The Effect of Meclofenoxate on the Transcriptome of Aging Brain of Nothobranchius guentheri Annual Killifish

Annual fish of the genus Nothobranchius are promising models for aging research. Nothobranchius reproduces typical aspects of vertebrate aging, including hallmarks of brain aging. Meclofenoxate (MF) is a well-known compound that can enhance cognitive performance. The drug is prescribed for asthenic conditions, trauma, and vascular diseases of the brain. It is believed that MF is able to delay age-dependent changes in the human brain. However, until now, there has been no study of the MF effect on the brain transcriptome. In the present work, we performed an RNA-Seq study of brain tissues from aged Nothobranchius guentheri, which were almost lifetime administered with MF, as well as young and aged control fish. As expected, in response to MF, we revealed significant overexpression of neuron-specific genes including genes involved in synaptic activity and plasticity, neurotransmitter secretion, and neuron projection. The effect was more pronounced in female fish. In this aspect, MF alleviated age-dependent decreased expression of genes involved in neuronal activity. In both treated and untreated animals, we observed strong aging-associated overexpression of immune and inflammatory response genes. MF treatment did not prevent this effect, and moreover, some of these genes tended to be slightly upregulated under MF treatment. Additionally, we noticed upregulation of some genes associated with aging and cellular senescence, including isoforms of putative vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM1), protein O-GlcNAcase (OGA), protein kinase C alpha type (KPCA), prolow-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1). Noteworthy, MF treatment was also associated with the elevated transcription of transposons, which are highly abundant in the N. guentheri genome. In conclusion, MF compensates for the age-dependent downregulation of neuronal activity genes, but its effect on aging brain transcriptome still cannot be considered unambiguously positive.

Chemical Compensation of Mitochondrial Phospholipid Depletion in Yeast and Animal Models of Parkinson's Disease

We have been investigating the role that phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and phosphatidylcholine (PC) content plays in modulating the solubility of the Parkinson’s disease protein alpha-synuclein (α-syn) using Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Caenorhabditis elegans. One enzyme that synthesizes PE is the conserved enzyme phosphatidylserine decarboxylase (Psd1/yeast; PSD-1/worms), which is lodged in the inner mitochondrial membrane. We previously found that decreasing the level of PE due to knockdown of Psd1/psd-1 affects the homeostasis of α-syn in vivo. In S. cerevisiae, the co-occurrence of low PE and α-syn in psd1Δ cells triggers mitochondrial defects, stress in the endoplasmic reticulum, misprocessing of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins, and a 3-fold increase in the level of α-syn. The goal of this study was to identify drugs that rescue this phenotype. We screened the Prestwick library of 1121 Food and Drug Administration-approved drugs using psd1Δ + α-syn cells and identified cyclosporin A, meclofenoxate hydrochloride, and sulfaphenazole as putative protective compounds. The protective activity of these drugs was corroborated using C. elegans in which α-syn is expressed specifically in the dopaminergic neurons, with psd-1 depleted by RNAi. Worm populations were examined for dopaminergic neuron survival following psd-1 knockdown. Exposure to cyclosporine, meclofenoxate, and sulfaphenazole significantly enhanced survival at day 7 in α-syn-expressing worm populations whereby 50–55% of the populations displayed normal neurons, compared to only 10–15% of untreated animals. We also found that all three drugs rescued worms expressing α-syn in dopaminergic neurons that were deficient in the phospholipid cardiolipin following cardiolipin synthase (crls-1) depletion by RNAi. We discuss how these drugs might block α-syn pathology in dopaminergic neurons.

Biolistic transformation of wheat with centrophenoxine as a synthetic auxin

Cereal crops, including bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), are an important staple food worldwide. With a growing global population, it is evident that current crop production will not meet the rising demands being placed on modern agriculture. Efforts to improve crop yield and stress-tolerance by traditional breeding are labor intensive, time consuming, and highly dependent upon the ability to capture existing and novel genetic variation from a restricted genetic pool. Genetic engineering of crop species is one of several alternatives to traditional breeding for the introduction of novel genetic variation. This recently established technology has proved useful for the introduction of novel traits like pest resistance and herbicide tolerance. As a universal tool for genetic transformation, the Biolistic Gene Gun allows for the genomic integration of novel gene sequences from various sources into a whole host of living organisms.In this chapter, we present a novel and detailed protocol for the Biolistic Transformation of bread wheat that uses the pharmaceutical compound, Centrophenoxine (CPX). The application of CPX as the main auxin-like plant growth regulator in cereal genetic transformation replaces the potent but more toxic herbicide 2,4-D.

[Effects of nicotinic cholinoreceptor ligands and nootropic drugs on the spontaneous exploratory activity in a labyrinth in mice]

We have studied the effects of nicotine (0.125, 0.25, and 0.5 mg/kg) and mecamylamine (0.5, 1.5, and 3 mg/kg) in comparison to reference cognition-enhancing drugs piracetam (100 and 300 mg/kg) and meclofenoxate (20, 50, and 100 mg/kg) administered to male C57BL mice intraperitoneally 30 min prior to behavioral test. The behavioral drug effect was evaluated as influencing the activity in visiting arms of a closed plus-maze. Piracetam (300 mg/kg) and meclofenoxate (100 mg/kg) improved the exploratory activity. Mecamylamine (0.5 mg/kg) also improved the exploratory activity, while nicotine (0.5 mg/kg) deteriorated it.

