger samples from a greater diversity of sports.

The influence of gender-related beliefs and conceptions of ability on women learning the hockey wrist shot

The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of beliefs about gender appropriateness and conceptions of ability on perceived and actual competene and patterns of behavior during practice of the hockey wrist shot. Sixty-eight undergraduate women formed four treatment conditions based on their beliefs about gender appropriateness and conceptions of ability. Four teachers taught across the treatment conditions for a total of 16 learning groups. Data were collected through a three-part questionnaire and from audio-video taping of the entire episode to ascertain the paticipants' competency beliefs, effort, and performance. Gender appropriateness impacted the participants' perceptions of competence and actual performance in the study, while beliefs about conceptions of ability did not produce a significant difference. This study reaffirms that educators must work diligently to combat the stereotypical beliefs many hold with respect to the gender appropriateness of physical activities.

Personal food systems of male college hockey players

This study sought to improve the understanding of processes involved in food choice and dietary change by examining how members of a college men's ice hockey team experienced the multiple factors influencing their food choices. The study employed a theory-guided, grounded-theory approach, participant observation, and open-ended interviews with ten team members. Field notes and transcripts were analysed using the constant comparative method. Going to college and playing hockey involved adjusting to new food and athletic environments, increased personal responsibility for food choices, and new meanings for food and eating. Players viewed hockey, health, and taste as major determinants of their food practices. Hockey meant structured schedules, a social network, and performance expectations. Health meant "feeling good" for hockey, having a lean body composition, and a desirable body image. Low-fat foods were viewed generally as healthy, but as not providing taste satisfaction or reward. Players' food practices cycled through four phases over the year according to the changing meanings and importance of hockey, health, and taste. The findings advance the concept of personal food system to represent the way that a person constructs the options, barriers, trade-offs, rules, and routines in food choice in response to how s/he views his/her relationships with food and the environment.

Mood and emotion in sport: a response to Jones, Mace, and Williams (2000)

Examination of the mood and performance relationship in sport has been an important line of investigation in sport psychology for over 20 years. Recent research has challenged the notion that the Profile of Mood States is the instrument of choice. It has also moved away from the notion that successful performance is associated with an 'iceberg' profile (Morgan, 1980), arguing that researchers should consider mood and emotion as distinguishable constructs (Jones, Mace, & Williams, 2000; Lane & Terry, 2000. In the present paper, I expand the discussion on mood research in sport by re-examining some of the findings of Jones, et al. in the light of recent work.

Relationship between emotional state and performance during international field hockey matches

The present study examined the relationship between the emotions experienced by 15 international hockey players, both immediately before and during competition, and their performance levels. Data were collected on the players' emotional states using a revised version of the Feelings Scale of Butler, which was completed retrospectively after the match was played. Players reported more annoyance and less tension during the match than before. A logistic regression correctly classified 70.2% of players from the emotional ratings immediately before the match and 85.1% of the players from the ratings during the match as either a good or poor performer. Those individuals who performed well retrospectively reported feeling Nervous and 'Quick/Alert/Active' before the game and Confident and Relaxed during the game. The results indicate that emotions fluctuate over the competition period, and in long duration sports assessment of emotion during competition predicts variation in performance better than assessment prior to competition.

Factors associated with significant injuries in youth ice hockey players

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To assess the implementation of published injury prevention strategies in injured youth ice hockey players, to examine factors contributing to current youth ice hockey injuries, and to assess attitudes of participants toward injury-risk activities.

METHODS

Case series describing a convenience sample of 103 children presenting to a children's hospital emergency department with an injury sustained playing youth ice hockey. Using a questionnaire, patients self-reported their compliance with protective equipment guidelines, the circumstances of injury, and their attitudes toward risk-taking in youth ice hockey.

RESULTS

A total of 103 patients suffered 113 injuries. For each piece of required equipment, compliance approached 100%. Penalties were assigned on 4% of plays causing injury. An additional 36% of patients injured during game play felt that a penalty should have been assigned. Fifty-seven percent of injuries were caused by checking. Fifty-eight percent of injuries caused by checking met our criteria for significant injury. Significant injury was more likely when initiating or receiving a check perceived to be legal than when receiving a check perceived as illegal (P = 0.032). Twenty-four percent of patients stated spinal cord injury and 45% stated brain injury was not possible given their usual protective equipment. To win, 32% of patients stated that they would check illegally, and 6% stated that they would purposely injure.