[Effects of piracetam and meclofenoxate on the brain NMDA and nicotinic receptors in mice with different exploratory efficacy in the cross maze test]

A population of outbred mice of the ICR strain was divided into two subpopulations according to their high (EH mice) or low (EL mice) exploratory efficacy in the closed cross maze test. In addition, the EH and EL mice differed in the number of binding sites of (i) [G-3H]-MK-801 with NMDA receptors from hippocampus and (ii) [G-3H]-nicotine with nicotine cholinoreceptors (nACh) from neocortex. A subchronic administration of the cognition enhancer piracetam (200 mg/kg, once per day for 5 days) increased by 70% the number of binding sites of NMDA receptors in the EL mice. At the same time, this treatment decreased the density of neocortical nACh receptors in both EL and EH mice (by 55% and 40%, respectively). A subchronic administration of the cognition enhancer and anti-oxidant meclofenoxate (100 mg/kg, once per day for 5 days) also decreased the density of neocortical nACh receptors in both EL and EH mice (by 48% and 20%, respectively). However, meclofenoxate also increased by 41% the number of binding sites of NMDA receptors in the EH mice.

Further evidence of centrophenoxine mediated protection in aluminium exposed rats by biochemical and light microscopy analysis

The environmental agent aluminium has been intensively investigated in the initiation and progression of various neurological disorders and the role of oxidative stress in these disorders is a widely discussed phenomenon. In this light, the present study is focused on the role of aluminium in mediating oxidative stress, which may help in better understanding its role in neuronal degeneration. Further, we have exploited a known anti-aging drug centrophenoxine to explore its potential in the conditions of metal induced oxidative damage. Aluminium was administered orally at a dose level of 100 mg/kg b.wt./day for a period of 6 weeks followed by a post treatment of centrophenoxine at a dose level of 100 mg/kg b.wt./day for another 6 weeks. Following aluminium exposure, a significant increase in lipid peroxidation levels (estimated by MDA) were observed which was accompanied by a decrease in reduced glutathione content in both cerebrum and cerebellum of rat brain. Post treatment of centrophenoxine significantly reduced the lipid peroxidation levels and also increased the reduced glutathione content in both the regions. Histologically observed marked deteriorations in the organization of various cellular layers in both cerebrum and cerebellum were observed after aluminium administration. Centrophenoxine treated animals showed an appreciable improvement in the histoarchitecture of the cellular layers. Our results indicate that centrophenoxine has an antioxidant potential and should be examined further in aluminium toxic conditions.

Evidence for centrophenoxine as a protective drug in aluminium induced behavioral and biochemical alteration in rat brain

Potential use of various nootropic drugs have been a burning area of research on account of various physical and chemical insult in brain under different toxicological conditions. One of the nootropic drug centrophenoxine, also known as an anti-aging drug has been exploited in the present experiment under aluminium toxic conditions. Aluminium was administered by oral gavage at a dose level of 100 mg/Kg x b x wt/day for a period of six weeks. To elucidate the region specific response, study was carried out in two different regions of brain namely cerebrum and cerebellum. Following aluminium exposure, a significant decrease in the activities of enzymes namely Hexokinase, Lactate dehydrogenase, Succinate dehydrogenase, Mg(2+) dependent ATPase was observed in both the regions. Moreover, the activity of acetylcholinesterase was also reported to be significantly decreased. Post-treatment with centrophenoxine was able to restore the altered enzyme activities and the effect was observed in both the regions of brain although the activity of lactate dehydrogenase and acetylcholinesterase did not register significant increase in the cerebellum region. Further, centrophenoxine was able to improve the altered short-term memory and cognitive performance resulted from aluminium exposure. From the present study, it can be concluded that centrophenoxine has a potential and can be exploited in other toxicological conditions also.

Modulatory effects of centrophenoxine on different regions of ageing rat brain

The debilitating consequences of age-related brain deterioration are widespread and extremely costly in terms of quality of life and longevity. Free radical induced damage is thought to be responsible, at least in part, for the degenerative effects of aging. This may be largely due to high-energy requirements, high oxygen consumption, high tissue concentration of iron and low of antioxidant enzymes in brain. Therefore, supplementing an external source of free radical scavenger would greatly benefit in ameliorating the free radical damage which may thus be beneficial in aging. In the present study, an important nootropic agent Centrophenoxine, which has an easy access to brain, has been administered to aged animals (16 months old). Rats aged 6 months (young group) and 16 months old (old group) were chosen for the study. Both groups were administered Centrophenoxine (dissolved in physiological saline) intraperitoneally once a day for 6 weeks. Our study indicates an increased activity of Catalase, Superoxide Dismutase, Glutathione reductase, as well as an increase in the reduced, oxidized, and total glutathione content thus resulting in an altered redox state. A substantial increase in the malondialdehyde content was also reported as a result of aging. Whereas, following Centrophenoxine administration (100 mg/kg body weight/day, injected i.p) alterations in the activities of Superoxide dismutase, Glutathione reductase as well as in the reduced and oxidized glutathione content was reported in aged rat brain. Lipid peroxidation was also reported to be significantly decreased in aged animals after Centrophenoxine supplementation for 6 weeks. The use of an extraneous antioxidant substance may prove beneficial in combating the conditions of oxidative stress in ageing brain.

Centrophenoxine improves chronic cerebral ischemia induced cognitive deficit and neuronal degeneration in rats

AIM

To study the effects of centrophenoxine (CPH, meclofenoxate) on chronic cerebral hypoperfusion induced deficits in rats.

METHODS

Chronic hypoperfusion in rats was performed by permanent bilateral ligation of the common carotid arteries. Morris water maze was used to measure spatial memory performance. Spectrophotometrical techniques were used to assay SOD, GPx activities, MDA content, TXB2, and 6-keto-PGF1alpha levels. Morphological change was examined by HE staining. The expression of Bax and p53 protein were assayed by immunohistochemistry analysis.

RESULTS

Chronic hypoperfusion in rats resulted in spatial memory impairments shown by longer escape latency and shorter time spent in the target quadrant. These behavioral dysfunction were accompanied by increase in SOD and GPx activities, the content of MDA, the levels of pro-inflammatory mediators (TXB2, 6-keto-PGF1alpha), overexpression of Bax and P53 protein, and delayed degeneration of neurons in cortex and hippocampus. Oral administration of CPH (100 mg/kg, once per day for 37 d) markedly improved the memory impairment, reduced the increase in antioxidant enzyme activities, MDA content and the levels of pro-inflammatory mediators to their normal levels, and attenuated neuronal damage.

CONCLUSION

The abilities of CPH to attenuate memory deficits and neuronal damage after ischemia may be beneficial in cerebrovascular type dementia.

Pharmacological interventions against aging through the cell plasma membrane: a review of the experimental results obtained in animals and humans

As was shown in a recent review by this author (Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 928: 187-199, 2001), oxyradicals cannot be considered only as harmful by-products of the oxidative metabolism, but living cells and organisms implicitly require their production. This idea is supported by numerous facts and arguments, the most important of which is that the complete inhibition of the oxyradical production by KCN (or by any block of respiration) kills the living organisms long before the energy reserves would be exhausted. This new theoretical approach not only helps our understanding of the normal functions of the living organisms, such as the basic memory mechanisms in the brain cells, but also helps in identifying the site-specific, radical-induced damaging mechanisms that represent the undesirable side effects of oxygen free radicals. First of all, these effects make the cell plasma membrane vulnerable and cause a series of intracellular functional disorders, as described by the membrane hypothesis of aging (MHA). The logical way for any antiaging intervention therefore should be to increase the available number of loosely bound electrons inside the plasma membrane that are easily accessible for OH(*) free radical scavenging. The present review summarizes the available knowledge regarding the theory of the use of membrane-related antiaging pharmaca, like centrophenoxine (CPH), tested in both animal experiments and human clinical trials. A modified, developed version of CPH coded as BCE-001 is also reported.

The effect of meclofenoxate with ginkgo biloba extract or zinc on lipid peroxide, some free radical scavengers and the cardiovascular system of aged rats

Aged rats are highly prone to many physiological changes such as blood pressure and heart rate. These changes could be due to modification in membrane phospholipid composition of their blood vessels. Lipid peroxide in vivo has been identified as a basic deteriorative reaction in cellular mechanisms of aging in human. The effect of a nootropic drug, meclofenoxate (MF) or its combination with extract of ginkgo biloba (EGb-761) or zinc (Zn) on malondialdehyde (MDA) product as an index of endogenous lipid peroxidation; phospholipid; glutathione (GSH) and protein thiols (PrSHs) contents as well as superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in blood, brain, heart and liver of 24-month-old male rats was investigated. Aged rats were treated with MF once daily at oral doses of 100 mg kg-1 body wt. alone or with either EGb at a dose of 150 mg kg-1 body wt. or Zn at 10.5 mg kg-1 body wt. for 4 weeks. This study showed that aging caused a higher increment in MDA level of brain and heart than liver and plasma accompanied with reduction in brain and heart phospholipid contents as well as alteration of the antioxidant systems as compared to 4-month-old rats. Treatment of aged rats with MF alone or combined with either EGb or Zn caused improvement in the measured free radical scavengers especially in brain and heart tissues. Our results also showed that both EGb and Zn induced a significant potential effect of MF action on blood pressure and heart rate. The results were explained in the light of the antioxidant properties of EGb and Zn. Thus it is concluded that EGb and Zn have a beneficial role with MF in diminishing cumulative oxidative changes in aging.

[Biomedical aspects of health preservation strategy: role of catecholaminergic neuronal populations]

Lifestyle, environmental factors, genetics, and medical care are the main factors that determine the health status of man. Of particular attention are biological mechanisms ensuring the body's adaptation to constantly changing environmental conditions. The noradrenergic neuronal populations, the sympathetic nervous system in particular, modulate metabolic processes and supports a variety of activities, making them relevant to changing living conditions. There is a clear correlation between the life span and the number of sympathetic nerve cells functioning during postnatal ontogenesis. The exposures that reduce the activity of peripheral and central noradrenergic neurons and slow down aging processes in them loosen the relationships between the inner and outer world to prevent hyperactivity and to prolong life.

Centrophenoxine activates acetylcholinesterase activity in hippocampus of aged rats

Age-related changes in the acetylcholinesterase activity were measured in the hippocampus, brain stem and cerebellum of rats (aged 4, 8, 16 and 24 months). The age-dependent decrease in the enzyme activity first appeared in the hippocampus; the brain stem was affected later while the cerebellum remained unaffected. Centrophenoxine, usually considered as an ageing reversal drug and also regarded as a neuroenergeticum in human therapy, increased the acetylcholinesterase activity in the hippocampus of aged rats, the activity was also elevated in the brain stem but no in the cerebellum. The acetylcholinesterase-stimulating influence of the drug is likely to be implicated in the pharmacological reversal of the age related decline of the cholinergic system. This effect of the drug may also mediate its effects on cognitive and neuronal synaptic functions.

[Comparative quantitative pharmacological-EEG analysis of the effects of psychostimulants]

Amphetamine, caffeine, sydnocarb, meclofenoxate, adapromine, midantan, and nomifensine were studied for their effects on bioelectrical activity and Fourier EEG power spectra of the sensomotor cortex, dorsal hippocamp and lateral hypothalamus of freely behaving awake rats. The drop in the absolute power of all frequency ranges with the enhanced power of fast beta 1,2-ranges was common to the action of psychostimulants. In addition to the common properties, specific features of their action were revealed. Amphetamine, meclofenoxate, and nomifensine were found to increase the amplitude of the dominant peak in the theta-range and amphetamine shifts the frequency of the dominant peak to the region of faster ranges. The agents-induced electrophysiological changes correspond to the varying degrees of activation of the central nervous system, causing the optimization of behavioral functions, abolition of fatigue and drowsiness and enhancing physical and mental working capacity.