CONCLUSION

While compliance with protective equipment requirements was good, rule enforcement was perceived to be inadequate. Elimination of checking would potentially reduce the number of significant injuries more than would the enforcement of existing rules. Injured youth hockey players are underinformed about the hazards of their sport and are too willing to engage in potentially injurious activities.

Strategic decisions of ice hockey coaches as a function of game location

Two studies were performed to determine the influence of game location on the strategic decisions of ice hockey coaches. In study 1, coaches from the National (n = 23) and Ontario Hockey Leagues (n = 17) indicated the degree to which they had their teams forecheck assertively at home versus away. In study 2, video analysis of 62 National Hockey League games was used to verify the extent to which teams in this league use an assertive forechecking strategy at home versus away. In study 1, coaches reported that they implemented a more assertive forechecking style at home versus away (P < 0.001). The results of the video analysis in study 2 were consistent with the coaches' reports: teams used a more assertive forechecking style at home versus away (P < 0.03). The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the home advantage in the National Hockey League.

Explanatory style among elite ice hockey athletes

Mentally tough' athletes show resilience and an ability to compete during adverse conditions. The present study investigated mental toughness and assessed causal explanations for positive and negative reactions to imagined events using Seligman's Attributional Style Questionnaire. Pessimistic Explanatory style on this scale is a risk factor for negative affect and behavior following negative events. 38 elite athletes in ice hockey were rated for mental toughness by the National Hockey League's scouts on consensually derived criteria. The comparison of players above and below the median split on mental toughness showed composite explanations for negative events that were more internal, stable and global for players above the median. Contrary to predictions, these results suggest that a Pessimistic Explanatory style may benefit hockey performance.

Trait aggressiveness and hockey penalties: predicting hot tempers on the ice

Previous studies examining the validity of measures of trait aggressiveness either have been retrospective studies or have used laboratory aggression as the criterion behavior. Can a measure of trait aggressiveness predict nonlaboratory physical aggression? The Physical Aggression subscale of the Aggression Questionnaire was completed by 91 high school hockey players prior to the start of the season. At the end of the season, these trait aggressiveness scores were regressed on minutes in the penalty box for aggressive penalties (e.g., fighting, slashing, tripping) and minutes in the penalty box for nonaggressive penalties (e.g., delay of game, illegal equipment, too many players). As expected, preseason trait aggressiveness scores predicted aggressive penalty minutes (r = .33) but not nonaggressive penalty minutes (r = .04).

Cohesion predicts success in junior ice hockey

This study examined the relationship between cohesion measured by the Group Environment Questionnaire and success measured by winning percentage with over 200 junior ice hockey players. The cohesion explained 29% of the variance of the success. Scores on task cohesion were better predictors of success than social cohesion.

The relationship between achievement goal profile groups and perceptions of motivational climates in sport

The purpose of the present study was to expand on previous research that has found compatibility between individuals' views on achievement and the type of achievement that was promoted in the sport environment they belonged to. However, this line of research has ignored the fact that the two main goal orientations are largely independent and that their impact in combination is often different from their effects examined separately. The present study, therefore, examined which combinations of goal orientations are compatible with perceptions of mastery and performance climates in a sample of 146 British university students. With regard to mastery climate, the analysis showed that the critical factor was the degree of task orientation since those with high scores in this factor (irrespective of the degree of their ego orientation) perceived the climate as more mastery-oriented than those with low scores in task orientation. This was substantiated by the large differences in effect sizes between the high- and low-task groups. As far as performance climate was concerned, the most negative perceptions of climate were held by those who were rated both low in task orientation and high in ego orientation. A general inference from these results is that high task orientation is motivationally adaptive, whereas high ego orientation is not motivationally detrimental as long as it is accompanied by a high task orientation. These findings are in contrast with previous suggestions that have called for the enhancement of task orientation with the concurrent suppression of ego orientation. Our results are, however, consonant with studies which have employed a goal profiles analysis in sport and in physical education, and with empirical evidence from real sport settings.

Psychologic, situational, and physiologic variables and on-ice performance of youth hockey goalkeepers

OBJECTIVE

To determine the relationship between psychologic, situational, and physiologic variables and on-ice performance of youth hockey goalkeepers.