Biogenic monoamine uptake by rat brain synaptosomes during aging. Effects of nootropic drugs

1. In experiments on young (3-5-month-old), adult (10-11-month-old) and old (21-22-month-old) rats, it was found that significant age-related changes occurred in the high-affinity uptake of dopamine (DA), noradrenaline (NA) and serotonin (5-HT) by cortical and striatal synaptosomes. 2. Changes in DA, NA and 5-HT uptake during aging are suggested to be neurochemical correlates of cognition and memory deficits that develops in senescence. 3. The in vitro effects of the nootropic drugs piracetam, aniracetam, meclofenoxate and adafenoxate on the DA, NA and 5-HT uptake by cortical and striatal synaptosomes from young rats were studied. Administered in increasing concentrations (1 x 10(-4) to 5 x 10(-3) M) these drugs inhibited monoamine uptake. 4. Adafenoxate proved to be a more potent monoamine uptake inhibitor than the other three drugs; it inhibited the uptake in the frontal cortex and striatum without selectivity for either monoaminergic system. It is suggested that adafenoxate affects cognition through the involvement of central neurotransmission and particularly through the inhibition of monoamine uptake systems.

In vitro and in vivo effect of the nootropic agent adafenoxate on the 5-HT1 sites in different rat brain structures

1. The effect of the nootropic agent adafenoxate (a structural analogue of meclofenoxate) on the binding parameters of 5-HT1 receptors in vitro and in vivo in rat cerebral cortex, striatum, hippocampus and hypothalamus was studied. 2. The chronic (100 mg/kg per os for 7 days) adafenoxate treatment produced a significant (24.6%) decrease in the density of 5-HT1 sites in the hippocampus. 3. In vitro adafenoxate inhibited specific [3H]5-HT binding with equal potency in all the regions studied with IC50s in the microM range. 4. It is suggested that the decrease in the density of the 5-HT1 sites in rat hippocampus might contribute to the nootropic action of adafenoxate.

Antagonic-stress. A new treatment in gerontopsychiatry and for a healthy productive life

A complex antiaging formula--Antagonic-Stress--was investigated vs. placebo (PL), meclofenoxate (MF)--neurometabolic nootropic and vs. nicergoline (NE)--cerebral vasodilator by comparative multiple trials (double-blind, randomized, and parallel) in gerontopsychiatry (DSM-III-R, 1987 and ICD-10, 1992 criteria). AS vs. PL studies in organic mental disorders--amnestic, depressive, anxiety, associated with axis III physical disorders or conditions, and in multiinfarct dementia were followed by AS vs. MF or NE investigations in senile dementia of Alzheimer's type. A total of 343 old people, distributed in 4 PL groups, 1 MF group, 1 NE group, and 5 AS groups were studied. Multiple investigations, before and after three-month treatments were made: psychometric evaluation by Sandoz Clinical Assessment-Geriatric, Self-Assessment Scale-Geriatric and their 5 subscales; psychopathological rating by Hamilton Depression and Anxiety Scales; as well as psychometric testing by digit symbol of WAIS, Wechsler Memory Scale and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Except PL, prolonged and large dose treatments with these cerebral activators (MF, NE and especially AS) reduced the psychogeriatric-psychopathological scores and the deterioration index, and improved cognitive performance. The therapeutical effectiveness of AS multiple formula in gerontopsychiatry and its superiority vs. monotherapy (MF or NE) are discussed in connection with its complex neurometabolic and synergetic composition, multiple antioxidative combinations, free radical scavengers, lipofuscinolytic agents, the antiischemic action of antioxidants, multivitamin and multimineral supplementation, and with the better efficacy of multitherapy vs. monotherapy in geriatrics.

Age-related decline in multiple unit action potentials of CA3 region of rat hippocampus: correlation with lipid peroxidation and lipofuscin concentration and the effect of centrophenoxine

Changes in lipid peroxidation, lipofuscin concentration, and multiple unit activity (MUA recorded in conscious animals) in the CA3 region were studied in the hippocampus of male Wistar rats aged 4, 8, 16, and 24 months. The lipid peroxidation and lipofuscin concentration were increased with age. The MUA, however, declined with age. Correlational analyses were performed for the four age groups to determine the relationship between the age-associated decline in MUA with the age-related alterations in lipid peroxidation and lipofuscin concentrations. The age-related increase in lipid peroxidation correlated positively with the age-associated increase in lipofuscin concentration. The age-related increases in lipid peroxidation and lipofuscin concentration correlated negatively with the changes in MUA. Since lipid peroxidation may affect neuronal electrophysiology, our data suggested that age-related increase in lipid peroxidation may contribute to an age-associated decline in neuronal electrical activity. Centrophenoxine effects were studied on the three above-mentioned age-associated changes in the hippocampus. The drug had no effect on all three parameters in 4- and 8-month-old rats. In 16- and 24-month-old rats, however, the drug significantly increased the MUA but concomitantly decreased lipofuscin concentration and lipid peroxidation. Correlational analyses of the data on MUA, lipid peroxidation and lipofuscin concentration from the centrophenoxine-treated animals showed that the drug-induced diminution in both lipofuscin and lipid peroxidation was significantly correlated with the drug-induced increase in MUA. The differential effect of the drug in younger (4-8 months) and older (16-24 months) animals indicated that the stimulation of MUA was clearly associated with concomitant decrease in lipid peroxidation and lipofuscin concentration.

Adafenoxate abolishes the amnesia induced by neonatal 6-hydroxydopamine treatment in rats

The effect of neonatal 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) treatment on learning and memory and on the levels of biogenic monoamines in some brain structures, as well as the influence of the nootropic drug adafenoxate on 6-OHDA effect was studied in shuttle box and step down trained rats. In mature rats injected with 6-OHDA postnatal, learning and retention were impaired and the noradrenaline (NA) level in the frontal cortex and hippocampus was decreased. Adafenoxate abolished the amnestic effect of 6-OHDA and restored the NA level to normal in the above-mentioned brain structures. This finding suggests the important role of the noradrenergic neurotransmitter system in 6-OHDA-induced amnesia and the favorable effect of adafenoxate on learning and memory impaired by 6-OHDA.

[The effect of preparations with nootropic action when used long-term on the brain bioelectrical activity in rats]

The impact of prolonged injection of piracetam (2 months), meclophenoxate (5 months), and mexidole (5 months) on the bioelectrical activity of the sensomotor cortex and dorsal hippocamp was studied in rats who behaved freely. The injects increased and stabilized the predominant peak of EEC spectra power by the Fourier method. Discontinuation (24 hours) of piracetam failed to impair EEG spectra and bioelectrical activity. Increasing the basic effects of nootropic drugs given chronically versus acutely suggests that chronic injection enhanced their action. The drugs under study elevated the level of wakefulness and excitability of the animals, which is likely to underlie the neurophysiological mechanisms responsible for behaviour optimization under the influence of these agents.

Effect of CDP-choline on learning and memory processes in rodents

The effects of cytidine (5') diphosphocholine (CDP-choline) on learning and memory were studied using conditioned reflex methods for passive avoidance and active avoidance with punishment reinforcement (step-through, step-down, shuttle box and maze), for active avoidance with alimentary reinforcement (staircase maze), and the Morris water maze. The majority of experiments involved comparative studies of the nootropic drugs meclofenoxate and/or piracetam. CDP-choline was administered orally, in some of the experiments also intraperitoneally, at doses of 10-500 mg/kg body weight once or twice daily for 5 or 7 days. In separate cases only single doses were administered. Trainings started one hour after the last dose of the drugs. Retention tests were given 3 h, 24 h, 7 days or 10 days after training. The results obtained with the different methods document CDP-choline's ability to improve learning and memory in rats and mice. No essential differences in the effects of CDP-choline were established upon oral and intraperitoneal administration of the drug. The learning- and memory-facilitating effects of CDP-choline were similar to those of meclofenoxate and piracetam. The results of the present study permit us to define CDP-choline as a substance capable of improving cognitive levels.

Lipofuscin accumulation in ageing myocardium & its removal by meclophenoxate

A study was undertaken on the age-associated histochemical changes in the ventricular myocardium and the influence of meclophenoxate hydrochloride (MPH) on the age pigment lipofuscin. Sixty Wistar albino rats in three age-groups (3, 15 and 30 months old) were treated with meclophenoxate hydrochloride (100 mg/kg body wt/day, ip) for a period of 2-8 wk. Five animals each from the three age-groups served as controls. Various histochemical and micromorphometric studies were carried out on the myocardial tissue. A linear increase in the myocardial volume occupied by the pigment was observed with advancing age. As a result of meclophenoxate treatment, a gradual decrease in the myocardial volume occupied by the pigment was noted. After 4-6 wk treatment, the pigment bodies were found lodged into the capillary endothelium and the lumen, facilitating the removal of the pigment via blood stream. Histochemical and micromorphometric analyses of ventricular myocardium of albino rats have shown thus that deposition of the age-pigment, lipofuscin, can be accepted as an index of cellular ageing.

'Dark' cell formation under protein malnutrition: process of conversion and concept of 'semi-dark' type Purkinje cells

This paper deals with some deleterious effects of protein malnourishment in rat cerebellum. Severe protein deprivation enhanced the formation of 'dark' cells in white rats. It is postulated that abnormal changes in the neuronal contents induced by nutritional stress play a vital role in the formation of the 'dark' cells through an intermediary stage, 'semi-dark' cells. Centrophenoxine a lipofuscinolytic agent, however, seems to interfere with the process of formation of 'dark' cells and/or helps reconversion of the 'dark' cells into the normal or 'light' type Purkinje cells.

[Detection of nootropic activity indicated by acute inhibition of orientation reaction]

Exploratory locomotor activity was studied in the experiments on adult male mice. It was shown that routine nootropic drugs as well as newly synthesized nootropic compounds were able to facilitate the development of inhibition during one registration session. Inhibition may be used for revealing only selective nootropic drugs devoid of sedative and stimulating effects.

Age-related changes of cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase activity in rat brain regions and a new phosphodiesterase inhibitor--nootropic agent adafenoxate

1. The low- and high-KM cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase (cAMP PDE) activity in cerebral cortex, striatum, hypothalamus and hippocampus of young (4-5-month-old) and aged (22-month-old) rats has been studied. 2. A significant rise in the high-KM cAMP PDE activity in the cerebral cortex, hypothalamus and hippocampus in aged rats has been found. 3. The activity of the low-KM cAMP PDE does not change during senescence in all the brain structures studied. 4. In a series of increased concentrations (from 5 x 10(-4) to 1 x 10(-5) M) adafenoxate inhibits low- and high-KM cAMP PDE in most of the brain structures studied in both age groups. 5. The present results provide evidence for realization of the CNS effects of adafenoxate through inhibition of cAMP PDE activity and regulation of the intracellular level of cAMP.