DESIGN

This study was structured to identify relationships and predictors of goalie performance.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Because athletes playing solo positions in team sports have not been analyzed in depth in terms of precompetition anxiety and because goalkeeper performance is critical to game outcome, we undertook a study of 43 goalies at a hockey camp. These goalies completed psychometric inventories to assess trait and state anxiety, confidence, life stress, and social support. Holter monitors measured heart rate while the goalies rotated through on-ice stations. Goalies were videotaped at the puck-shooting machine station, and performance (percent saves) was calculated.

RESULTS

Trait (somatic) anxiety and positive mood state (ability to share) had different but significant relationships with on-ice performance. Heart rates ranged from 88 to 208 beats/min at the on-ice stations. Mean heart rate for older goalies (14 to 18 years of age) was 164 beats/min at the puck-shooting machine and 176 beats/min at other stations such as the slap-shot station.

CONCLUSION

Older goalies performed well at a high level of arousal. Better performing goalies were more experienced, had faster heart rates "in the net," and had lower scores on all measures of anxiety.

Predictors of injury in ice hockey players. A multivariate, multidisciplinary approach

Eighty-six male high school ice hockey players participated in this prospective study to determine both the incidence of injury in high school ice hockey and the influence of physical, situational, and psychosocial factors. Physical factors included height, weight, vision, previous injuries, musculoskeletal abnormalities, and injuries present at the time of screening evaluations. Situational factors examined were level of participation, playing time, player position, and games versus practices. Psychosocial factors such as confidence, stress, social support, positive states of mind, and mood states were also examined to determine their influences on injury. Twenty-seven injuries occurred during the 1994 to 1995 season. As hypothesized, the overall incidence of injury in high school hockey games (34.4 per 1000 player-game hours) was less than the incidence of injury in Junior A hockey (96.1 per 1000 player-game hours) and was more than previously reported for Bantam youth hockey (10.9 per 1000 player-game hours). Injuries occurred more often in games than in practices, usually as a result of collisions. Physical factors such as player position and previous injuries did not significantly predict injuries, but players in the high playing time group were more likely to be injured. Psychosocial factors of low vigor and high fatigue as measured by the Incredibly Short Profile of Mood States (ISPOMS) significantly predicted high school ice hockey injuries.

National Hockey League players from North America are more violent than those from Europe

It is commonly believed by hockey fans that European hockey players rely more on skill while. North American players are more violent. The number of penalty minutes gathered by European and North American players in the National Hockey League's 1995-1996 season was examined. When corrected for the low proportion of European players, North American players had significantly more penalty minutes than European players.

Discriminant effectiveness of psychological state measures in predicting selection during field hockey trials

Field hockey players (N = 128) completed the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 and the Profile of Mood States about 45 min. before a British Universities trial. Single-factor multivariate analysis of variance indicated no significant differences between selected and nonselected players for any preperformance mood or anxiety measure. Discriminant function analysis showed that 74 participants (57.81%) could be correctly classified as selected or nonselected players on the basis of preperformance mood scores. This figure rose to 83 participants (64.84%) when scores on the anxiety subscales were also included in the discriminant function analysis. Anxiety scores alone discriminated 71 participants (55.47%). These results concur with earlier proposals of Terry that psychological state measures decline in predictive effectiveness in long duration, open skill team sports.

Fighting behavior and winning National Hockey League games: a paradox

To assess a relationship between fighting behavior and winning games in the National Hockey League (NHL), 4,240 NHL game summaries from five consecutive seasons (1987-88--1991-92) were examined. Analysis of the relation between a team's number of major fighting penalties and final league standings gave four significant negative correlations indicating a substantial inverse relationship, i.e., the larger the number of fights, the lower the final standings tended to be, although one significant positive correlation was obtained for those teams finishing in the bottom half of the standings. The results question the popular belief that fighting and winning NHL games are favorably associated. Explanations are suggested.