Changes in murine tissue concentrations of dolichol and dolichol derivatives associated with age

The concentrations of the three major cellular forms of dolichol (free, esterified and phosphorylated) were determined in murine liver, kidney and heart. The tissue levels of these forms of dolichol were studied in detail as a function of age. Changes in the activities of dolichyl phosphate phosphatase and dolichol kinase were also determined. In liver, the concentration of unesterified dolichol, fatty acyl dolichol and dolichyl phosphate increased markedly over a period of 6 to 25 months (four-fold, 5.5-fold and nine-fold, respectively). In kidney only, free dolichol and phosphorylated dolichol increased (approximately four-fold in each case). However, this tissue consistently showed the highest concentrations of all forms of dolichol as compared to liver and heart. In heart, both free and esterified dolichol concentrations increased (approximately 3.25-fold in each case); dolichyl phosphate levels were not determined in this tissue. In all tissues studied, the activity of the dolichyl phosphate phosphatase enzyme was considerably higher than that of the dolichol kinase enzyme. In liver, there was no evidence to suggest that either enzyme was critical in determining the relative concentrations of dolichol and dolichyl phosphate. Evidence for such a role for the kinase in the kidney was stronger. Treatment of aging mice with meclofenoxate, a drug that is reported to cause dissolution of lipofuscin, failed to prevent accumulation of dolichol and dolichyl phosphate with age. These observations suggest that not all accumulated dolichol is associated with lipofuscin. Meclofenoxate treatment had no consistent effect on the activities of the enzymes studied.

[Microspectrofluorometric analysis of the effect of centrophenoxine on lipofuscin granules of hybridoma (Retrovirus-transformed) cells]

The increase of the own luminescence lipofuscin granules (LG) in the course of single and repeated ultraviolet (UV) excitations (365 nm) in hybridoma (retrovirus transformed) cells cultured with or without 5 x 10(-4) M centrophenoxine (CP) was studied by microspectrofluorometric method. It was shown that CP influences only the rate of photochemical changes of chromophores in LG. Kinetic patterns of the own luminescence intensity of LG at the wavelength of 540 nm during excitation by UV permit one to suggest the occurrence of the cyclic chromophore changes.

Effect of the combination of the benzodiazepine tranquilizer medazepam and the nootropic agent meclofenoxate on the activity of rat brain muscarinic receptors

1. The effect of 7-day treatment with the benzodiazepine tranquilizer medazepam (5 mg/kg), the nootropic agent meclofenoxate (100 mg/kg) and their combination in the same doses on the binding activity of muscarinic receptors in four rat brain structures (cerebral cortex, striatum, hippocampus and hypothalamus) were studied using the antagonist [3H]-1-quinuclidinyl benzylate [( 3H]-QNB) as radio-ligand. 2. Medazepam treatment caused significant decrease of muscarinic receptor binding affinity (Kd) and of the receptor binding capacity (Bmax) in the brain structures studied. The number of muscarinic binding sites was unsignificantly decreased only in the hippocampus. 3. Meclofenoxate treatment caused an increase of muscarinic receptor affinity and a decrease of the binding capacity in the cerebral cortex and hypothalamus and an increase of the binding affinity in the striatum and hippocampus. 4. The combination of medazepam and meclofenoxate caused no significant changes of both muscarinic receptor characteristics in the hippocampus and of the receptor affinity in the striatum and hypothalamus in comparison with control rats. The Bmax values were decreased in the cerebral cortex, striatum and hypothalamus when compared with control animals. The differences observed were slighter than those determined after the comparison of medazepam treated rats with control rats. 5. The results obtained afford an opportunity to suggest that the nootropic agent meclofenoxate acts to moderate the effect of the benzodiazepine tranquilizer medazepam on the activity of rat brain muscarinic receptors.

Changes in brain biogenic monoamines induced by the nootropic drugs adafenoxate and meclofenoxate and by citicholine (experiments on rats)

1. The effects of Adafenoxate (Adf), meclofenoxate (Mf) and citicholine (CCh) administered at a daily dose of 100 mg/kg for 7 days on the levels of noradrenaline (NA), dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT) in the frontal cerebral cortex, striatum, hippocampus and hypothalamus of rats were studied. 2. Adafenoxate increased the NA level in the striatum and decreased it in the hypothalamus; it increased the DA level in the cerebral cortex and hypothalamus and decreased it in the striatum; it increased the 5-HT level in the cerebral cortex and decreased it in the hippocampus. 3. Meclofenoxate decreased the NA level in the cerebral cortex and hypothalamus; it increased the DA level in the hippocampus and hypothalamus and the 5-HT level in the cerebral cortex, striatum, hippocampus and hypothalamus. 4. Citicholine increased the NA level in the cerebral cortex and hypothalamus; it increased the DA level in the striatum and the 5-HT level in the cerebral cortex, striatum and hippocampus. 5. An attempt is made to explain some similarities and differences in the behavioral effects of the drugs tested (and those observed in other studies) by the changes they induce in brain biogenic monoamines.

On the role of intracellular physicochemistry in quantitative gene expression during aging and the effect of centrophenoxine. A review

The turnover of proteins in biological systems is due mostly to an ever-occurring damaging (cross-linking) effect of the OH. free radicals. The replacement of the damaged proteins requires a continuous gene expression. A key issue of experimental gerontology is why the gene expression maintains the fidelity but loses the speed during aging. The membrane hypothesis of aging (MHA) proposes a cellular mechanism based on the fact that the more compact cellular structures (e.g., membranes) are damaged faster than the more diluted ones (e.g., cytosol). In addition, the cell membrane is exposed also to the residual heat-induced damage deriving from a frequent discharge of its electric polarity. Therefore, one can assume that even an extremely small incompleteness of the replacement of the damaged membrane components per turnover cycle may result in an error accumulation, which may be responsible first for the inhibition of growth, then for aging of cells. In agreement with this hypothesis, neurons display a life-long, gradual loss of the passive potassium permeability of the cell membrane, resulting in a continuous dehydration of the intracellular mass, i.e., an increase of physical density. Theory and experimental models show that this latter process causes a slowing down of all enzyme functions including those realizing the gene expression and the elimination of the damaged components. Increase of the dry mass content of cells and tissues is an obligatory process for maturation; however, later on it leads to aging. The known nootropic effects of centrophenoxine (CPH) can be interpreted on the basis of the OH. radical scavenger properties of dimethylaminoethanol (DMAE) which is incorporated in the neuronal membranes of the brain in form of phosphatidyl-DMAE. The protective effects of CPH (and of similar, newly synthesized other drugs) on the membrane components can slow down the age-dependent deteriorations of the intracellular physicochemistry, in agreement with the predictions of the MHA.

Memory effects of the new derivative of the p-chlorophenoxyacetic acid adafenoxate compared to the effects of some cognition-enhancing drugs in rats

In experiments on male rats the effects of adafenoxate (Adf), meclofenoxate (Mf), piracetam (Pc) and citicholine (CCh) on learning and memory were studied using the maze active avoidance method with punishment reinforcement. The drugs tested were administered twice daily for seven days at doses of 10 and 50 mg/kg body weight for Adf, Mf and CCh and only at a dose of 50 mg/kg body weight for Pc. The effects of these drugs on scopolamine-treated and scopolamine-untreated rats were also studied using the step-through method. Retention tests were given 24 h and 7 days after the end of the training session in the punishment-reinforcement active avoidance and 3 and 24 h after training in the passive avoidance situation. With the maze method statistically significant results about the favourable effects of the four drugs were obtained by most of the indices for learning and memory. However, the effects of the drugs tested were differently pronounced depending on the dose utilized. With the step-through method all four drugs prevented the scopolamine-induced amnesia. Comparing the present results with other data previously obtained about the effects of the drugs tested and of other nootropic drugs on brain biogenic monoamines, it is suggested that induced changes in biogenic monoamines are responsible for the similarities and the differences in the effects of nootropic drugs on learning and memory.

Effects of centrophenoxine on cholinephosphotransferase activity in maternal and fetal guinea pig lung

Cholinephosphotransferase activities of guinea pig lung mitochondria and microsomes are inhibited by centrophenoxine and one of its metabolites, p-chlorophenoxyacetate. 2-Dimethylaminoethanol, the second metabolite of centrophenoxine, has no inhibitory effect on the enzyme activity. The inhibition of enzyme activity by centrophenoxine is noncompetitive. Intravenous injection of centrophenoxine and p-chlorophenoxyacetate to pregnant animals causes inhibition of cholinephosphotransferase activity in adult lung but not in fetal lung. However, direct administration of centrophenoxine to the fetus after laparotomy causes inhibition of both subcellular enzyme activity in fetal lung. It is suggested that the drug injected to the pregnant animals does not reach the fetal lung or is metabolized. Furthermore, while centrophenoxine injection does not change the total phosphatidylcholine content of adult lung, the acyl group composition of phosphatidylcholine was modulated.

[Ultrastructural analysis of the action of centrophenoxine on retrovirus-transformed cells]

The ultrastructure of hybridoma cells cultured with 5.10(-4) centrophenoxine (CP) has been studied. It is shown that CP effects hybridomas and prevents retrovirus exocytosis. The effect of CP on Ca-calmodulin system associated with cytoskeleton is suggested.

Influence of nootropic drugs on the memory-impairing effect of clonidine in albino rats

The effects of four nootropic drugs (piracetam, aniracetam, meclofenoxate and fipexide) on cognitive functions impaired by the antihypertensive drug clonidine were investigated in albino rats. The changes in learning and memory were studied by two-way active avoidance with punishment reinforcement (shuttle box). Clonidine injected intraperitoneally at a dose of 0.1 mg/kg immediately after a one-day shuttle box training significantly impaired retention. A 5-day treatment before the training session with piracetam 600 mg/kg, aniracetam 50 mg/kg, meclofenoxate 100 mg/kg and fipexide 10 mg/kg completely abolished the memory-impairing effect of clonidine. The role of the NAergic neurotransmitter system in the clonidine-induced disturbances of cognition, as well as in the protective effects of nootropic drugs, was discussed.

Effect of centrophenoxine and BCE-001 treatment on lateral diffusion of proteins in the hepatocyte plasma membrane as revealed by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching in rat liver smears

The average lateral diffusion coefficient of proteins (D) in the cell membrane of hepatocytes has been measured in liver smears by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), based on the so-called peroxide-induced autofluorescence (PIAF) deriving from the oxidation of riboflavin bound to membrane proteins. It has been previously shown that D displays a significant negative linear age correlation. The in vivo effects of two drugs were tested on this parameter. Young (2.7 months) and old (24-26 months) male rats received centrophenoxine (CPH) or a new drug (BCE-001) by either intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection or per os through a gastric tube for 26 to 42 days. D was measured on a double-blind basis in the hepatocyte plasma membrane of treated and control groups. The CPH and BCE-001 treatments did not affect the value of D in the young rats. However, the latter drug increased their growth rate. An increase of D in old animals was induced by treatment with either drug. When the drug effects in old rats were compared, BCE-001 proved to be more efficient than CPH, and at the same time was able to significantly retard the age-dependent loss of body weight characteristic of these animals at the age of approximately 2 years. Our results are in good accord with the predictions of the membrane hypothesis of aging as regards the role of properly placed OH. free radical scavengers in the improvement of membrane and overall cell function.

Effect of adafenoxate on different rat brain structures monoamine oxidase activity in vitro

1. The effect of the nootropic drug adafenoxate on monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity in rat brain cortex, striatum, hypothalamus and hippocampus has been studied using the following substrates: tyramine (total MAO), serotonin (MAO A) and beta-phenylethylamine (MAO B). 2. In a series of increased concentrations (from 5 x 10(-4) up to 1 x 10(-5) M) adafenoxate inhibits total MAO, MAO A and MAO B in the brain structures studied. 3. The adafenoxate IC50 values obtained illustrate its inhibitory properties and its lack of selectivity toward MAO in the brain structures isolated. 4. The results of our research prove the participation of MAO in the mechanisms through which adafenoxate affects the brain monoaminergic systems and realises its central effects.