The temporal relationship between perceived competence and self-determined motivation

Although perceived competence is generally considered a determinant of motivation, little research has actually studied the relation between the two constructs on a longitudinal basis and in natural settings. This was the purpose of the present study. Canadian male adolescent hockey players (N = 64) in their first year at an elite level completed a questionnaire 2 weeks into the hockey season (T1) and at the end of the regular season (T2), assessing perceived competence and self-determined motivation at both times. The results partially support the hypothesis that, over time, perceived competence determines motivation (rather than the reverse) but do not exclude the possibility that, with time, motivation may also influence perceptions of competence.

An examination of the cohesion-performance relationship in university hockey teams

The objective of this study was to assess, using the Group Environment Questionnaire, whether team cohesion in university-level field hockey was a cause for, or an effect of, successful performance. A quasi-experimental longitudinal design with cross-lagged correlational analysis was adopted and measures of cohesion and performance were taken midway and later in the season. The results of the synchronous correlations showed a positive relationship (with good stationarity) between team cohesion and performance outcome. Although non-significant cross-lagged differentials indicated a circular relationship, the magnitudes of both the cross-lagged correlations and the partial correlations, together with multiple-regression analyses, revealed that the stronger flow was from cohesion to performance. The socially oriented aspects of cohesion, in particular, had significant associations with performance. The results imply that cohesion-performance relationships should be examined within a circular model, in which cohesion and performance are interdependent.

[A qualitative study of the violence in hockey: perceptions of trainers and players]

During semistructured interviews, coaches and players have expressed their perception of violence in hockey through several game situations. The responses reveal that coaches disapprove and even sanction players receiving too many useless penalties, but occasionally congratulate them for a penalized action executed to save a goal. During matches, verbal intimidation is high and not always criticized, especially when it causes the opponent to lose concentration and take a penalty. Body checks have been identified as a main generator of frustration and lack of discipline among players. Data analysis suggests two interventions in training programmes for coaches: the development of teaching material on body checking and on individual counselling techniques to impart sportsmanship attitudes to young players.

Children's ice hockey injuries

OBJECTIVE

To determine the rate, type, and severity of injuries to child hockey players as well as assessing coaches', parents', and players' attitudes and knowledge of hockey.

DESIGN

A prospective observation of a population's injuries using injury-reporting forms and surveys.

SETTING

A community-organized hockey program in Minnesota.

PARTICIPANTS

One hundred fifty boys, aged 9 through 15 years, who played ice hockey during the 1990-1991 winter season.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Injuries were reported by multiple observers, including coaches, managers, and trained independent observers at the time an injury occurred; coaches, parents, and players were surveyed regarding hockey injuries, knowledge, and attitudes. One in three players experienced an injury during the season. The most common injuries were contusions. Six of 100 players experienced injuries severe enough to require cessation of physical activities for 8 to 25 days or longer. Weight differences of 53 kg and height differences of 55 cm were reported between Bantam-aged players (13 through 15 years), and body contact, including legal checks, accounted for 86% of injuries during games. Illegal checks and violations were associated with 66% of injuries during games, yet only four penalties (14%) were assessed. In addition, one in three games in which an injury resulted was described as hostile and 15% of the injuries were considered intentional.

CONCLUSIONS

Eliminating violence and body checking for prepubertal boys while emphasizing rule enforcement and good sportsmanship are recommended.

Travel and the home advantage

The purpose of the present study was to examine the relative contributions of various travel related variables to visiting team success in the National Hockey League. A multiple regression design was used with game outcome as the dependent variable. The independent variables of interest included, as main effects and interactions, number of time zones crossed, direction of travel, distance traveled, preparation/adjustment time, time of season, game number on the road trip, and the home stand. Visiting team success was negatively associated with the interaction of number of time zones crossed and increased preparation time between games, and was positively associated with game number on the road. It was concluded that only a small portion of the variance in the home advantage/visitor disadvantage can be explained by travel related factors.

[Socialization on the role of the coach in minor league hockey]

The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the socialization model developed by Kenyon and McPherson (1973) to determine the degree of socialization of minor league hockey coaches. A questionnaire was administered to 333 current coaches and 175 former coaches from the Quebec City area. Results showed that the coaches' perception of their competence, the degree of watching professional hockey as a spectator, the material factors, and the influence of the peer group were positively associated with their degree of socialization; however, the influence of their own children on the decision to be a coach was negatively associated with their degree of socialization. Results also show that less than 30% of the variance was explained by the model. Different research strategies are suggested in order to better investigate the phenomenon.