Acute effects of centrophenoxine short term administration on counting behavior in rats

This experiment assessed the effects of Centrophenoxine on counting behavior in rats. Intraperitoneal Centrophenoxine injections were given to rats before training on a 20-fixed-consecutive-number schedule of reinforcement. The primary measure was the number of consecutive lever presses. After Centrophenoxine injections, the number of consecutive lever presses was lower relative to baseline measures. The measures of variability indicated that although the consecutive number of responses was lower this could not be accounted for in terms of run length variability. The behavioral pattern produced by the injections was discussed in terms of possible shortterm physiological effects that affect performance.

[The significance of the antihypoxic properties of etimizol in its nootropic action]

The antihypoxic effects of etimizol and other nootropics are analysed on various experimental models of hypoxia and during bicycle ergometric exercise in healthy volunteers. Etimizol was shown to relieve amnesia effectively in the origin of which there is the hypoxic component (hypobaric hypoxia, actinomycin D, mechanical injury of the brain). The advantage of etimizol as compared to other nootropics with similar action (meclofenoxate, piracetam) is its high effectiveness at a single administration.

[Characteristics of the action of psychostimulants on learning and memory in rats]

The effects of intraperitoneal injections of psychostimulant drugs: centrophenoxine (50 mg/kg) and peptide analog of tuftsin TP-1 (300 micrograms/kg) on the processes of elaboration and retention of conditioned reflex have been experimentally studied. The animals were trained with food reward in 30 trials per day. Psychostimulant drugs or saline were injected after the 10th trial. The elaboration of conditioned reflex was continued 30 min later. The retention was tested 24 h, 7 and 30 days later. It was established that both drugs induce an increase in memory traces stability during 30 days. These findings provide direct evidence that psychostimulant drugs, centrophenoxine and peptide substance TP-1, when injected during consolidation phase can enhance memory storage processes.

[Effect of centrophenoxine, piracetam and aniracetam on the monoamine oxidase activity in different brain structures of rats]

In vitro studies of effects of some nootropic drugs (centrophenoxine, piracetam and aniracetam) on monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity in the rat striatum and hypothalamus, using tyramine, serotonin and beta-phenylethylamine as substrates, were carried out. At all concentrations used (5.10(-5)-1.10(-3) M) centrophenoxine inhibited total MAO, MAO A and MAO B in both brain structures. Piracetam activated striatal and hypothalamic total MAO, hypothalamic MAO A and MAO B but exerted a pronounced inhibitory effect on MAO A and MAO B activity in the striatum. Aniracetam inhibited total MAO and MAO A in both brain structures but activated striatal and hypothalamic MAO B. The different effects of centrophenoxine, piracetam and aniracetam on MAO activity in the brain structures support the view for the independent mode of action of nootropic drugs in spite of their similar molecular and metabolic activity.

[Indices of sympathetic neurocyte transcription and the survival indices of fractionally and partially chemically sympathectomized rats against a background of atsefen use]

Transcription in sympathetic neurocytes of ageing (22 months) normally developing rats, partially sympathectomized by guanethidine, was studied with autoradiography. Beginning with the age of 12 months some experimental animals were given daily dose of 1 mg/ml of geroprotector, atsefen (centrophenoxine), in water solution. The time-course of death rate in animals aged 12-30 months was studied as well. A positive dose-dependent relationship between some ageing symptoms of sympathetic neurocytes of sympathectomized animals and their maximum life span was shown. Geroprotector atsefen were found to inhibit some ageing processes in sympathetic nerve cells, their maximum life span increasing simultaneously.

Age-related change in the multiple unit activity of the rat brain parietal cortex and the effect of centrophenoxine

In this study, spontaneous multiple unit activity (MUA, action potentials derived simultaneously from a number of neurons in a given brain region) was recorded through electrodes chronically implanted in the parietal cerebral cortex of the rats of 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, and 26 months of age (cross-sectional study). Electrophysiological recordings were obtained from unrestrained conscious rats using standard techniques. The results indicated that multiple unit activity was decreased with aging (senescence). Maximum firing rate (MUA counts) was found at the age of 3 months. At 6 months of age, the MUA was decreased by about 30%, while during 6 to 12 months of age the activity seemed to remain unchanged. At 26 months of age the firing rate was, however, further decreased (about 40%). Centrophenoxine administration led to an increase in MUA in the rats of 12 and 26 months of age. The results, thus, further showed that centrophenoxine, a nootropic drug known for its antiaging effects in experimental animals as well as in humans, also manifested beneficial effects electrophysiologically. The data presented in this work are new and significant, since although age effects on gross electrophysiological signals (EEG, evoked potentials, etc.) are known, the aging changes in cellular level electrophysiological signals (action potentials) have not been generally studied particularly in conscious animals.

[Comparative neurophysiological study of the nootropic drugs piracetam and centrophenoxine]

Effects of nootropic drugs on transcallosal evoked potential (TEP) and EEG spectra of the animal brain cortex and hippocamp were studied. It was found that piracetam and centrophenoxine exert similar effects on the amplitude of the primary TEP components, produce its increase and also a rise and stabilization of the predominant peak in distribution of EEG power spectrum that corresponds to the improvement of theta rhythm organization. The drugs exert different effects on the secondary positive TEP component; centrophenoxine induces a change in non-basic rhythm of EEG in rats. Based on the results obtained, the authors consider possible neurophysiological mechanisms of the nootropic effect and make a comparative analysis of the actions of the drugs.